Work on the International Space Station (ISS, in English literature ISS - International Space Station) began in 1993. By this time, Russia had more than 25 years of experience in operating the Salyut and Mir orbital stations, and had unique experience in conducting long-term flights ( up to 438 days of continuous human stay in orbit), as well as various space systems (Mir orbital station, manned and cargo transport ships of the Soyuz and Progress types) and developed infrastructure to support their flights. But by 1991, Russia found itself in a state of severe economic crisis and could no longer maintain funding for astronautics at the previous level. At the same time and, in general, for the same reason (the end of the Cold War), the creators of the Freedom orbital station (USA) found themselves in a difficult financial situation. Therefore, a proposal arose to combine the efforts of Russia and the United States in implementing manned programs.
On March 15, 1993, the Director General of the Russian Space Agency (RSA), Yu.N. Koptev, and the General Designer of the Research and Production Association (NPO) Energia, Yu.P. Semenov, approached the head of NASA, D. Goldin, with a proposal to create the ISS. On September 2, 1993, Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation V.S. Chernomyrdin and US Vice President A. Gore signed a “Joint Statement on Cooperation in Space,” which provided for the creation of the ISS. In its development, RSA and NASA signed a “Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station” on November 1, 1993. In June 1994, a contract “On supplies and services for the Mir stations and the ISS” was signed between NASA and RKA. As a result of further negotiations, it was determined that in addition to Russia (RKA) and the USA (NASA), Canada (CSA), Japan (NASDA) and European Cooperation countries (ESA) are participating in the creation of the station, a total of 16 countries, and that the station will consist of 2 integrated segments (Russian and American) and gradually assembled in orbit from separate modules. The main work should be completed by 2003; the total mass of the station by this time will exceed 450 tons. Delivery of cargo and crews into orbit is carried out by Russian Proton and Soyuz launch vehicles, as well as by American reusable spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle.
The lead organization for the creation of the Russian segment and its integration with the American segment is the Rocket and Space Corporation (RSC) Energia named after. S.P.Koroleva, for the American segment - the Boeing company. Technical coordination of work on the Russian segment of the ISS is carried out by the Council of Chief Designers under the leadership of the President and General Designer of RSC Energia, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu.P. Semenov. Management of the preparation and launch of elements of the Russian segment of the ISS is carried out by the Interstate Commission for Flight Support and Operation of Orbital Manned Complexes. Participating in the manufacture of elements of the Russian segment are: RSC Energia Experimental Mechanical Engineering Plant named after. S.P. Korolev and the Rocket and Space Plant GKNPTs im. M.V. Khrunichev, as well as GNP RKTs TsSKB-Progress, Design Bureau of General Mechanical Engineering, RNII of Space Instrumentation, Scientific Research Institute of Precision Instruments, RGNII TsPK im. Yu.A. Gagarin, Russian Academy of Sciences, organization “Agat”, etc. (about 200 organizations in total).
Station construction stages.
The deployment of the ISS began with the launch on November 20, 1998, using a Proton rocket, of the Zarya functional cargo unit (FGB), built in Russia. On December 5, 1998, the space shuttle Endeavor (flight number STS-88, commander - R. Kabana, crew - Russian cosmonaut S. Krikalev) was launched with the American docking module NODE-1 (Unity) on board. On December 7, Endeavor moored to the FGB, moved the NODE-1 module with a manipulator and docked it. The crew of the Endeavor ship carried out installation of communications equipment and repair work at the FGB (inside and outside). Undocking took place on December 13, and landing on December 15.
On May 27, 1999, the shuttle Discovery (STS-96) launched and docked with the ISS on May 29. The crew transferred cargo to the station, performed technical work, installed a cargo boom operator’s station and an adapter for its fastening on the transition module. June 4 – undocking, June 6 – landing.
On May 18, 2000, the shuttle Discovery (STS-101) launched and docked with the ISS on May 21. The crew carried out repair work on the FGB and installed a cargo boom and handrails on the outer surface of the station. The shuttle engine corrected (raised) the ISS orbit. May 27 – undocking, May 29 – landing.
On July 26, 2000, the Zvezda service module was docked with the Zarya - Unity modules. Start of operation in orbit of the Zvezda – Zarya – Unity complex with a total mass of 52.5 tons.
From the moment (November 2, 2000) of the docking of the Soyuz TM-31 spacecraft with the ISS-1 crew on board (V. Shepherd - expedition commander, Yu. Gidzenko - pilot, S. Krikalev - flight engineer) the station operation stage began in manned mode and conducting scientific and technical research on it.
Scientific and technical experiments on the ISS.
The formation of a scientific research program on the Russian Segment (RS) of the ISS began in 1995 after the announcement of a competition among scientific institutions, industrial organizations and higher educational institutions. 406 applications were received from more than 80 organizations in 11 main research areas. In 1999, taking into account the technical study carried out by RSC Energia specialists on the feasibility of the received applications, a “Long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned on the RS ISS” was developed, approved by the General Director of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency Yu.N. Koptev and the President of the Russian Academy Sciences Yu.S. Osipov.
The main scientific and technical tasks of the ISS:
– studying the Earth from space;
– study of physical and biological processes under conditions of weightlessness and controlled gravity;
– astrophysical observations, in particular, the station will have a large complex of solar telescopes;
– testing new materials and devices for work in space;
– development of technology for assembling large systems in orbit, including using robots;
– testing of new pharmaceutical technologies and pilot production of new drugs in microgravity conditions;
– pilot production of semiconductor materials.
Manned orbital multi-purpose space research complex
The International Space Station (ISS), created to conduct scientific research in space. Construction began in 1998 and is being carried out in collaboration with the aerospace agencies of Russia, the USA, Japan, Canada, Brazil and the European Union, and is scheduled to be completed by 2013. The weight of the station after its completion will be approximately 400 tons. The ISS orbits the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. The station will approximately operate in orbit until 2016-2020.
10 years after the first space flight by Yuri Gagarin, in April 1971, the world's first space orbital station, Salyut-1, was launched into orbit. Long-term manned stations (LOS) were necessary for scientific research. Their creation was a necessary step in preparing future human flights to other planets. During the Salyut program from 1971 to 1986, the USSR had the opportunity to test the main architectural elements of space stations and subsequently use them in the project of a new long-term orbital station - Mir.
The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a reduction in funding for the space program, so Russia alone could not not only build a new orbital station, but also maintain the operation of the Mir station. At that time, the Americans had virtually no experience in creating DOS. In 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin signed the Mir-Shuttle space cooperation agreement. The Americans agreed to finance the construction of the last two modules of the Mir station: Spectrum and Priroda. In addition, from 1994 to 1998, the United States made 11 flights to Mir. The agreement also provided for the creation of a joint project - the International Space Station (ISS). In addition to the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) and the US National Aerospace Agency (NASA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA, which includes 17 participating countries), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) took part in the project. , as well as the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB). India and China have expressed interest in participating in the ISS project. On January 28, 1998, a final agreement was signed in Washington to begin construction of the ISS.
The ISS has a modular structure: its different segments were created by the efforts of the countries participating in the project and have their own specific function: research, residential, or used as storage facilities. Some of the modules, such as the American Unity series modules, are jumpers or are used for docking with transport ships. When completed, the ISS will consist of 14 main modules with a total volume of 1000 cubic meters; a crew of 6 or 7 people will always be on board the station.
The weight of the ISS after its completion is planned to be more than 400 tons. The station is roughly the size of a football field. In the starry sky it can be observed with the naked eye - sometimes the station is the brightest celestial body after the Sun and Moon.
The ISS orbits the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. Scientific experiments are carried out on board the station in the following areas:
- Research into new medical methods of therapy and diagnostics and life support in zero gravity conditions
- Research in the field of biology, the functioning of living organisms in outer space under the influence of solar radiation
- Experiments to study the earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays, cosmic dust and dark matter
- Study of the properties of matter, including superconductivity.
The first module of the station, Zarya (weighs 19.323 tons), was launched into orbit by a Proton-K launch vehicle on November 20, 1998. This module was used at the early stage of construction of the station as a source of electricity, also to control orientation in space and maintain temperature conditions. Subsequently, these functions were transferred to other modules, and Zarya began to be used as a warehouse.
The Zvezda module is the main residential module of the station; on board there are life support and station control systems. The Russian transport ships Soyuz and Progress dock with it. The module, with a delay of two years, was launched into orbit by the Proton-K launch vehicle on July 12, 2000 and docked on July 26 with Zarya and the previously launched into orbit by the American docking module Unity-1.
The Pirs docking module (weighs 3,480 tons) was launched into orbit in September 2001 and is used for docking the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as for spacewalks. In November 2009, the Poisk module, almost identical to Pirs, docked with the station.
Russia plans to dock a Multifunctional Laboratory Module (MLM) to the station; when launched in 2012, it should become the station's largest laboratory module, weighing more than 20 tons.
The ISS already has laboratory modules from the USA (Destiny), ESA (Columbus) and Japan (Kibo). They and the main hub segments Harmony, Quest and Unnity were launched into orbit by shuttles.
During the first 10 years of operation, the ISS was visited by more than 200 people from 28 expeditions, which is a record for space stations (only 104 people visited Mir). The ISS was the first example of the commercialization of space flight. Roscosmos, together with the Space Adventures company, sent space tourists into orbit for the first time. In addition, as part of a contract for the purchase of Russian weapons by Malaysia, Roscosmos in 2007 organized the flight of the first Malaysian cosmonaut, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, to the ISS.
Among the most serious incidents on the ISS is the landing disaster of the shuttle Columbia ("Columbia", "Columbia") on February 1, 2003. Although Columbia did not dock with the ISS while conducting an independent exploration mission, the disaster led to the grounding of shuttle flights and did not resume until July 2005. This delayed the completion of the station and made the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft the only means of delivering cosmonauts and cargo to the station. In addition, smoke occurred in the Russian segment of the station in 2006, and computer failures were recorded in the Russian and American segments in 2001 and twice in 2007. In the fall of 2007, the station crew was busy repairing a solar panel rupture that occurred during its installation.
According to the agreement, each project participant owns its segments on the ISS. Russia owns the Zvezda and Pirs modules, Japan owns the Kibo module, and ESA owns the Columbus module. The solar panels, which upon completion of the station will generate 110 kilowatts per hour, and the remaining modules belong to NASA.
Completion of construction of the ISS is scheduled for 2013. Thanks to new equipment delivered aboard the ISS by the Endeavor shuttle expedition in November 2008, the station's crew will be increased in 2009 from 3 to 6 people. It was initially planned that the ISS station should operate in orbit until 2010; in 2008, a different date was given - 2016 or 2020. According to experts, the ISS, unlike the Mir station, will not be sunk in the ocean; it is intended to be used as a base for assembling interplanetary spacecraft. Despite the fact that NASA spoke in favor of reducing funding for the station, the head of the agency, Michael Griffin, promised to fulfill all US obligations to complete its construction. However, after the war in South Ossetia, many experts, including Griffin, stated that the cooling of relations between Russia and the United States could lead to Roscosmos ceasing cooperation with NASA and the Americans would lose the opportunity to send expeditions to the station. In 2010, US President Barack Obama announced the end of funding for the Constellation program, which was supposed to replace the shuttles. In July 2011, the Atlantis shuttle made its final flight, after which the Americans had to rely indefinitely on their Russian, European and Japanese counterparts to deliver cargo and astronauts to the station. In May 2012, the Dragon spacecraft, owned by the private American company SpaceX, docked with the ISS for the first time.
2018 marks the 20th anniversary of one of the most significant international space projects, the largest artificial habitable satellite of the Earth - the International Space Station (ISS). 20 years ago, on January 29, the Agreement on the creation of a space station was signed in Washington, and already on November 20, 1998, construction of the station began - the Proton launch vehicle was successfully launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome with the first module - the Zarya functional cargo block (FGB) " In the same year, on December 7, the second element of the orbital station, the Unity connecting module, was docked with the Zarya FGB. Two years later, a new addition to the station was the Zvezda service module.
On November 2, 2000, the International Space Station (ISS) began its operation in manned mode. The Soyuz TM-31 spacecraft with the crew of the first long-term expedition docked to the Zvezda service module.The ship's approach to the station was carried out according to the scheme that was used during flights to the Mir station. Ninety minutes after docking, the hatch was opened and the ISS-1 crew stepped aboard the ISS for the first time.The ISS-1 crew included Russian cosmonauts Yuri GIDZENKO, Sergei KRIKALEV and American astronaut William SHEPHERD.
Arriving at the ISS, the cosmonauts reactivated, retrofitted, launched and configured the systems of the Zvezda, Unity and Zarya modules and established communications with mission control centers in Korolev and Houston near Moscow. Over the course of four months, 143 sessions of geophysical, biomedical and technical research and experiments were carried out. In addition, the ISS-1 team provided dockings with the Progress M1-4 cargo spacecraft (November 2000), Progress M-44 (February 2001) and the American shuttle Endeavor (Endeavour, December 2000) , Atlantis (“Atlantis”; February 2001), Discovery (“Discovery”; March 2001) and their unloading. Also in February 2001, the expedition team integrated the Destiny laboratory module into the ISS.
On March 21, 2001, with the American space shuttle Discovery, which delivered the crew of the second expedition to the ISS, the team of the first long-term mission returned to Earth. The landing site was the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, USA.
In subsequent years, the Quest airlock chamber, the Pirs docking compartment, the Harmony connecting module, the Columbus laboratory module, the Kibo cargo and research module, the Poisk small research module, were docked to the International Space Station. residential module “Tranquility”, observation module “Domes”, small research module “Rassvet”, multifunctional module “Leonardo”, transformable test module “BEAM”.
Today, the ISS is the largest international project, a manned orbital station used as a multi-purpose space research complex. The space agencies ROSCOSMOS, NASA (USA), JAXA (Japan), CSA (Canada), ESA (European countries) participate in this global project.
With the creation of the ISS, it became possible to perform scientific experiments in the unique conditions of microgravity, in a vacuum and under the influence of cosmic radiation. The main areas of research are physical and chemical processes and materials in space, Earth exploration and space exploration technologies, man in space, space biology and biotechnology. Considerable attention in the work of astronauts on the International Space Station is paid to educational initiatives and the popularization of space research.
The ISS is a unique experience of international cooperation, support and mutual assistance; construction and operation in low-Earth orbit of a large engineering structure that is of paramount importance for the future of all mankind.
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The idea of creating an international space station arose in the early 1990s. The project became international when Canada, Japan and the European Space Agency joined the United States. In December 1993, the United States, together with other countries participating in the creation of the Alpha space station, invited Russia to become a partner in this project. The Russian government accepted the proposal, after which some experts began calling the project “Ralfa,” that is, “Russian Alpha,” recalls NASA public affairs representative Ellen Kline.
According to experts, construction of Alpha-R could be completed by 2002 and would cost approximately $17.5 billion. “It's very cheap,” said NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin. - If we worked alone, the costs would be high. And so, thanks to cooperation with the Russians, we receive not only political, but also material benefits..."
It was finance, or rather the lack of it, that forced NASA to look for partners. The initial project - it was called “Freedom” - was very grandiose. It was assumed that at the station it would be possible to repair satellites and entire spaceships, study the functioning of the human body during a long stay in weightlessness, conduct astronomical research and even set up production.
The Americans were also attracted to the unique methods, which were supported by millions of rubles and years of work by Soviet scientists and engineers. Having worked in the same team with the Russians, they received a fairly complete understanding of Russian methods, technologies, etc., relating to long-term orbital stations. It is difficult to estimate how many billions of dollars they are worth.
The Americans manufactured a scientific laboratory, a residential module, and Node-1 and Node-2 docking blocks for the station. The Russian side developed and supplied a functional cargo unit, a universal docking module, transport supply ships, a service module and a Proton launch vehicle.
Most of the work was carried out by the State Space Research and Production Center named after M.V. Khrunichev. The central part of the station was the functional cargo block, similar in size and basic design elements to the Kvant-2 and Kristall modules of the Mir station. Its diameter is 4 meters, length is 13 meters, weight is more than 19 tons. The block serves as a home for astronauts during the initial period of assembling the station, as well as for providing it with electricity from solar panels and storing fuel reserves for propulsion systems. The service module is based on the central part of the Mir-2 station developed in the 1980s. Astronauts live there permanently and conduct experiments.
Participants of the European Space Agency developed the Columbus laboratory and an automatic transport ship for the launch vehicle
Ariane 5, Canada supplied the mobile service system, Japan - the experimental module.
Assembling the international space station required approximately 28 flights on American space shuttles, 17 launches of Russian launch vehicles and one launch of Ariana 5. 29 Russian Soyuz-TM and Progress spacecraft were to deliver crews and equipment to the station.
The total internal volume of the station after its assembly in orbit was 1217 square meters, the mass was 377 tons, of which 140 tons were Russian components, 37 tons were American. The estimated operating time of the international station is 15 years.
Due to financial troubles plaguing the Russian Aerospace Agency, the construction of the ISS was behind schedule for two whole years. But finally, on July 20, 1998, from the Baikonur cosmodrome, the Proton launch vehicle launched the Zarya functional unit into orbit - the first element of the international space station. And on July 26, 2000, our Zvezda connected with the ISS.
This day went down in the history of its creation as one of the most important. At the Johnson Manned Space Flight Center in Houston and at the Russian Mission Control Center in the city of Korolev, the hands on the clocks show different times, but the applause broke out at the same time.
Until that time, the ISS was a set of lifeless building blocks; Zvezda breathed a “soul” into it: a scientific laboratory suitable for life and long-term fruitful work appeared in orbit. This is a fundamentally new stage in a grandiose international experiment in which 16 countries are participating.
“The gates are now open for continued construction of the International Space Station,” said NASA spokesman Kyle Herring with satisfaction. The ISS currently consists of three elements - the Zvezda service module and the Zarya functional cargo block, built by Russia, as well as the Unity docking port, built by the United States. With the docking of the new module, the station not only grew noticeably, but also became heavier, as much as possible in zero gravity conditions, gaining a total of about 60 tons.
After this, a kind of rod was assembled in near-Earth orbit, on which more and more new structural elements can be “strung”. “Zvezda” is the cornerstone of the entire future space structure, comparable in size to a city block. Scientists claim that the fully assembled station will be the third brightest object in the starry sky - after the Moon and Venus. It can be observed even with the naked eye.
The Russian block, costing $340 million, is the key element that ensures the transition from quantity to quality. The “star” is the “brain” of the ISS. The Russian module is not only the place of residence of the first crews of the station. The Zvezda carries a powerful central on-board computer and communications equipment, a life support system and a propulsion system that will ensure the ISS's orientation and orbital altitude. From now on, all crews arriving on the Shuttle during work on board the station will no longer rely on the systems of the American spacecraft, but on the life support of the ISS itself. And “Star” guarantees this.
“The docking of the Russian module and the station took place approximately at an altitude of 370 kilometers above the surface of the planet,” writes Vladimir Rogachev in the journal Echo of the Planet. - At that moment, the spacecraft were racing at a speed of about 27 thousand kilometers per hour. The operation carried out earned the highest marks from experts, once again confirming the reliability of Russian technology and the highest professionalism of its creators. As Sergei Kulik, a representative of Rosaviakosmos, who is in Houston, emphasized in a telephone conversation with me, both American and Russian specialists were well aware that they were witnesses to a historical event. My interlocutor also noted that specialists from the European Space Agency, who created the Zvezda central on-board computer, also made an important contribution to ensuring the docking.
Then Sergei Krikalev picked up the phone, who, as part of the first long-stay crew starting from Baikonur at the end of October, will have to settle into the ISS. Sergei noted that everyone in Houston was awaiting the moment of contact with the spacecraft with enormous tension. Moreover, after the automatic docking mode was activated, very little could be done “from the outside.” The accomplished event, the cosmonaut explained, opens up prospects for the expansion of work on the ISS and the continuation of the manned flight program. In essence, this is “..a continuation of the Soyuz-Apollo program, the 25th anniversary of the completion of which is being celebrated these days. The Russians have already flown on the Shuttle, the Americans on the Mir, and now a new stage is coming.”
Maria Ivatsevich, representing the Research and Production Space Center named after M.V. Khrunicheva, especially noted that the docking, carried out without any glitches or comments, “became the most serious, key stage of the program.”
The result was summed up by the commander of the first planned long-term expedition to the ISS, American William Sheppard. “It is obvious that the torch of competition has now passed from Russia to the United States and the other partners of the international project,” he said. “We are ready to accept this load, understanding that maintaining the station’s construction schedule depends on us.”
In March 2001, the ISS was nearly damaged by space debris. It is noteworthy that it could have been rammed by a part from the station itself, which was lost during the spacewalk of astronauts James Voss and Susan Helms. As a result of the maneuver, the ISS managed to avoid a collision.
For the ISS, this was not the first threat posed by debris flying in outer space. In June 1999, when the station was still uninhabited, there was a threat of its collision with a piece of the upper stage of a space rocket. Then specialists from the Russian Mission Control Center in the city of Korolev managed to give the command for the maneuver. As a result, the fragment flew past at a distance of 6.5 kilometers, which is minuscule by cosmic standards.
Now the American Mission Control Center in Houston has demonstrated its ability to act in a critical situation. After receiving information from the Space Monitoring Center about the movement of space debris in orbit in the immediate vicinity of the ISS, Houston specialists immediately gave the command to turn on the engines of the Discovery spacecraft docked to the ISS. As a result, the stations' orbit was raised by four kilometers.
If the maneuver had not been possible, then the flying part could, in the event of a collision, damage, first of all, the solar panels of the station. The ISS hull cannot be penetrated by such a fragment: each of its modules is reliably covered with anti-meteor protection.
Cosmonautics Day is coming on April 12. And of course, it would be wrong to ignore this holiday. Moreover, this year the date will be special, 50 years since the first human flight into space. It was on April 12, 1961 that Yuri Gagarin accomplished his historical feat.
Well, man cannot survive in space without grandiose superstructures. This is exactly what the International Space Station is.
The dimensions of the ISS are small; length - 51 meters, width including trusses - 109 meters, height - 20 meters, weight - 417.3 tons. But I think everyone understands that the uniqueness of this superstructure is not in its size, but in the technologies used to operate the station in outer space. The ISS orbital altitude is 337-351 km above the earth. The orbital speed is 27,700 km/h. This allows the station to complete a full revolution around our planet in 92 minutes. That is, every day, astronauts on the ISS experience 16 sunrises and sunsets, 16 times night follows day. Currently, the ISS crew consists of 6 people, and in general, during its entire operation, the station received 297 visitors (196 different people). The start of operation of the International Space Station is considered to be November 20, 1998. And at the moment (04/09/2011) the station has been in orbit for 4523 days. During this time it has evolved quite a lot. I suggest you verify this by looking at the photo.
ISS, 1999.
ISS, 2000.
ISS, 2002.
ISS, 2005.
ISS, 2006.
ISS, 2009.
ISS, March 2011.
Below is a diagram of the station, from which you can find out the names of the modules and also see the docking locations of the ISS with other spacecraft.
The ISS is an international project. 23 countries participate in it: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Canada, Luxembourg (!!!), the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, USA, Finland, France, Czech Republic , Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. After all, no state alone can financially manage the construction and maintenance of the functionality of the International Space Station. It is not possible to calculate exact or even approximate costs for the construction and operation of the ISS. The official figure has already exceeded 100 billion US dollars, and if we add all the side costs, we get about 150 billion US dollars. The International Space Station is already doing this. the most expensive project throughout the history of mankind. And based on the latest agreements between Russia, the USA and Japan (Europe, Brazil and Canada are still in thought) that the life of the ISS has been extended at least until 2020 (and a further extension is possible), the total costs of maintaining the station will increase even more.
But I suggest we take a break from the numbers. Indeed, in addition to scientific value, the ISS has other advantages. Namely, the opportunity to appreciate the pristine beauty of our planet from the height of orbit. And it is not at all necessary to go into outer space for this.
Because the station has its own observation deck, a glazed module “Dome”.
