A Word on Law and Grace
Kirillin V. M.
Monuments of ancient Russian church eloquence, according to their genre nature, can be divided into two categories. The first of them, what is usually called pastoral preaching, is classified as didactic eloquence.
Such oratorical creativity is represented by teachings written in the 11th century. Novgorod Bishop Luka Zhidyata and Abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Theodosius. Epidictic or solemn eloquence is a completely different matter. To compose ceremonial speeches, a relatively high level of education was required, literary culture
and skill. As a rule, the ideological goal setting of such speeches, in contrast to the narrowly practical tasks of an ordinary pastoral sermon, was associated with the sphere of “big” problems of religious, church and public life. In artistic terms, solemn speeches belonged to the realm of high art. That is why they are characterized by a certain complexity of figurative and ideological content and generalization, refinement of compositional and stylistic form and polyvariance of pathos. In the book tradition of Ancient Rus', such works were usually designated by the term “Word”. Working on them required adherence to strict literary rules and was associated with a spirit of creative inspiration. In this regard, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, the earliest monument of ancient Russian solemn eloquence, is of significant interest. In the sources this speech is usually supplied without indicating its genre affiliation: “About the Law given to Moses, and about Grace and Truth, which were Jesus Christ; and when the Law departed, Grace and Truth filled the whole earth, and faith spread to all languages, and to our Russian language; and praise to our kagan Volodymer, from him we were baptized; and a prayer to God from the earth, Lord, bless us! Created in the 11th century, the “Lay” has been preserved in several dozen handwritten copies, the oldest of which dates back to the end of the 14th or beginning of the 15th century, but a fragment of the monument is also known from a manuscript of the 12th-13th centuries.
Despite the fact that this work was very popular among ancient Russian scribes and was often copied, the general scientific community became acquainted with it quite late, only in 1844. Its first publisher and researcher was the church historian and archaeographer A. V. Gorsky, later an archpriest and rector Moscow Theological Academy, Doctor of Theology and Corresponding Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. This remarkable Russian scientist found the text of the work in a handwritten collection of the 15th century, while sorting out the book collection of the Holy Synod (now the State Historical Museum, Synodal collection, No. 591). In it, directly adjacent to the “Word” were two more texts - “Prayer” and “Confession of Faith” with a final entry on behalf of the “mnich and prozvuter Hilarion” regarding his consecration in 1051 as Metropolitan of Kyiv. The last detail, as well as the ancient Russian manuscript tradition, allowed Gorsky to suggest that the author of the Lay was this church figure.
Unfortunately, only fragmentary information has been preserved about the mentioned hierarch.
Firstly, the Tale of Bygone Years, in an article dated 1051, reports that at one time Hilarion was a priest in the Holy Apostolic Church in the village of Berestovoy near Kiev, the country residence of Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise; that he was “a good man, a learned man and a faster”; that on the banks of the Dnieper he “found himself” for solitary prayer “a small two-sazhen pecherka, where now is the dilapidated Pechersky monastery,” and that, finally, it was this that “Yaroslav installed as metropolitan.” Secondly, at the beginning of the “Charter of Prince Yaroslav on Church Courts” it is reported that the work of introducing the rules of the “Greek nomokanun” into Russian life was carried out by the prince together “with Metropolitan Larion.” Thirdly, in the “Life of St. Theodosius of Pechersk” there is a message about a certain “monk Larion”, who was “a book of hytr psati, who wrote books in the cell of Theodosius all day and night.” That's all.
In 1055, the “Novgorod First Chronicle” already mentions another Kyiv metropolitan - Ephraim, a Greek by origin. It is not known what Hilarion’s future fate will be. It was suggested that his life ended within the walls of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, where he lived under the name Nikon, having adopted the schema. But the identification of Hilarion and the chronicler Nikon the Great is not documented in any way. It is obvious, however, that Hilarion was the first metropolitan elected to the Kyiv see from among the Russians in violation of the canons of the Byzantine church, and also acted as a like-minded person of the great Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise. As for the “Sermon on Law and Grace,” some of the historical realities mentioned in it allow us to date it to the time between 1037 and 1050. That is, it was written even before Hilarion’s oration.
So, Hilarion’s work is a thematically complex text. Its first section begins with a dogmatic reflection on the fact that Jews (“Israel”) and Christians profess one, common God. At first, through the Law, he did not allow only the “tribe of Abraham” to perish in pagan idolatry, but then, by sending his Son, through his incarnation, baptism, preaching about the good (“gospel”), suffering on the cross, death and resurrection, he led all nations to eternal life . The criterion for the difference between Law (Judaism) and Grace (Christianity) is, according to Hilarion, the idea of the “future age.” If the Law only prepared and led the Jews to Baptism, and this is where its significance is limited, then Baptism directly opens the path to salvation, to eternal life in God for all who have already been baptized. After all, Moses and the prophets predicted only the coming of Christ, but Christ and then his disciples already taught about the resurrection and future life. Further, in the first section of the “Words,” Hilarion illustrates this idea through a long series of detailed figurative and symbolic comparisons and contrasts.
Having defined in such a correlative way the meaning of Judaism and Christianity, Hilarion further expounds the dogmatic teaching about the binatural, divine-human nature of Christ. And again he illustrates the latter with a long series of comparative figurative pairs of the type: Christ “like a man who fasted for 40 days, hunger, and like God conquered the tempter... like a man who tasted food, he gave up the ghost, and like God he darkened the sun and shook the earth.” The greatness of Christ lies in the fact that through His suffering on the cross He brought salvation to people and destroyed the “crime and sin” of those people who accepted Him. The Jews, who “tormented him like a villain,” thereby aroused upon themselves “the final wrath of God”: Jerusalem, according to prophecy, was destroyed by the Romans, “Judaism perished from then on,” the Law was “extinguished,” and its servants were scattered throughout the world , “let evil not abide.” On the contrary, Christianity spread throughout all countries: “... it would be wise for Grace and Truth to infuse new people! For, according to the word of the Lord, do not pour the wine of the new teaching into the old wineskin, which was promised in Judaism. The wine will be spilled. I could not hold back the Law, but having bowed to an idol many times, how can I hold on to the teaching? But a new teaching - new wineskins, new languages!
Thus, the purpose of the entire first section of the Lay is polemical. The author sought to prove the superiority of Christianity over the Old Testament religion and through this, probably, the superiority of Rus', which adopted Christianity, over the Khazar Empire, which had lost its former significance.
The second section of Hilarion's speech is historical.
This is a reflection on the significance of Russia's adoption of Christianity. “Faith is grace,” says the speaker, “it has spread throughout the entire earth and has reached our Russian language. And the lawful lake is greater than the waters of Egypt, and it has flooded, and covered the whole earth, and has overflowed to us.” All subsequent reasoning is also based on the technique of co-or opposition, and all with the same polemical purpose. Only now are the fact of the glorious introduction of Rus' into the Christian world and the fact of the ignominy of Judaism being compared. And at the same time, the advantage of Christian Rus' over pagan Russia is comprehended: “Our God has had mercy on all the good countries and has not despised us; He has brought us to true understanding, willingly and saved us. Our land is empty and dry, dried up by the heat of idols, and suddenly flowed away.” source of the Jews, attacking our entire land...” Hilarion again uses a long series of figuratively correlative pairs, in which the anti-Jewish theme sounds: “And so, strange beings, the people of God called And the enemy, His sons were called And. We do not blaspheme the Jews, but we bless the Christians. We do not act like a crucifix, but we do not crucify the Savior, but we do not raise our hands to his side, but from them we drink the source of incorruptibility...”
Hilarion again reveals the meaning of the act committed by the prince using the technique of comparison - hidden or direct. “Let us praise with praiseworthy voices,” he begins his doxology, “the Roman country of Peter and Paul, who believed in Jesus Christ, the son of God; Asia, and Ephesus, and Paphos - John the Theologian; India - Thomas, Egypt - Mark. All countries , and cities and people honor and glorify each of their teachers, who taught me the Orthodox faith, and we, according to our strength, praise the great and wondrous creature, our teacher and mentor, the great kagan of our land, Volodimer...” Already in this passage the idea of the exceptional nature of the Russian prince’s feat is secretly emphasized. If the countries of the East and West thank his immediate disciples and successors, the holy apostles, for their communion with Christ, then Rus' owes its baptism to statesman
In rhetorical admiration, Hilarion turns to Vladimir, begging him to explain the “wonderful miracle”: how he, having never personally seen the Savior, without hearing an apostolic sermon in his land, without witnessing the casting out of demons in the name of Jesus alone, found faith and became his disciple . Trying to understand this, Hilarion emphasizes Vladimir’s spiritual gifts, as well as his “good sense and wit.” And your glorious city Kiev was surrounded with majesty, like a crown.
, whose glory was based only on military and political victories. His advantage is that he himself, of his own free will, without outside help, as soon as he learned about the blessed “land of Grechsk,” “his heart longed, his spirit burned, as if he would be a Christian and his land.”
At the end of the commendable section of the work under consideration, the rhetorical pathos of the speaker rises to a prayerful apotheosis: “Rise, O honorable chief, from your grave! Rise, shake off your sleep! Carry you dead, but write off to the common rise of all! Rise, carry you dead, carry you dead die believing in Christ, the life of the whole world! , the Lord brought it out from your loins, see the beauty of your land and rejoice and rejoice! See also your faithful daughter-in-law Erina!
Next, in the earliest list of the work, the “prayer to God” is read, as it is indicated in the title to the entire text. However, sometimes ancient Russian scribes rewrote only its text in the form of an independent work by Hilarion. On this basis, apparently, some researchers, when publishing the Word, did not include prayer in its composition. Nevertheless, in addition to the fact that its belonging to the “Word” as an integral part follows from the very name of the latter, its content also speaks of this as a logical continuation of the previous text. If the rhetorical part of the “Lay” ends with a request addressed to Vladimir to pray before God for his son George, so that he would receive “the crown of incorruptible glory with all the righteous who worked for him” (for God), then the motive of glory heard in this final petition develops in the following further prayer in the form of praise to God: “Therefore, O lord, our high and glorious king and God, loving of mankind, reward through labor glory and honor and the participants in creating your kingdom, remember us, as good, and us, your poor, as the name you are a lover of humanity!...". And then the exclamations of confession, repentance and supplication follow, main topic
of which is hope in God's mercy. But among them there are also exclamations that thematically echo the rhetorical part of the work. For example, a mention of paganism that has not yet been eradicated: we “And the flock, which we began to shepherd anew, rescued from the destruction of idolatry, to the good shepherd... Do not leave us, even if we are still fornicating, do not open us!..”;- Christian Rus', the beginning of Christianity in Rus' - the continuation of Christianity in Rus', Vladimir - Yaroslav-George, prayer to Vladimir - prayer to God. But in general, all parts of the “Sermon on Law and Grace” - dogmatic, historical, panegyric, and prayer - each in its own way, develop a single patriotic theme of the independence of the Russian people and, more broadly, the equality of all Christian states.
The parts that make up the “Word” are inextricably linked into one ideologically integral narrative building. This building, as you can see, is distinguished by its impeccable harmony of content and compositional structure. But at the same time, it also has high artistic and stylistic qualities, and the ornamentally branched beauty of the external decor. It is characterized by vivid imagery, solemn pathos, emotional excitement, journalistic sharpness, the sublime power of biblical language, and relevance to the context of Christian thought and history.
Accordingly, Hilarion uses the richest range of means of artistic expression inherent in the Holy Scriptures and church literature. These are poetic tropes (metaphors, comparisons, similes, symbols, play on consonant words), and poetic figures (questions, exclamations, appeals, oppositions), and the rhythmic organization of the text (syntactic parallelism, anaphoric repetitions, verbal rhymes, assonant verbs). This includes a generous use of biblical images, quotes and paraphrases, fragments from church hymns, as well as various borrowings from other sources.
“Behold, we, together with all Christians, glorify the Holy Trinity, but Judea is silent. We glorify Christ, but the Jews worship. The Gentiles are brought in, but the Jews are rejected. Just as the prophet Malachi said: “I have no will in the sons of Israel, and sacrifices at the hands of I will not accept them, since from here to east and west, my name is glorified in countries, and in every place my name is brought up. For my name is great in the lands! " (Cf.: Mal. 1: 10-11). And David: “Let all the earth worship you and sing to you: “And, O Lord our Lord! How great is your name throughout all the earth !" (Wed: Ps. 65; 4). And we are no longer called idolaters, but in Christianity; not yet hopeless, but hopeful in eternal life. And we no longer build the temple of Soton, but we build the churches of Christ. We no longer slay each other with the demon, but Christ is slain for us and broken up as a sacrifice to God and the Father. And we no longer perish by eating the blood of the sacrifice, but by eating the most pure blood of Christ we are saved.
Our good God has mercy on the whole country, and we are not despised - we are saved and brought to true reason. Because our land is empty and dry, having been dried up by the idolatrous heat, suddenly the source of the Euangel flowed, attacking our entire land.” Although the "Sermon on Law and Grace", according to the author himself, was not intended for, and for the “chosen ones”, “who have had their fill of the sweets of books,” that is, for relatively educated people, it nevertheless gained very wide popularity among ancient Russian readers. It was not only rewritten (dozens of copies have survived), but also revised (several editions are known). Moreover, Hilarion’s work was used as a source when composing new works. Thus, its traces are found in a number of Old Russian texts of the 12th-17th centuries: for example, in the early praise of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich (XII-XIII centuries), in the praise of Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich and his brother Mstislav from the “Volyn Chronicle” (XIII century), in “The Life of Leonty of Rostov” (XII century), “The Life of Stephen of Perm” (late 14th century). Finally, the “Word” was also used in South Slavic literature. So, in the second half of the 13th century. the Serbian monk writer Domentian borrowed from it when compiling the “Lives” of Simeon and Savva of Serbia. So, just as, according to Hilarion, the Rus' of his time was known in all parts of the world, so his wonderful speech - undoubtedly a brilliant oratorical work - attracted very much with its content and artistic significance. wide circle readers of the Middle Ages and for a very long time. So, already the first independent manifestations artistic thought in the works of ancient Russian writers, as can be judged from Metropolitan Hilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace,” they turned out to be not at all student-like. The power of insightful spirit and intellect that filled them, the power of lofty truth and beauty that exuded from them did not dry out in the future, and for many centuries. This is indicated even by the little that has come down to us despite the decay of time and various circumstances.
Like a book of books of the Bible, like an icon or a temple, the ancient Russian art of words amazes with its amazing seriousness, depth, completely ineradicable desire to comprehend the most important, the most important, the most necessary for a person, as soon as he realizes himself as a creation of God and as a child of his land, his people and his country. Tale of Bygone Years Chronicle - An ancient Russian chronicle created in the 1110s. Chronicles –, in which events are presented on the so-called yearly principle, are combined into annual, or “weather” articles (they are also called weather records). “Yearly articles,” which combined information about events that occurred during one year, begin with the words “In the summer of such and such...” (“summer” in Old Russian means “year”). In this regard, the chronicles, including The Tale of Bygone Years, are fundamentally different from the Byzantine chronicles known in Ancient Rus', from which Russian compilers borrowed numerous information from world history. In the translated Byzantine chronicles, events were distributed not by years, but by the reigns of the emperors.
The earliest list extant Tales of Bygone Years dates back to the 14th century. It got the name Laurentian Chronicle named after the scribe, monk Lawrence, and was compiled in 1377. Another ancient list Tales of Bygone Years preserved as part of the so-called Ipatiev Chronicle(mid 15th century).
The Tale of Bygone Years- the first chronicle, the text of which has reached us almost in its original form. Thanks to careful textual analysis Tales of Bygone Years researchers have found traces of more early works included in its composition. Probably the oldest chronicles were created in the 11th century. The hypothesis of A.A. Shakhmatov (1864–1920), which explains the emergence and describes the history of Russian chronicles of the 11th–early 12th centuries, received the greatest recognition. He resorted to the comparative method, comparing the surviving chronicles and finding out their relationships. According to A.A. Shakhmatov, approx. 1037, but no later than 1044, was compiled The most ancient Kyiv chronicle code, which told about the beginning of history and the baptism of Rus'. Around 1073, in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, probably the monk Nikon completed the first Kiev-Pechersk Chronicle. In it, new news and legends were combined with the text The most ancient arch and with borrowings from Novgorod Chronicle mid 11th century In 1093–1095, it was here, based on the Nikon code, that the second Kiev-Pechersk vault; it is also commonly called Beginners. (The name is explained by the fact that A.A. Shakhmatov initially considered this particular chronicle to be the earliest.) It condemned the foolishness and weakness of the current princes, who were contrasted with the former wise and powerful rulers of Rus'.
The first edition (version) was completed in 1110–1113 Tales of Bygone Years- a lengthy chronicle collection that has absorbed numerous information on the history of Rus': about the Russian wars with the Byzantine Empire, about the calling of the Scandinavians Rurik, Truvor and Sineus to reign in Rus', about the history of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, about princely crimes. The probable author of this chronicle is the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. This edition has not been preserved in its original form.
First edition Tales of Bygone Years the political interests of the then Kyiv prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich were reflected. In 1113 Svyatopolk died, and Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh ascended the Kiev throne. In 1116 by the monk Sylvester (in the Promonomakhian spirit) and in 1117–1118 by an unknown scribe from the entourage of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich (son of Vladimir Monomakh) text Tales of Bygone Years has been redesigned. This is how the second and third editions arose Tales of Bygone Years; the oldest list of the second edition has reached us as part of Lavrentievskaya, and the earliest list of the third is in the composition Ipatiev Chronicle.
Almost all Russian chronicles are vaults - a combination of several texts or news from other sources of an earlier time. Old Russian chronicles of the 14th–16th centuries. open with text Tales of Bygone Years.
Name The Tale of Bygone Years(more precisely, Tales of Bygone Years– in the Old Russian text the word “story” is used in plural) is usually translated as Tale of yesteryear, but there are other interpretations: A story in which the narrative is distributed by year or Narration in a time frame, A Narrative of the End Times- telling about the events on the eve of the end of the world and the Last Judgment.
Narration in Tales of Bygone Years begins with a story about the settlement of the sons of Noah on earth - Shem, Ham and Japheth - along with their clans (in the Byzantine chronicles starting point the origin was the creation of the world). This story is taken from the Bible. The Russians considered themselves descendants of Japheth. Thus, Russian history was included in world history. Goals Tales of Bygone Years there was an explanation of the origin of the Russians ( Eastern Slavs), the origin of princely power (which for the chronicler is identical to the origin of the princely dynasty) and a description of the baptism and spread of Christianity in Rus'. Narration of Russian events in Tales of Bygone Years opens with a description of the life of East Slavic (Old Russian) tribes and two legends. This is a story about the reign in Kyiv of Prince Kiy, his brothers Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid; about the calling of the three Scandinavians (Varangians) Rurik, Truvor and Sineus by the warring northern Russian tribes, so that they would become princes and establish order in the Russian land. The story about the Varangian brothers has the exact date– 862. Thus, in the historiosophical concept Tales of Bygone Years two sources of power are established in Rus' - local (Kiy and his brothers) and foreign (Varangians). The rise of ruling dynasties to foreign families is traditional for the medieval historical consciousness; Similar stories are found in Western European chronicles. Thus, the ruling dynasty was given greater nobility and dignity.
Main events in Tales of Bygone Years- wars (external and internecine), the founding of churches and monasteries, the death of princes and metropolitans - the heads of the Russian Church.
Chronicles, including Tale…, - Not works of art in the strict sense of the word, and not the work of a historian. Part Tales of Bygone Years included agreements between the Russian princes Oleg the Prophet, Igor Rurikovich and Svyatoslav Igorevich with Byzantium. The chronicles themselves apparently had the meaning of a legal document. Some scientists (for example, I.N. Danilevsky) believe that the chronicles and, in particular, The Tale of Bygone Years, were compiled not for people, but for Last Judgment, in which God will decide the fate of people at the end of the world: therefore, the sins and merits of the rulers and people were listed in the chronicles.
The chronicler usually does not interpret events, does not look for their remote causes, but simply describes them. In relation to the explanation of what is happening, the chroniclers are guided by providentialism - everything that happens is explained by the will of God and is considered in the light of the coming end of the world and the Last Judgment. Attention to the cause-and-effect relationships of events and their pragmatic rather than providential interpretation is insignificant.
For chroniclers, the principle of analogy, the overlap between the events of the past and the present is important: the present is thought of as an “echo” of events and deeds of the past, especially the deeds and deeds described in the Bible. The chronicler presents the murder of Boris and Gleb by Svyatopolk as a repetition and renewal of the first murder committed by Cain (legend Tales of Bygone Years under 1015). Vladimir Svyatoslavich - the baptizer of Rus' - is compared with Saint Constantine the Great, who made Christianity the official religion in the Roman Empire (the legend of the baptism of Rus' in 988).
Tales of Bygone Years unity of style is alien, it is an “open” genre. The simplest element in a chronicle text is a brief weather record that only reports an event, but does not describe it.
Part Tales of Bygone Years traditions are also included. For example, a story about the origin of the name of the city of Kyiv on behalf of Prince Kiy; tales of the Prophetic Oleg, who defeated the Greeks and died from the bite of a snake hidden in the skull of a deceased princely horse; about Princess Olga, cunningly and cruelly taking revenge on the Drevlyan tribe for the murder of her husband. The chronicler is invariably interested in news about the past of the Russian land, about the founding of cities, hills, rivers and the reasons why they received these names. Legends also report this. IN Tales of Bygone Years the share of legends is very large, since the initial events of ancient Russian history described in it are separated from the time of work of the first chroniclers by many decades and even centuries. In later chronicles telling about modern events, the number of legends is small, and they are also usually found in the part of the chronicle dedicated to the distant past.
Part Tales of Bygone Years stories about saints written in a special hagiographic style are also included. This is the story about the brother-princes Boris and Gleb under 1015, who, imitating the humility and non-resistance of Christ, meekly accepted death at the hands of their half-brother Svyatopolk, and the story about the holy Pechersk monks under 1074.
A significant part of the text in Tales of Bygone Years occupied by narratives of battles, written in the so-called military style, and princely obituaries.
Editions: Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'. XI – first half of the XII century. M., 1978; The Tale of Bygone Years. 2nd ed., add. and corr. St. Petersburg, 1996, series “Literary monuments”; Library of Literature of Ancient Rus', vol. 1. XI – beginning of the XII century. St. Petersburg, 1997.
Andrey Ranchin
Literature:
Sukhomlinov M.I. About the ancient Russian chronicle as a literary monument. St. Petersburg, 1856
Istrin V.M. Notes on the beginning of Russian chronicles. – News of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences, vol. 26, 1921; v. 27, 1922
Likhachev D.S. Russian chronicles and their cultural and historical significance. M. – L., 1947
Rybakov B.A. Ancient Rus': legends, epics, chronicles. M. – L., 1963
Eremin I.P. “The Tale of Bygone Years”: Problems of its historical and literary study(1947
). – In the book: Eremin I.P. Literature of Ancient Rus': (Sketches and Characteristics). M. – L., 1966
Nasonov A.N. History of Russian chronicles of the 11th – early 18th centuries. M., 1969
Tvorogov O.V. Plot narration in chronicles of the 11th–13th centuries.. – In the book: Origins of Russian fiction .
L., 1970
Aleshkovsky M.Kh. The Tale of Bygone Years: Fate literary work in Ancient Rus'. M., 1971
Kuzmin A.G. The initial stages of ancient Russian chronicles. M., 1977
Likhachev D.S. Great legacy. "The Tale of Bygone Years"(1975). – Likhachev D.S. Selected works: In 3 vols., vol. 2. L., 1987
Shaikin A.A. “Behold the Tale of Bygone Years”: From Kiya to Monomakh. M., 1989
Danilevsky I.N. Biblicalisms "The Tale of Bygone Years". - In the book: Hermeneutics of Old Russian Literature. M., 1993. Issue. 3.
Danilevsky I.N. The Bible and the Tale of Bygone Years(On the problem of interpreting chronicle texts). – National history, 1993, № 1
Trubetskoy N.S. Lectures on Old Russian literature (translated from German by M.A. Zhurinskaya). – In the book: Trubetskoy N.S. Story. Culture. Language. M., 1995
Priselkov M.D. History of Russian chronicles of the 11th–15th centuries. (1940). 2nd ed. M., 1996
Ranchin A. M. Articles about Old Russian literature. M., 1999
Gippius A.A. “The Tale of Bygone Years”: about the possible origin and meaning of the name. - In the book: From the history of Russian culture, vol. 1 (Ancient Rus'). M., 2000
Shakhmatov A.A. 1) Research on the most ancient Russian chronicles(1908). – In the book: Shakhmatov A.A. Research about Russian chronicles. M. – Zhukovsky, 2001
Zhivov V.M. On the ethnic and religious consciousness of Nestor the Chronicler(1998). – In the book: Zhivov V.M. Research in the field of history and prehistory of Russian culture. M., 2002
Shakhmatov A.A. History of Russian chronicles, vol. 1. St. Petersburg, 2002
Shakhmatov A.A. . Book 1 2) The Tale of Bygone Years (1916). – In the book: Shakhmatov A.A. History of Russian chronicles. T. 1. The Tale of Bygone Years and the most ancient Russian chronicles. Book 2. Early Russian chronicles of the 11th–12th centuries. St. Petersburg, 2003
Before the appearance of the Tale of Bygone Years, in Rus' there were other collections of essays and historical notes, which were compiled mainly by monks. However, all these records were local in nature and could not represent full story life of Rus'. The idea of creating a single chronicle belongs to the monk Nestor, who lived and worked in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery at the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries.
There are some disagreements among scholars about the history of the story.
The chronicle compiled by Nestor is considered the first Russian chronicle, and its author is considered the first chronicler.
Unfortunately, no ancient editions have survived to this day; the earliest version that exists today dates back to the 14th century.
Genre and idea of the story of bygone years
The main goal and idea of creating the story was the desire to consistently present the entire history of Rus', starting from biblical times, and then gradually supplement the chronicle, painstakingly describing all the events that took place.
As for the genre, modern scientists believe that the chronicle cannot be called a purely historical or purely artistic genre, since it contains elements of both. Since the Tale of Bygone Years was rewritten and supplemented several times, its genre is open, as evidenced by the parts that sometimes do not agree with each other in style.
The Tale of Bygone Years was distinguished by the fact that the events told in it were not interpreted, but were simply retold as dispassionately as possible. The chronicler’s task is to convey everything that happened, but not to draw conclusions. However, it is worth understanding that the chronicle was created from the point of view of Christian ideology, and therefore has a corresponding character. In addition to its historical significance, the chronicle was also a legal document, as it contained some codes of laws and instructions of the great princes (for example,)
teaching of Vladimir Monomakh
The story can be roughly divided into three parts. At the very beginning it tells about biblical times (Russians were considered the descendants of Japheth), about the origin of the Slavs, about the calling of the Varangians to reign, about the formation of the Rurik dynasty, about Baptism of Rus'
and the formation of the state. The main part consists of descriptions of the lives of princes (Oleg, Vladimir,,Olga Yaroslav the Wise
and others), descriptions of the lives of saints, as well as stories of conquests and great Russian heroes (Nikita Kozhemyaka and others).
The final part is devoted to a description of numerous campaigns, wars and battles. It also contains princely obituaries.
The meaning of the Tale of Bygone Years
After the flood, Noah's three sons divided the earth - Shem, Ham, Japheth. And Shem got the east: Persia, Bactria, even to India in longitude, and in width to Rhinocorur, that is, from the east to the south, and Syria, and Media to the Euphrates River, Babylon, Corduna, the Assyrians, Mesopotamia, Arabia the Oldest, Elimais, Indi, Arabia Strong, Colia, Commagene, all of Phenicia.
Ham got the south: Egypt, Ethiopia, neighboring India, and another Ethiopia, from which flows the Ethiopian Red River, flowing to the east, Thebes, Libya, neighboring Kyrenia, Marmaria, Sirtes, another Libya, Numidia, Masuria, Mauritania, located opposite Ghadir. In his possessions in the east are also: Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Mysia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Camalia, Lycia, Caria, Lydia, another Mysia, Troas, Aeolis, Bithynia, Old Phrygia and some islands: Sardinia, Crete, Cyprus and the river Geona, otherwise called the Nile.
Japheth inherited the northern and western countries: Media, Albania, Armenia Lesser and Greater, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Galatia, Colchis, Bosporus, Meots, Derevia, Capmatia, the inhabitants of Tauris, Scythia, Thrace, Macedonia, Dalmatia, Malosiya, Thessaly, Locris, Pelenia, which is also called Peloponnese, Arcadia, Epirus, Illyria, Slavs, Lichnitia, Adriakia, Adriatic Sea. They also got the islands: Britain, Sicily, Euboea, Rhodes, Chios, Lesbos, Kythira, Zakynthos, Cefallinia, Ithaca, Kerkyra, a part of Asia called Ionia, and the Tigris River flowing between Media and Babylon; to the Pontic Sea to the north: the Danube, the Dnieper, the Caucasus Mountains, that is, the Hungarian Mountains, and from there to the Dnieper, and other rivers: the Desna, Pripyat, Dvina, Volkhov, Volga, which flows east to the Simov part. In the Japheth part there are Russians, Chud and all sorts of peoples: Merya, Muroma, Ves, Mordovians, Zavolochskaya Chud, Perm, Pechera, Yam, Ugra, Lithuania, Zimigola, Kors, Letgola, Livs. The Poles and Prussians seem to be sitting near the Varangian Sea. The Varangians sit along this sea: from here to the east - to the borders of the Simovs, they sit along the same sea and to the west - to the lands of England and Voloshskaya. The descendants of Japheth are also: Varangians, Swedes, Normans, Goths, Rus, Angles, Galicians, Volokhs, Romans, Germans, Korlyazis, Venetians, Fryags and others - they adjoin the southern countries in the west and neighbor the tribe of Ham.
Shem, Ham and Japheth divided the land by casting lots, and decided not to enter into anyone’s brother’s share, and each lived in his own part. And there was one people. And when people multiplied on earth, they planned to create a pillar up to heaven - this was in the days of Nectan and Peleg. And they gathered in the place of the field of Shinar to build a pillar up to heaven, and near it the city of Babylon; and they built that pillar 40 years, and they did not finish it. And the Lord came down to see the city and the pillar, and the Lord said: “Behold, there is one generation and one people.” And God mixed up the nations, and divided them into 70 and 2 nations, and scattered them throughout the whole earth. After the confusion of the peoples, God destroyed the pillar with a great wind; and its remains are located between Assyria and Babylon, and are 5433 cubits high and wide, and these remains have been preserved for many years.
After the destruction of the pillar and the division of the peoples, the sons of Shem took the eastern countries, and the sons of Ham took the southern countries, while the Japhethites took the west and northern countries. From these same 70 and 2 languages came the Slavic people, from the tribe of Japheth - the so-called Noriks, who are the Slavs.
After a long time, the Slavs settled along the Danube, where the land is now Hungarian and Bulgarian. From those Slavs the Slavs spread throughout the land and were called by their names from the places where they sat. So some, having come, sat down on the river in the name of Morava and were called Moravians, while others called themselves Czechs. And here are the same Slavs: white Croats, and Serbs, and Horutans. When the Volochs attacked the Danube Slavs, and settled among them, and oppressed them, these Slavs came and sat on the Vistula and were called Poles, and from those Poles came the Poles, other Poles - Lutichs, others - Mazovshans, others - Pomeranians.
In the same way, these Slavs came and sat down along the Dnieper and were called Polyans, and others - Drevlyans, because they sat in the forests, and others sat between Pripyat and Dvina and were called Dregovichs, others sat along the Dvina and were called Polochans, after a river flowing into the Dvina , called Polota, from which the Polotsk people took their name. The same Slavs who settled near Lake Ilmen were called by their own name - Slavs, and built a city and called it Novgorod. And others sat along the Desna, and the Seim, and the Sula, and called themselves northerners. And so I broke up Slavic people, and after his name the letter was called Slavic.
When the glades lived separately in these mountains, there was a path from the Varangians to the Greeks and from the Greeks along the Dnieper, and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper - a drag to Lovot, and along Lovot you can enter Ilmen, the great lake; The Volkhov flows from the same lake and flows into the Great Lake Nevo, and the mouth of that lake flows into the Varangian Sea. And along that sea you can sail to Rome, and from Rome you can sail along the same sea to Constantinople, and from Constantinople you can sail to the Sea of Pontus, into which the Dnieper River flows. The Dnieper flows from the Okovsky forest and flows to the south, and the Dvina flows from the same forest and heads north, and flows into the Varangian Sea. From the same forest the Volga flows to the east and flows through seventy mouths into the Khvalisskoye Sea. Therefore, from Rus' you can sail along the Volga to the Bolgars and Khvalis, and go east to the inheritance of Sima, and along the Dvina to the land of the Varangians, from the Varangians to Rome, from Rome to the tribe of Khamov. And the Dnieper flows at its mouth into the Pontic Sea; This sea is known as Russian, - as they say, St. Andrew, Peter’s brother, taught it along its shores.
When Andrei taught in Sinop and arrived in Korsun, he learned that the mouth of the Dnieper was not far from Korsun, and he wanted to go to Rome, and sailed to the mouth of the Dnieper, and from there he went up the Dnieper. And it so happened that he came and stood under the mountains on the shore. And in the morning he got up and said to the disciples who were with him: “Do you see these mountains? The grace of God will shine on these mountains, there will be a great city, and many churches will be erected.” And having ascended these mountains, he blessed them, and put up a cross, and prayed to God, and came down from this mountain, where Kyiv would later be, and went up the Dnieper. And he came to the Slavs, where Novgorod now stands, and saw the people living there - what their custom was and how they washed and whipped themselves, and he was surprised at them. And he went to the country of the Varangians, and came to Rome, and told about how he taught and what he saw, and said: “I saw a marvel in the Slavic land on my way here. I saw wooden bathhouses, and they would heat them up, and they would undress and be naked, and they would douse themselves with leather kvass, and they would pick up young rods on themselves and beat themselves, and they would finish themselves off so much that they would barely get out, barely alive, and douse themselves with cold water, and This is the only way they will come to life. And they do this constantly, not tormented by anyone, but tormenting themselves, and then they perform ablution for themselves, and not torment.” Those who heard about this were surprised; Andrei, having been in Rome, came to Sinop.
The Glades lived separately in those days and were governed by their own clans; for even before that brethren (which will be discussed later) there were already glades, and they all lived with their clans in their own places, and each was governed independently. And there were three brothers: one named Kiy, the other - Shchek and the third - Khoriv, and their sister - Lybid. Kiy sat on the mountain where Borichev now rises, and Shchek sat on the mountain that is now called Shchekovitsa, and Khoriv on the third mountain, which was nicknamed Khorivitsa after his name. And they built a city in honor of their elder brother, and named it Kyiv. There was a forest and a large forest around the city, and they caught animals there, and those men were wise and sensible, and they were called glades, from them glades are still in Kyiv.
Some, not knowing, say that Kiy was a carrier; At that time, Kyiv had transportation from the other side of the Dnieper, which is why they said: “For transportation to Kyiv.” If Kiy had been a ferryman, he would not have gone to Constantinople; and this Kiy reigned in his family, and when he went to the king, they say that he received great honors from the king to whom he came. When he was returning, he came to the Danube, and took a fancy to the place, and cut down a small town, and wanted to sit in it with his family, but those living around did not let him; This is how the inhabitants of the Danube region still call the settlement - Kievets. Kiy, returning to his city of Kyiv, died here; and his brothers Shchek and Horiv and their sister Lybid died immediately.
And after these brothers, their clan began to hold a reign near the glades, and the Drevlyans had their own reign, and the Dregovichi had theirs, and the Slavs had their own in Novgorod, and another on the Polota River, where the Polotsk people were. From these latter came the Krivichi, sitting in the upper reaches of the Volga, and in the upper reaches of the Dvina, and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, their city is Smolensk; This is where the Krivichi sit. The northerners also come from them. And on Beloozero he sits all over, and on Lake Rostov he meryas, and on Lake Kleshchina he also meryas. And along the Oka River - where it flows into the Volga - there are the Muroma, speaking their own language, and the Cheremis, speaking their own language, and the Mordovians, speaking their own language. Just who speaks Slavic in Rus': the Polyans, the Drevlyans, the Novgorodians, the Polochans, the Dregovichis, the Northerners, the Buzhanians, so called because they sat along the Bug, and then began to be called the Volynians. But here are other peoples who give tribute to Rus': Chud, Merya, Ves, Muroma, Cheremis, Mordovians, Perm, Pechera, Yam, Lithuania, Zimigola, Kors, Narova, Livs - these speak their own languages, they are from the tribe of Japheth and live in northern countries.
When the Slavic people, as we said, lived on the Danube, the so-called Bulgarians came from the Scythians, that is, from the Khazars, and settled along the Danube and were settlers in the land of the Slavs. Then the White Ugrians came and settled the Slavic land. These Ugrians appeared under King Heraclius, and they fought with Khosrow, the Persian king. In those days there were also obras, they fought against King Heraclius and almost captured him. These obrins also fought against the Slavs and oppressed the Dulebs - also Slavs, and committed violence against the Duleb wives: it happened that when an obrin rode, he would not allow a horse or an ox to be harnessed, but he ordered three, four or five wives to be harnessed to a cart and to be driven - obrin, - and so they tortured the Dulebs. These obrins were great in body and proud in mind, and he destroyed them, they all died, and not a single obrin remained. And there is a saying in Rus' to this day: “They perished like obras,” but they have no tribe or descendants. After the raids, the Pechenegs came, and then the Black Ugrians passed by Kyiv, but this happened after - already under Oleg.
The Polyans, who lived on their own, as we have already said, were from a Slavic family and only later were called Polyans, and the Drevlyans descended from the same Slavs and were also not immediately called Drevlyans; Radimichi and Vyatichi are from the family of Poles. After all, the Poles had two brothers - Radim, and the other - Vyatko; and they came and sat down: Radim on the Sozh, and from him they were called Radimichi, and Vyatko sat down with his family along the Oka, from him the Vyatichi got their name. And the Polyans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi and Croats lived in peace among themselves. The Dulebs lived along the Bug, where the Volynians are now, and the Ulichi and Tivertsy sat along the Dniester and near the Danube. There were many of them: they sat along the Dniester all the way to the sea, and their cities have survived to this day; and the Greeks called them “Great Scythia”.
All these tribes had their own customs, and the laws of their fathers, and legends, and each had their own character. The Polyans have the custom of their fathers being meek and quiet, being bashful before their daughters-in-law and sisters, mothers and parents; They have great modesty before their mothers-in-law and brothers-in-law; They also have a marriage custom: the son-in-law does not go for the bride, but brings her the day before, and the next day they bring for her - whatever they give. And the Drevlyans lived according to bestial customs, they lived like bestials: they killed each other, ate everything unclean, and they did not have marriages, but they kidnapped girls near the water. And the Radimichi, Vyatichi and northerners had a common custom: they lived in the forest, like all animals, ate everything unclean and dishonored themselves in front of their fathers and daughters-in-law, and they did not have marriages, but they organized games between the villages, and gathered at these games, on dances and all sorts of demonic songs, and here they kidnapped their wives in agreement with them; they had two and three wives. And if someone died, they held a funeral feast for him, and then made big deck, and they laid the dead man on this log and burned him, and then, having collected the bones, they put them in a small vessel and placed them on poles along the roads, as the Vyatichi people still do now. The Krivichi and other pagans, who do not know the law of God, but set the law for themselves, adhered to the same custom.
George says in his chronicle: “Every nation has either a written law or a custom, which people who do not know the law observe as the tradition of their fathers. Of these, the first are the Syrians living at the edge of the world. They have as a law the customs of their fathers: not to engage in fornication and adultery, not to steal, not to slander or kill, and, especially, not to do evil. The same law applies to the Bactrians, otherwise called Rahmans or islanders; these, according to the behests of their forefathers and out of piety, do not eat meat or drink wine, do not commit fornication and do no evil, having great fear of God's faith. Otherwise, for their neighboring Indians. These are murderers, filth-makers, and wrathful beyond all measure; and in the interior regions of their country - they eat people there, and kill travelers, and even eat them like dogs. Both the Chaldeans and the Babylonians have their own law: to take mothers to bed, to commit fornication with the children of brothers and to kill. And they do every kind of shamelessness, considering it a virtue, even if they are far from their country.
The Gilii have a different law: their wives plow, and build houses, and do men’s work, but they also indulge in love as much as they want, not restrained by their husbands and without being ashamed; There are also brave women among them, skilled in hunting animals. These wives rule over their husbands and command them. In Britain, several husbands sleep with one wife, and many wives have an affair with one husband and commit lawlessness like the law of their fathers, without being condemned or restrained by anyone. The Amazons do not have husbands, but, like dumb cattle, once a year, close to spring days, they leave their land and marry the surrounding men, considering that time as a kind of triumph and great holiday. When they conceive from them in the womb, they will scatter from those places again. When the time comes to give birth, and if a boy is born, then they kill him, but if it is a girl, then they will feed her and diligently raise her.”
So, with us now, the Polovtsians adhere to the law of their fathers: they shed blood and even boast about it, they eat carrion and all unclean things - hamsters and gophers, and take their stepmothers and daughters-in-law, and follow other customs of their fathers. We, Christians of all countries where they believe in the Holy Trinity, in one baptism and profess one faith, have one law, since we were baptized into Christ and put on Christ.
As time passed, after the death of these brothers (Kiya, Shchek and Khoriv), the Drevlyans and other surrounding people began to oppress the glades. And the Khazars found them sitting on these mountains in the forests and said: “Pay us tribute.” The glades, having consulted, gave a sword from the smoke, and the Khazars took them to their prince and the elders, and told them: “Behold, we have found a new tribute.” They asked them: “Where from?” They answered: “In the forest on the mountains above the Dnieper River.” They asked again: “What did they give?” They showed the sword. And the Khazar elders said: “This is not a good tribute, prince: we got it with weapons that are sharp only on one side - sabers, but these have double-edged weapons - swords. They are destined to collect tribute from us and from other lands.” And all this came true, for they did not speak of their own free will, but by God’s command. So it was under Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, when they brought Moses to him and the elders of Pharaoh said: “This is destined to humiliate the land of Egypt.” And so it happened: the Egyptians died from Moses, and first the Jews worked for them. It’s the same with these: first they ruled, and then they rule over them; so it is: the Russian princes still rule the Khazars to this day.
In the year 6360 (852), index 15, when Michael began to reign, the Russian land began to be called. We learned about this because under this king Rus' came to Constantinople, as it is written about in the Greek chronicles. That is why from now on we will start and put numbers. “From and to the flood 2242 years, and from the flood to Abraham 1000 and 82 years, and from Abraham to the exodus of Moses 430 years, and from the exodus of Moses to David 600 and 1 year, and from David and from the beginning of the reign of Solomon to the captivity of Jerusalem 448 years" and from the captivity to Alexander 318 years, and from Alexander to the birth of Christ 333 years, and from the birth of Christ to Constantine 318 years, from Constantine to Michael this is 542 years." And from the first year of the reign of Michael to the first year of the reign of Oleg, the Russian prince, 29 years, and from the first year of the reign of Oleg, since he sat down in Kyiv, to the first year of Igor, 31 years, and from the first year of Igor to the first year of Svyatoslavov 33 years, and from the first year of Svyatoslavov to the first year of Yaropolkov 28 years; and Yaropolk reigned for 8 years, and Vladimir reigned for 37 years, and Yaroslav reigned for 40 years. Thus, from the death of Svyatoslav to the death of Yaroslav 85 years; from the death of Yaroslav to the death of Svyatopolk 60 years.
But we will return to the former and tell what happened in these years, as we have already begun: from the first year of the reign of Michael, and arrange it in order of the year.
6361 (853) per year.
Per year 6362 (854).
6363 (855) per year.
6364 (856) per year.
6365 (857) per year.
6366 (858) per year. Tsar Michael went with his soldiers to the Bulgarians along the coast and by sea. The Bulgarians, seeing that they could not resist them, asked to baptize them and promised to submit to the Greeks. The king baptized their prince and all the boyars and made peace with the Bulgarians.
Per year 6367 (859). The Varangians from overseas collected tribute from the Chuds, and from the Slovenians, and from the Meris, and from the Krivichi. And the Khazars took from the field, and from the northerners, and from the Vyatichi, a silver coin and a squirrel from the smoke.
Per year 6368 (860).
Per year 6369 (861).
6370 (862) per year. They drove the Varangians overseas, and did not give them tribute, and began to control themselves, and there was no truth among them, and generation after generation arose, and they had strife, and began to fight with each other. And they said to themselves: “Let’s look for a prince who would rule over us and judge us by right.” And they went overseas to the Varangians, to Rus'. Those Varangians were called Rus, just as others are called Swedes, and some Normans and Angles, and still others Gotlanders, so are these. The Chud, the Slovenians, the Krivichi and all said to the Russians: “Our land is great and abundant, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us." And three brothers were chosen with their clans, and they took all of Rus' with them, and they came and the eldest, Rurik, sat in Novgorod, and the other, Sineus, in Beloozero, and the third, Truvor, in Izborsk. And from those Varangians the Russian land was nicknamed. Novgorodians are those people from the Varangian family, and before they were Slovenians. Two years later, Sineus and his brother Truvor died. And Rurik alone took over all power and began to distribute cities to his husbands—Polotsk to one, Rostov to another, Beloozero to another. The Varangians in these cities are finders, and indigenous people in Novgorod - Slovenes, in Polotsk - Krivichi, in Rostov - Merya, in Beloozero - all, in Murom - Muroma, and Rurik ruled over them all. And he had two husbands, not his relatives, but boyars, and they asked to go to Constantinople with their family. And they set off along the Dnieper, and when they sailed past, they saw on the mountain small town. And they asked: “Whose town is this?” They answered: “There were three brothers” Kiy” Shchek and Khoriv, who built this town and disappeared, and we sit here, their descendants, and pay tribute to the Khazars.” Askold and Dir remained in this city, gathered many Varangians and began to own the land of the glades. Rurik reigned in Novgorod.
6371 (863) per year.
Per year 6372 (864).
Per year 6373 (865).
Per year 6374 (866). Askold and Dir went to war against the Greeks and came to them in the 14th year of the reign of Michael. The tsar was at that time on a campaign against the Hagarians, had already reached the Black River, when the eparch sent him the news that Rus' was going on a campaign against Constantinople, and the tsar returned. These same ones entered the Court, killed many Christians and besieged Constantinople with two hundred ships. The king entered the city with difficulty and prayed all night with Patriarch Photius in the church of the Holy Mother of God in Blachernae, and they carried out the divine robe of the Holy Mother of God with songs, and soaked its floor in the sea. At that time there was silence and the sea was calm, but then suddenly a storm arose with the wind, and huge waves arose again, scattering the ships of the godless Russians, and washed them to the shore, and broke them, so that few of them managed to avoid this disaster and return home .
Per year 6375 (867).
6376 (868) per year. Vasily began to reign.
Per year 6377 (869). The entire Bulgarian land was baptized.
Per year 6378 (870).
Per year 6379 (871).
Per year 6380 (872).
Per year 6381 (873).
Per year 6382 (874).
Per year 6383 (875).
Per year 6384 (876).
Per year 6385 (877).
Per year 6386 (878).
Per year 6387 (879). Rurik died and handed over his reign to Oleg, his relative, giving his son Igor into his hands, for he was still very small.
Per year 6388 (880).
Per year 6389 (881).
Per year 6390 (882). Oleg set out on a campaign, taking with him many warriors: the Varangians, the Chud, the Slovenians, the Meryu, the whole, the Krivichi, and he came to Smolensk with the Krivichi, and took power in the city, and installed his husband in it. From there he went down and took Lyubech, and also imprisoned his husband. And they came to the Kyiv mountains, and Oleg learned that Askold and Dir reigned here. He hid some soldiers in the boats, and left others behind, and he himself began, carrying the baby Igor. And he sailed to the Ugrian Mountain, hiding his soldiers, and sent to Askold and Dir, telling them that “we are merchants, we are going to the Greeks from Oleg and Prince Igor. Come to us, to your relatives." When Askold and Dir arrived, everyone else jumped out of the boats, and Oleg said to Askold and Dir: “You are not princes and not of a princely family, but I am of a princely family,” and showed Igor: “And this is the son of Rurik.” And they killed Askold and Dir, carried him to the mountain and buried Askold on the mountain, which is now called Ugorskaya, where Olmin’s court is now; Olma placed Saint Nicholas on that grave; and Dirov’s grave is behind the Church of St. Irene. And Oleg, the prince, sat down in Kyiv, and Oleg said: “Let this be the mother of Russian cities.” And he had Varangians, and Slavs, and others who were called Rus. That Oleg began to build cities and established tribute to the Slovenes, and Krivichi, and Meri, and established that the Varangians should give tribute from Novgorod 300 hryvnia annually for the sake of preserving peace, which was given to the Varangians until the death of Yaroslav.
6391 (883) per year. Oleg began to fight against the Drevlyans and, having conquered them, took tribute from them by black marten.
Per year 6392 (884). Oleg went against the northerners, and defeated the northerners, and imposed a light tribute on them, and did not order them to pay tribute to the Khazars, saying: “I am their enemy” and there is no need for you (to pay them).
Per year 6393 (885). He sent (Oleg) to the Radimichi, asking: “Who are you giving tribute to?” They answered: “Khazars.” And Oleg said to them: “Don’t give it to the Khazars, but pay me.” And they gave Oleg a cracker, just like they gave it to the Khazars. And Oleg ruled over the glades, and the Drevlyans, and the northerners, and the Radimichi, and fought with the streets and Tivertsy.
Per year 6394 (886).
Per year 6395 (887). Leon, the son of Vasily, who was called Leo, and his brother Alexander reigned, and they reigned for 26 years.
Per year 6396 (888).
Per year 6397 (889).
Per year 6398 (890).
Per year 6399 (891).
6400 (892) per year.
6401 (893) per year.
Per year 6402 (894).
Per year 6403 (895).
6404 (896) per year.
Per year 6405 (897).
Per year 6406 (898). The Ugrians walked past Kyiv along the mountain, which is now called the Ugric Mountain, came to the Dnieper and became vezhas: they walked the same way as the Polovtsians do now. And, coming from the east, they rushed through the great mountains, which were called the Ugric Mountains, and began to fight with the Volokhs and Slavs who lived there. After all, the Slavs sat here before, and then the Voloks captured the Slavic land. And after the Ugrians drove out the Volokhs, inherited that land and settled with the Slavs, subduing them; and from then on the land was nicknamed Ugric. And the Ugrians began to fight with the Greeks and captured the land of Thracia and Macedonia all the way to Seluni. And they began to fight with the Moravians and Czechs. There was one Slavic people: the Slavs who sat along the Danube, conquered by the Ugrians, and the Moravians, and the Czechs, and the Poles, and the glades, which are now called Rus'. After all, it was for them, the Moravians, that the letters called Slavic letters were first created; The same charter is held by both the Russians and the Danube Bulgarians.
When the Slavs were already baptized, their princes Rostislav, Svyatopolk and Kotsel sent to Tsar Michael, saying: “Our land is baptized, but we do not have a teacher who would instruct us and teach us and explain the holy books. After all, we do not know either Greek or Latin; Some teach us this way, and others teach us differently, so we don’t know either the shape of the letters or their meaning. And send us teachers who could interpret for us the words of the books and their meaning.” Hearing this, Tsar Michael summoned all the philosophers and conveyed to them everything that the Slavic princes had said. And the philosophers said: “In Seluni there is a man named Leo. He has sons who know Slavic language ; His two sons are skilled philosophers.” Hearing about this, the king sent for them to Leo in Selun, with the words: “Send your sons Methodius and Constantine to us without delay.” Hearing about this, Leo soon sent them, and they came to the king, and he said to them: “Behold, the Slavic land sent ambassadors to me, asking for a teacher who could interpret the sacred books for them, for this is what they want.” And the king persuaded them and sent them to the Slavic land to Rostislav, Svyatopolk and Kotsel. When (these brothers) arrived, they began to compile the Slavic alphabet and translated the Apostle and the Gospel. And the Slavs were glad that they heard about the greatness of God in their language. Then they translated the Psalter and Octoechos and other books. Some began to blaspheme the Slavic books, saying that “no people should have their own alphabet, except the Jews, Greeks and Latins, according to the inscription of Pilate, who wrote on the cross of the Lord (only in these languages).” Hearing about this, the Pope condemned those who blaspheme the Slavic books, saying: “Let the word of Scripture be fulfilled: “Let all nations praise God,” and another: “Let all nations praise the greatness of God, since the Holy Spirit has given them to speak.” If anyone scolds the Slavic letter, let him be excommunicated from the church until he corrects himself; These are wolves, not sheep, they should be recognized by their actions and beware of them. “You, children, listen to the divine teaching and do not reject the church teaching that your mentor Methodius gave you.” Constantine returned back and went to teach the Bulgarian people, and Methodius remained in Moravia. Then Prince Kotzel installed Methodius as bishop in Pannonia on the table of the holy Apostle Andronikos, one of the seventy, a disciple of the holy Apostle Paul. Methodius appointed two priests, good cursive writers, and translated all the books completely from Greek into Slavic in six months, starting in March and finishing on the 26th day of October. Having finished, he gave worthy praise and glory to God, who had given such grace to Bishop Methodius, Andronicus’ successor; for the teacher of the Slavic people is the Apostle Andronicus. The Apostle Paul also went to the Moravians and taught there; Illyria is also located there, to which the Apostle Paul reached and where the Slavs originally lived. Therefore, the teacher of the Slavs is the Apostle Paul, and we, Rus', are from the same Slavs; Therefore, for us, Rus', Paul is a teacher, since he taught the Slavic people and appointed Andronicus as bishop and governor of the Slavs. But the Slavic people and the Russians are one; after all, they were called Rus from the Varangians, and before there were Slavs; Although they were called Polyans, their speech was Slavic. They were nicknamed Polyans because they sat in the field, and the language they shared was Slavic.
Per year 6407 (899).
6408 (900) per year.
6409 (901) per year.
6410 (902) per year. Tsar Leon hired the Ugrians against the Bulgarians. The Ugrians, having attacked, captured the entire Bulgarian land. Simeon, having learned about this, went against the Ugrians, and the Ugrians moved against him and defeated the Bulgarians, so that Simeon barely escaped to Dorostol.
6411 (903) per year. When Igor grew up, he accompanied Oleg and listened to him, and they brought him a wife from Pskov, named Olga.
6412 (904) per year.
6413 (905) per year.
6414 (906) per year.
6415 (907) per year. Oleg went against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kyiv; He took with him many Varangians, and Slavs, and Chuds, and Krivichi, and Meryu, and Drevlyans, and Radimichi, and Polans, and Northerners, and Vyatichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tivertsy, known as interpreters: these were all called Greeks "Great Scythia". And with all these Oleg went on horses and in ships; and there were 2000 ships. And he came to Constantinople: the Greeks closed the Court, and the city was closed. And Oleg went ashore and began to fight, and committed many murders to the Greeks in the vicinity of the city, and broke many chambers, and burned churches. And those who were captured, some were beheaded, others were tortured, others were shot, and some were thrown into the sea, and the Russians did many other evils to the Greeks, as enemies usually do.
And Oleg ordered his soldiers to make wheels and put ships on wheels. And when a fair wind blew, they raised sails in the field and went to the city. The Greeks, seeing this, were frightened and said, sending to Oleg: “Do not destroy the city, we will give you the tribute you want.” And Oleg stopped the soldiers, and they brought him food and wine, but did not accept it, since it was poisoned. And the Greeks were afraid and said: “This is not Oleg, but Saint Dmitry, sent to us by God.” And Oleg ordered to give tribute to 2000 ships: 12 hryvnia per person, and there were 40 men in each ship.
And the Greeks agreed to this, and the Greeks began to ask for peace so that the Greek land would not fight. Oleg, moving a little away from the capital, began negotiations for peace with the Greek kings Leon and Alexander and sent Karl, Farlaf, Vermud, Rulav and Stemid to their capital with the words: “Pay me tribute.” And the Greeks said: “We will give you whatever you want.” And Oleg ordered to give his soldiers for 2000 ships 12 hryvnia per rowlock, and then give tribute to Russian cities: first of all for Kyiv, then for Chernigov, for Pereyaslavl, for Polotsk, for Rostov, for Lyubech and for other cities: for according to In these cities sit the great princes, subject to Oleg. “When the Russians come, let them take as much allowance for the ambassadors as they want; and if merchants come, let them take monthly food for 6 months: bread, wine, meat, fish and fruits. And let them give them a bath - as much as they want. When the Russians go home, let them take food, anchors, ropes, sails and whatever else they need from the Tsar for the journey.” And the Greeks obliged, and the kings and all the boyars said: “If the Russians do not come for trade, then let them not take their monthly allowance; Let the Russian prince, by decree, prohibit the Russians who come here from committing atrocities in the villages and in our country. Let the Russians who come here live near the church of St. Mammoth, and let them be sent to them from our kingdom, and write down their names, then they will take their monthly allowance - first those who came from Kyiv, then from Chernigov, and from Pereyaslavl, and from other cities . And let them enter the city only through one gate, accompanied by the king’s husband, without weapons, 50 people each, and trade as much as they need, without paying any fees.”
Kings Leon and Alexander made peace with Oleg, pledged to pay tribute and swore allegiance to each other: they themselves kissed the cross, and Oleg and his husbands were taken to swear allegiance according to Russian law, and they swore by their weapons and Perun, their god, and Volos, the god of cattle, and established peace. And Oleg said: “Sew sails for Rus' from fibers, and for the Slavs from coprine,” and so it was. And he hung his shield on the gates as a sign of victory, and left Constantinople. And the Russians raised sails of grass, and the Slavs raised their sails, and the wind tore them apart; and the Slavs said: “Let’s take our thicknesses; the Slavs were not given sails made of pavolok.” And Oleg returned to Kyiv, carrying gold, and grasses, and fruits, and wine, and all sorts of ornaments. And they called Oleg the Prophetic, since the people were pagans and unenlightened.
6417 (909) per year.
Per year 6418 (910).
6419 (911) per year. A large star in the form of a spear appeared in the west.
Per year 6420 (912). Oleg sent his men to make peace and establish an agreement between the Greeks and Russians, saying this: “A list from the agreement concluded under the same kings Leo and Alexander. We are from the Russian family - Karla, Inegeld, Farlaf, Veremud, Rulav, Gudy, Ruald, Karn, Frelav, Ruar, Aktevu, Truan, Lidul, Fost, Stemid - sent from Oleg, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from everyone who is at hand him, - the bright and great princes, and his great boyars, to you, Leo, Alexander and Constantine, the great autocrats in God, the Greek kings, to strengthen and certify the long-term friendship that existed between Christians and Russians, at the request of our great princes and by command, from all the Russians under his hand. Our Lordship, desiring above all in God to strengthen and certify the friendship that constantly existed between Christians and Russians, decided fairly, not only in words, but also in writing, and with a firm oath, swearing with our weapons, to confirm such friendship and certify it by faith and according to our law.
These are the essence of the chapters of the agreement regarding which we have committed ourselves by God's faith and friendship. With the first words of our agreement, we will make peace with you, Greeks, and we will begin to love each other with all our souls and with all our good will, and we will not allow any deception or crime to occur from those under the hands of our bright princes, since this is in our power; but we will try, as much as we can, to maintain with you, Greeks, in future years and forever an unchangeable and unchanging friendship, expressed and committed to a letter with confirmation, certified by an oath. Likewise, you, Greeks, maintain the same unshakable and unchanging friendship for our bright Russian princes and for everyone who is under the hand of our bright prince always and in all years.
And about the chapters concerning possible atrocities, we will agree as follows: let those atrocities that are clearly certified be considered indisputably committed; and whichever they do not believe, let the party that seeks to swear that this crime will not be believed; and when that party swears, let the punishment be whatever the crime turns out to be.
About this: if anyone kills a Russian Christian or a Russian Christian, let him die at the scene of the murder. If the murderer runs away and turns out to be a rich man, then let the relative of the murdered man take that part of his property that is due by law, but let the murderer’s wife also keep what is due to her by law. If the escaped murderer turns out to be indigent, then let him remain on trial until he is found, and then let him die.
If someone strikes with a sword or beats with any other weapon, then for that blow or beating let him give 5 liters of silver according to Russian law; If the one who committed this offense is poor, then let him give as much as he can, so that let him take off the very clothes in which he walks, and about the remaining unpaid amount, let him swear by his faith that no one can help him, and let him not this balance is collected from him.
About this: if a Russian steals something from a Christian or, on the contrary, a Christian from a Russian, and the thief is caught by the victim at the very time when he commits the theft, or if the thief prepares to steal and is killed, then it will not be recovered from either Christians or Russians; but let the victim take back what he lost. If the thief gives himself up voluntarily, then let him be taken by the one from whom he stole, and let him be bound, and give back what he stole in triple the amount.
About this: if one of the Christians or one of the Russians attempts (robbery) through beatings and clearly takes by force something belonging to another, then let him return it in triple amount.
If the rook is thrown out strong wind to a foreign land and one of us Russians is there and helps to save the boat with its cargo and send it back to the Greek land, then we carry it through every dangerous place until it comes to a safe place; If this boat is delayed by a storm or has run aground and cannot return to its place, then we, Russians, will help the rowers of that boat and see them off with their goods in good health. If the same misfortune happens to a Russian boat near the Greek land, then we will take it to the Russian land and let them sell the goods of that boat, so if it is possible to sell anything from that boat, then let us, the Russians, take it (to the Greek shore). And when we (we, Russians) come to the Greek land for trade or as an embassy to your king, then (we, Greeks) will honor the sold goods of their boat. If any of us Russians who arrived with the boat happen to be killed or something is taken from the boat, then let the culprits be sentenced to the above punishment.
About these: if a captive of one side or another is forcibly held by Russians or Greeks, having been sold into their country, and if, in fact, he turns out to be Russian or Greek, then let them ransom and return the ransomed person to his country and take the price of those who bought him, or let it be The price offered for it was that of servants. Also, if he is captured by those Greeks in war, still let him return to his country and his usual price will be given for him, as already said above.
If there is a recruitment into the army and these (Russians) want to honor your king, no matter how many of them come at what time, and want to stay with your king of their own free will, then so be it.
More about the Russians, about the prisoners. Those who came from any country (captive Christians) to Rus' and were sold (by the Russians) back to Greece or captive Christians brought to Rus' from any country - all of these must be sold for 20 zlatnikov and returned to Greek land.
About this: if a Russian servant is stolen, either runs away, or is forcibly sold and the Russians begin to complain, let them prove this about their servants and take him to Rus', but the merchants, if they lose the servant and appeal, let them demand it in court and, when they find , - they will take it. If someone does not allow an inquiry to be carried out, he will not be recognized as right.
And about the Russians serving in the Greek land with the Greek king. If someone dies without disposing of his property, and he does not have his own (in Greece), then let his property return to Rus' to his closest younger relatives. If he makes a will, then the one to whom he wrote to inherit his property will take what was bequeathed to him, and let him inherit it.
About Russian traders.
ABOUT different people who go to the Greek land and remain in debt. If the villain does not return to Rus', then let the Russians complain to the Greek kingdom, and he will be captured and returned by force to Rus'. Let the Russians do the same to the Greeks if the same thing happens.
As a sign of the strength and immutability that should be between you, Christians, and Russians, we created this peace treaty with Ivan’s writing on two charters - your Tsar’s and with our own hand - we sealed it with an oath of the honorable cross and the holy consubstantial Trinity of your one true God and given to our ambassadors. We swore to your king, appointed by God, as a divine creation, according to our faith and custom, not to violate for us and anyone from our country any of the established chapters of the peace treaty and friendship. And this writing was given to your kings for approval, so that this agreement would become the basis for the approval and certification of the peace existing between us. The month of September 2, index 15, in the year from the creation of the world 6420.”
Tsar Leon honored the Russian ambassadors with gifts - gold, and silks, and precious fabrics - and assigned his husbands to show them the church beauty, the golden chambers and the wealth stored in them: a lot of gold, pavoloks, precious stones and the passion of the Lord - a crown, nails , scarlet and the relics of the saints, teaching them their faith and showing them the true faith. And so he released them to his land with great honor. The ambassadors sent by Oleg returned to him and told him all the speeches of both kings, how they concluded peace and established an agreement between the Greek and Russian lands and established not to break the oath - neither to the Greeks nor to Rus'.
And Oleg, the prince, lived in Kyiv, having peace with all countries. And autumn came, and Oleg remembered his horse, which he had previously set to feed, having decided never to mount it. For he asked the magicians and wizards: “What will I die from?” And one magician said to him: “Prince! From your beloved horse, on which you ride, will you die from it?” These words sank into Oleg’s soul, and he said: “I will never sit on him and see him again.” And he ordered to feed him and not to take him to him, and he lived for several years without seeing him, until he went against the Greeks. And when he returned to Kyiv and four years had passed, in the fifth year he remembered his horse, from which the wise men predicted his death. And he called the elder of the grooms and said: “Where is my horse, which I ordered to feed and take care of?” He answered: “He died.” Oleg laughed and reproached that magician, saying: “The magicians say wrong, but it’s all a lie: the horse died, but I’m alive.” And he ordered him to saddle his horse: “Let me see his bones.” And he came to the place where his bare bones and bare skull lay, got off his horse, laughed and said: “Should I take this skull from this?” And he stepped on the skull with his foot, and a snake crawled out of the skull and bit him on the leg. And that’s why he got sick and died. All the people mourned him with great lamentation, and they carried him and buried him on a mountain called Shchekovitsa; His grave exists to this day and is known as Oleg’s grave. And all the years of his reign were thirty and three.
It is not surprising that magic comes true from sorcery. So it was during the reign of Domitian that a certain sorcerer named Apollonius of Tyana was known, who went around and performed demonic miracles everywhere - in cities and villages. Once, when he came from Rome to Byzantium, those living there begged him to do the following: he drove out many snakes and scorpions from the city so that they would not harm people and curbed the rage of horses in front of the boyars. So he came to Antioch, and, begged by those people - the Antiochians, who were suffering from scorpions and mosquitoes, he made a copper scorpion, and buried it in the ground, and placed a small marble pillar over it, and ordered the people to take sticks and walk around the city and call out, shaking those sticks: “Be a city without a mosquito!” And so the scorpions and mosquitoes disappeared from the city. And they asked him about the earthquake that threatened the city, and, sighing, he wrote the following on the tablet: “Alas for you, unfortunate city, you will be shaken a lot and you will be burned by fire, the one who will mourn you will mourn on the banks of the Orontes.” About (Apollonius) the great Anastasius of the City of God said: “The miracles created by Apollonius are even still performed in some places: some - to drive away four-legged animals and birds that could harm people, others - to hold back river streams, bursting from the banks, but others to the destruction and detriment of people, although to curb them. Not only did the demons perform such miracles during his lifetime, but also after his death, at his tomb, they performed miracles in his name in order to deceive miserable people, who were often caught by the devil in them.” So, who will say anything about works created by magic temptation? After all, Apollonius was skilled at magical seduction and never took into account the fact that in madness he indulged in a wise trick; but he should have said: “With a word I only do what I wanted,” and not perform the actions expected of him. Everything happens by God's permission and by the creation of demons - by all such deeds our Orthodox faith is tested, that it is firm and strong, staying near the Lord and not being carried away by the devil, his ghostly miracles and satanic deeds perpetrated by the enemies of the human race and the servants of evil. It happens that some prophesy in the name of the Lord, like Balaam, and Saul, and Caiaphas, and even cast out demons, like Judas and the sons of Skevabel. Because grace repeatedly acts on the unworthy, as many testify: for Balaam was alien to everything - both righteous living and faith, but nevertheless grace appeared in him to convince others. And Pharaoh was the same, but the future was revealed to him too. And Nebuchadnezzar was a lawbreaker, but the future of many generations was also revealed to him, thereby testifying that many who have perverse concepts, even before the coming of Christ, perform signs not of their own free will to deceive people who do not know good. Such was Simon the Magus, and Menander, and others like him, because of whom it was truly said: “Do not deceive with miracles...”.
Per year 6421 (913). After Oleg, Igor began to reign. At the same time, Constantine, the son of Leon, began to reign. And the Drevlyans shut themselves away from Igor after Oleg’s death.
Per year 6422 (914). Igor went against the Drevlyans and, having defeated them, imposed on them a tribute greater than Oleg’s. That same year, Simeon of Bulgaria came to Constantinople and, having made peace, returned home.
Per year 6423 (915). The Pechenegs came to the Russian land for the first time and, having made peace with Igor, went to the Danube. At the same time, Simeon came, capturing Thrace; The Greeks sent for the Pechenegs. When the Pechenegs arrived and were about to march against Simeon, the Greek commanders quarreled. The Pechenegs, seeing that they were quarreling among themselves, went home, and the Bulgarians fought with the Greeks, and the Greeks were killed. Simeon captured the city of Hadrian, which was originally called the city of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon: for Orestes once bathed in three rivers and got rid of his illness here - that’s why he named the city after himself. Subsequently, Caesar Hadrian renovated it and named it Adrian after himself, but we call it Hadrian-city.
Per year 6424 (916).
Per year 6425 (917).
Per year 6426 (918).
Per year 6427 (919).
Per year 6428 (920). The Greeks installed Tsar Roman. Igor fought against the Pechenegs.
Per year 6429 (921).
Per year 6430 (922).
Per year 6431 (923).
Per year 6432 (924).
Per year 6433 (925).
Per year 6434 (926).
Per year 6435 (927).
Per year 6436 (928).
Per year 6437 (929). Simeon came to Constantinople, and captured Thrace and Macedonia, and approached Constantinople in great strength and pride, and created peace with Roman the Tsar, and returned home.
Per year 6438 (930).
Per year 6439 (931).
Per year 6440 (932).
Per year 6441 (933).
Per year 6442 (934). For the first time, the Ugrians came to Constantinople and captured all of Thrace; Roman made peace with the Ugrians.
Per year 6444 (936).
Per year 6445 (937).
6446 (938) per year.
Per year 6447 (939).
Per year 6448 (940).
Per year 6449 (941). Igor went against the Greeks. And the Bulgarians sent news to the king that the Russians were coming to Constantinople: 10 thousand ships. And they came and sailed and began to fight the country of Bithynia, and captured the land along the Pontic Sea to Heraclius and to the Paphlagonian land, and they captured the entire country of Nicomedia, and they burned the entire Court. And those who were captured - some were crucified, while others, standing in front of them, shot, grabbed, tied their hands back and drove iron nails into their heads. Many holy churches were set on fire, monasteries and villages were burned, and a lot of wealth was seized on both banks of the Court. When warriors came from the east - Panfir the Demestic with forty thousand, Phocas the Patrician with the Macedonians, Fedor the Stratelates with the Thracians, and high-ranking boyars with them, they surrounded Rus'. The Russians, after consulting, came out against the Greeks with weapons, and in a fierce battle they barely defeated the Greeks. The Russians returned to their squad in the evening and at night, getting into the boats, sailed away. Theophanes met them in boats with fire and began to shoot fire at the Russian boats with pipes. And a terrible miracle was seen. The Russians, seeing the flames, rushed into the sea water, trying to escape, and so those who remained returned home. And, having come to their land, they told - each to their own - about what had happened and about the fire of the rooks. “It’s as if the Greeks had lightning from heaven,” they said, “and, releasing it, they burned us; That’s why they didn’t overcome them.” Igor, having returned, began to gather many soldiers and sent them overseas to the Varangians, inviting them to attack the Greeks, again planning to go against them.
And the year is 6430 (942). Simeon went against the Croats, and the Croats defeated him, and died, leaving Peter, his son, as prince over the Bulgarians.
Per year 6451 (943). The Ugrians came to Constantinople again and, having made peace with Roman, returned home.
Per year 6452 (944). Igor gathered many warriors: Varangians, Rus, and Polyans, and Slovenians, and Krivichi, and Tivertsi - and hired the Pechenegs, and took hostages from them - and went against the Greeks in boats and on horses, seeking to avenge himself. Hearing about this, the Korsun people sent to Roman with the words: “Here come the Russians, without the number of their ships, they covered the sea with ships.” The Bulgarians also sent word, saying: “The Russians are coming and have hired the Pechenegs.” Hearing about this, the king sent the best boyars to Igor with a plea, saying: “Do not go, but take the tribute that Oleg took, and I will add more to that tribute.” He also sent pavoloks and a lot of gold to the Pechenegs. Igor, having reached the Danube, called his squad together, began to hold council with them, and told them the Tsarev’s speech. Igor’s squad said: “If the king says so, then what else do we need - without fighting, take gold, and silver, and pavoloks? Does anyone know who to overcome: whether we or they? Or who is in alliance with the sea? After all, we do not walk on land, but in the depths of the sea: everyone total death" Igor listened to them and ordered the Pechenegs to fight the Bulgarian land, and he himself, taking gold and pavoloks for all the soldiers from the Greeks, returned back and came home to Kyiv.
Per year 6453 (945). Roman, Konstantin, and Stefan sent ambassadors to Igor to restore the former peace, and Igor spoke to them about peace. And Igor sent his husbands to Roman. Roman convened the boyars and dignitaries. And they brought the Russian ambassadors and ordered them to speak and write down the speeches of both on the charter.
“A list from the agreement concluded under the kings Roman, Constantine and Stephen, Christ-loving rulers. We are ambassadors and merchants from the Russian family, Ivor, ambassador of Igor, the Grand Duke of Russia, and general ambassadors: Vuefast from Svyatoslav, son of Igor; Iskusevi from Princess Olga; Sludy from Igor, nephew Igor; Uleb from Volodislav; Kanitsar from Predslava; Shikhbern Sfandr from Uleb's wife; Prasten Tudorov; Libiar Fastov; Make-up Sfirkov; Prasten Akun, Igor's nephew; Kara Tudkov; Karshev Tudorov; Egri Evliskov; Voist Voykov; Istr Aminodov; Prasten Bernov; Yavtyag Gunarev; Shibrid Aldan; Col Klekov; Steggy Etonov; Sfirka...; Alvad Gudov; Fudri Tuadov; Mutur Utin; merchants Adun, Adulb, Iggivlad, Uleb, Frutan, Gomol, Kutsi, Emig, Turobid, Furosten, Bruni, Roald, Gunastre, Frasten, Igeld, Turburn, Monet, Ruald, Sven, Steer, Aldan, Tilen, Apubexar, Vuzlev, Sinko , Borich, sent from Igor, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from every prince, and from all the people of the Russian land. And they are tasked with renewing the old peace, which has been disrupted for many years by those who hate goodness and are hostile, and to establish love between the Greeks and Russians.
Our Grand Duke Igor, and his boyars, and all the Russian people sent us to Roman, Constantine and Stefan, to the great Greek kings, to conclude an alliance of love with the kings themselves, with all the boyars and with all the Greek people for all the years while the sun shines and the whole world is worth it. And whoever on the Russian side plans to destroy this love, then let those of them who have been baptized receive retribution from God Almighty, condemnation to destruction in the afterlife, and let those of them who are not baptized have no help from God, neither from Perun, may they not defend themselves with their own shields, and may they perish from their swords, from arrows and from their other weapons, and may they be slaves throughout their entire afterlife.
And let the Russian Grand Duke and his boyars send as many ships as they want to the Greek land to the great Greek kings, with ambassadors and merchants, as is established for them. Previously, ambassadors brought gold seals, and merchants brought silver ones; Now your prince has commanded to send letters to us, the kings; those ambassadors and guests who will be sent by them, let them bring a letter, writing it like this: he sent so many ships, so that from these letters we will know that they came in peace. If they come without a letter and find themselves in our hands, then we will keep them under supervision until we inform your prince. If they do not give in to us and resist, then we will kill them, and let them not be exacted from your prince. If, having escaped, they return to Rus', then we will write to your prince, and let them do what they want. If the Russians do not come for trade, then let them not take the month. Let the prince punish his ambassadors and the Russians who come here so that they do not commit atrocities in the villages and in our country. And when they come, let them live near the church of St. Mammoth, and then we, the kings, will send your names to be written down, and let the ambassadors take a month, and the merchants a month, first those from the city of Kyiv, then from Chernigov, and from Pereyaslavl, and from other cities. Let them enter the city through one gate alone, accompanied by the king’s husband without weapons, about 50 people each, and trade as much as they need, and go back out; Let our royal husband protect them, so that if one of the Russians or Greeks does wrong, then let him judge the matter. When the Russians enter the city, then let them do no harm and do not have the right to buy pavoloks for more than 50 spools; and if anyone buys those trails, then let him show it to the king’s husband, and he will put a seal on it and give it to them. And let those Russians who depart from here take from us everything they need: food for the journey and what the boats need, as was established earlier, and let them return safely to their country, and let them not have the right to spend the winter with Saint Mammoth.
If a servant runs away from the Russians, then let them come for him to the country of our kingdom, and if he ends up with Saint Mammoth, then let them take him; if it is not found, then let our Russian Christians swear according to their faith, and non-Christians according to their law, and then let them take their price from us, as was established before - 2 pavoloks per servant.
If one of our royal servants, or our city, or other cities, runs away to you and takes something with him, then let him be returned again; and if what he brought is all intact, then they will take two gold coins from him for the capture.
If anyone from among the Russians attempts to take anything from our royal people, then let the one who does this be severely punished; if he already takes it, let him pay double; and if a Greek does the same to a Russian, he will receive the same punishment that he received.
If you happen to steal something to a Russian from the Greeks or a Greek from the Russians, then you should return not only what was stolen, but also the price of what was stolen; if it turns out that the stolen property has already been sold, let him return its price twice as much and be punished according to the Greek law and according to the charter and according to the Russian law.
No matter how many captives of our Christian subjects the Russians bring, then for a good young man or girl, let ours give 10 zolotniks and take them, but if they are middle-aged, then let them give them 8 zolotniks and take it; if there is an old man or a child, then let them give 5 spools for him.
If the Russians find themselves enslaved by the Greeks, then, if they are prisoners, let the Russians ransom them for 10 spools; if it turns out that they were bought by a Greek, then he should swear on the cross and take his price - how much he gave for the captive.
And about the Korsun country. Let the Russian prince have no right to fight in those countries, in all the cities of that land, and let that country not submit to you, but when the Russian prince asks us for soldiers to fight, I will give him as many as he needs.
And about this: if the Russians find a Greek ship washed up somewhere on the shore, let them not cause damage to it. If anyone takes anything from him, or turns anyone from him into slavery, or kills him, he will be subject to trial according to Russian and Greek law.
If the Russians find the Korsun residents fishing at the mouth of the Dnieper, let them not cause them any harm.
And let the Russians not have the right to winter at the mouth of the Dnieper, in Beloberezhye and near St. Elfer; but with the onset of autumn, let them go home to Rus'.
And about these: if the black Bulgarians come and begin to fight in the Korsun country, then we order the Russian prince not to let them in, otherwise they will cause damage to his country.
If an atrocity is committed by one of the Greeks - our royal subjects - you have no right to punish them, but according to our royal command, let him receive punishment to the extent of his offense.
If our subject kills a Russian, or a Russian kills our subject, then let the relatives of the murdered man apprehend the murderer, and let him be killed.
If the murderer runs away and hides, and he has property, then let the relatives of the murdered person take his property; If the murderer turns out to be poor and also hides, then let them search for him until he is found, and when he is found, let him be killed.
If a Russian hits a Greek or a Russian Greek with a sword, or a spear, or any other weapon, then for that lawlessness let the guilty person pay 5 liters of silver according to Russian law; if he turns out to be poor, then let them sell him everything that is possible, so that even the clothes in which he walks, let them be taken off him, and about what is missing, let him take an oath according to his faith that he has nothing, and only then let him be released.
If we, the kings, wish for you to have warriors against our opponents, let us write about it to your Grand Duke, and he will send us as many of them as we wish: and from here they will know in other countries what kind of love the Greeks and Russians have among themselves.
We wrote this agreement on two charters, and one charter is kept by us, the kings, - on it there is a cross and our names are written, and on the other - the names of your ambassadors and merchants. And when our royal ambassadors leave, let them take them to the Russian Grand Duke Igor and his people; and those, having accepted the charter, will swear to truly observe what we have agreed upon and what we have written on this charter, on which our names are written.
We, those of us who were baptized, swore in the cathedral church by the Church of St. Elias in the presentation of the honorable cross and in this charter to observe everything that is written in it and not to violate anything from it; and if anyone from our country violates this - whether a prince or someone else, baptized or unbaptized - let him not receive help from God, let him be a slave in his afterlife and let him be slain with his own weapon.
And the unbaptized Russians lay down their shields and naked swords, hoops and other weapons to swear that everything written in this charter will be observed by Igor, and all the boyars, and all the people of the Russian country in all future years and always.
If any of the princes or Russian people, Christians or non-Christians, violates what is written in this charter, let him be worthy of dying from his weapon and let him be cursed from God and from Perun for breaking his oath.
And if for the good of Igor, the Grand Duke, he preserves this faithful love, may it not be broken as long as the sun shines and the whole world stands, in present times and in all future times.”
The ambassadors sent by Igor returned to him with the Greek ambassadors and told him all the speeches of Tsar Roman. Igor called the Greek ambassadors and asked them: “Tell me, what did the king punish you?” And the king’s ambassadors said: “The king, delighted with the peace, sent us; he wants to have peace and love with the Russian prince. Your ambassadors swore in our kings, and we were sent to swear in you and your husbands.” Igor promised to do so. The next day Igor called the ambassadors and came to the hill where Perun stood; and they laid down their weapons, and shields, and gold, and Igor and his people swore allegiance - how many pagans there were among the Russians. And Russian Christians were sworn in in the Church of St. Elijah, which stands above the Brook at the end of the Pasyncha conversation and the Khazars - it was a cathedral church, since there were many Christians - Varangians. Igor, having established peace with the Greeks, released the ambassadors, presenting them with furs, slaves and wax, and sent them away; The ambassadors came to the king and told him all the speeches of Igor, and about his love for the Greeks.
Igor began to reign in Kyiv, having peace with all countries. And autumn came, and he began to plot to go against the Drevlyans, wanting to take even greater tribute from them.
Per year 6453 (945). That year the squad said to Igor: “The youths of Sveneld are dressed in weapons and clothes, and we are naked. Come with us, prince, for tribute, and you will get it for yourself and for us.” And Igor listened to them - he went to the Drevlyans for tribute and added a new one to the previous tribute, and his men committed violence against them. Taking the tribute, he went to his city. When he walked back, after thinking it over, he said to his squad: “Go home with the tribute, and I’ll come back and go again.” And he sent his squad home, and he himself returned with a small part of the squad, wanting more wealth. The Drevlyans, having heard that he was coming again, held a council with their prince Mal: “If a wolf gets into the habit of the sheep, he will carry out the entire flock until they kill him; so is this one: if we don’t kill him, he will destroy us all.” And they sent to him, saying: “Why are you going again? I’ve already taken all the tribute.” And Igor did not listen to them; and the Drevlyans, leaving the city of Iskorosten, killed Igor and his warriors, since there were few of them. And Igor was buried, and his grave remains near Iskorosten in Derevskaya land to this day.
Olga was in Kyiv with her son, the child Svyatoslav, and his breadwinner was Asmud, and the governor Sveneld was Mstishya’s father. The Drevlyans said: “We killed the Russian prince; Let’s take his wife Olga for our prince Mal and take Svyatoslav and do to him what we want.” And the Drevlyans sent their best men, twenty in number, in a boat to Olga, and landed in the boat near Borichev. After all, the water then flowed near the Kyiv Mountain, and people sat not on Podol, but on the mountain. The city of Kyiv was where now is the courtyard of Gordyata and Nikifor, and the princely court was in the city, where is now the courtyard of Vorotislav and Chudin, and the place for catching birds was outside the city; There was also another courtyard outside the city, where the courtyard of the domestic is now located, behind the Church of the Holy Mother of God; There was a tower courtyard above the mountain - there was a stone tower there. And they told Olga that the Drevlyans had come, and Olga called them to her, and told them: “Good guests have come.” And the Drevlyans answered: “They have come, princess.” And Olga said to them: “So tell me, why did you come here?” The Drevlyans answered: “The Derevskaya land sent us with these words: “We killed your husband, because your husband, like a wolf, plundered and robbed, and our princes are good because they protect the Derevskaya land - marry our prince Mala.” "". After all, his name was Mal, the prince of the Drevlyans. Olga told them: “Your speech is dear to me, I can no longer resurrect my husband; but I want to honor you tomorrow before my people; Now go to your boat and lie down in the boat, magnifying yourself, and in the morning I will send for you, and you say: “We will not ride on horses, nor will we go on foot, but carry us in the boat,” and they will carry you up in the boat.” and released them to the boat. Olga ordered to dig a large and deep hole in the tower courtyard, outside the city. The next morning, sitting in the tower, Olga sent for the guests, and they came to them and said: “Olga is calling you for great honor.” They answered: “We are not riding on horses or in carts, and we are not going on foot, but carry us in the boat.” And the people of Kiev answered: “We are in bondage; our prince was killed, and our princess wants for your prince,” and they were carried in the boat. They sat, majestic, with their arms on their feet and wearing great breastplates. And they brought them to Olga’s courtyard, and as they carried them, they threw them along with the boat into a pit. And, bending towards the pit, Olga asked them: “Is honor good for you?” They answered: “Igor’s death is worse for us.” And she ordered them to be buried alive; and covered them.
And Olga sent to the Drevlyans and told them: “If you really ask me, then send the best men so that great honor marry your prince, otherwise the people of Kyiv will not let me in.” Hearing about this, the Drevlyans chose the best men who ruled the Derevskaya land and sent for her. When the Drevlyans arrived, Olga ordered a bathhouse to be prepared, telling them: “After you have washed, come to me.” And they heated the bathhouse, and the Drevlyans entered it and began to wash themselves; and they locked the bathhouse behind them, and Olga ordered it to be set on fire from the door, and then they all burned.
And she sent to the Drevlyans with the words: “Now I’m coming to you, prepare a lot of honey in the city where they killed my husband, so that I will cry at his grave and perform a funeral feast for my husband.” Having heard about this, they brought a lot of honey and brewed it. Olga, taking with her a small squad, went light, came to the grave of her husband and mourned him. And she commanded her people to fill up a high burial mound, and when they had filled it up, she ordered a funeral feast to be performed. After that, the Drevlyans sat down to drink, and Olga ordered her youths to serve them. And the Drevlyans said to Olga: “Where is our squad that they sent for you?” She answered: “They are coming after me with my husband’s retinue.” And when the Drevlyans became drunk, she ordered her youths to drink in their honor, and she went far away and ordered the squad to cut down the Drevlyans, and 5000 of them were cut off. And Olga returned to Kyiv and gathered an army against those who remained.
The genre of “The Tale of Bygone Years” is defined as a chronicle, and an ancient one at that. There are three editions of it, dating back to 1113, 1116 and 1118. The author of the first was Nestor, the second was Abbot Sylvester, who did the work commissioned by Vladimir Monomakh. The creator of the third edition could not be identified, but it is known that it was intended for Mstislav Vladimirovich.
System of genres of ancient Russian literature
It consists of two subsystems - the genres of secular and church literature. The second is more closed and includes lives and walks, solemn and teacher eloquence. The genres of secular literature are represented by military stories and chronicles telling about historical events by year. They have a certain similarity with Byzantine chronography. However, when The Tale of Bygone Years was created, the chronograph genre was not used by Russian scribes. It was mastered at later stages.
“The Tale of Bygone Years”: genre
Dmitry Likhachev wrote about the enfilade, or ensemble, nature of the construction ancient Russian monuments writing. This is a distinctive property of almost all works written in the era Kievan Rus, - a single text is conceived as potentially open to inclusion from other sources. So, when the task requires “indicate the genre of The Tale of Bygone Years,” you need to take into account that the chronicle includes:
- treaties (for example, Russian-Byzantine 1907);
- lives of saints - Boris and Gleb;
- “The Philosopher’s Speech” and other texts.
Stories that have a distinct folklore origin (for example, the story of the death of Oleg, the story of how the Kozhemyaka youth defeated the Pecheneg hero) are also inherent in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years.” What genre are these works? They are similar to a fairy tale or legend. In addition, the chronicle is distinguished by the so-called stories of princely crimes - like the blinding of Vasilko. Dmitry Likhachev was the first to point out their genre uniqueness.
Let us note that such “ensemble” and diversity does not make the genre of “The Tale of Bygone Years” something vague, or the monument itself a simple collection of random texts.
Construction specifics
The main compositional units of The Tale of Bygone Years are weather articles beginning with the words “In the summer...”. In this way, ancient Russian chronicles differ from Byzantine chronographs, which, to describe the events of past days, took not a year, but the period of the ruler’s reign as a segment of history. Weather articles are divided into two categories. The first includes so-called weather messages, which record one or another historical fact. Thus, the content of the article for 1020 is limited to one piece of news: Yaroslav had a son named Vladimir. There are especially many such messages in the Kyiv Chronicle for the 12th century.
In contrast, chronicle stories not only report an event, but also imply a description of it, sometimes in great detail. The author may consider it necessary to indicate who took part in the battle, where it took place, and how it ended. At the same time, such a listing gave the weather article a plot twist.
Epic style
He who studied “The Tale of Bygone Years,” the genre and compositional originality of the monument, made the distinction between monumental and epic styles. The latter is especially characteristic of those parts of the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years”, the genre of which is defined as a military story. The epic style is distinguished by its close connection with folklore and the use of images drawn from there. A striking example of this is Princess Olga, presented in the chronicle as an avenger. In addition, they become more realistic (to the extent that such a characteristic can be applied to characters in ancient Russian literature).
Monumental style
The style of monumental historicism is fundamental not only for the oldest chronicle monument, but also for all literature of Kievan Rus. It manifests itself primarily in the depiction of characters. The chronicler is not interested in them private life, as well as those who are outside feudal relations. A person is of interest to a medieval author as a representative of a certain person. This also influenced the characterization of the characters, in which a certain amount of idealization is noticeable. The canon becomes the most important concept for the “Tale...”. Thus, any prince is depicted in the most significant circumstances, not knowing mental struggle. He is brave, smart and has a loyal squad. On the contrary, any church leader from life must be pious and obediently follow the Law of God.
The chronicler does not know the psychology of his characters. The medieval author had no hesitation in classifying the hero as “good” or “evil”, and complex, contradictory images, familiar to us from classical literature, could not have arisen.
