Introduction. Literary movements, schools, movements

1. The central place is given to the symbol*
2. The desire for a higher ideal prevails
3. A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
5. Sophistication and musicality of verse

The 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression, first of all, in the poetry of E. A. Baratynsky, K. N. Batyushkov, V. A. Zhukovsky, A. A. Fet, D. V. Davydov, N. M. Yazykov. With the work of F. I. Tyutchev, the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop.
A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is an artistic type extra person", an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A. S. Pushkin, and the so-called type " little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as by A.S. Pushkin in the story " Stationmaster» .
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century.
The tendency to depict vices and shortcomings Russian society- a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century.
Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V. G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N. A. Dobrolyubov and N. G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia.

Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, I. A. Goncharov created their works. The socio-political, philosophical issues. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting poetic works Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce poetry social issues. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is famous. , as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.

The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N. S. Leskov, A. N. Ostrovsky, A. P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of small things literary genre- a storyteller, as well as an excellent playwright. A.P. Chekhov's competitor was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature, distinctive features which included mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens new page in the history of Russian literature. Is that something like this?

A literary school is a professional association of a group of writers. The authors of the Dictionary literary terms“V. Lesin and A. Pulinets understand by school “trends, ideological and artistic features,” a style of writing, “inherent in writers who are under the significant influence of a great writer, his contemporary or predecessor. This is what they say about the Pushkin and Nekrasov schools in Russian classical poetry, about the Shevchenko and Frankov schools in... Ukrainian literature." In "Brief literary encyclopedia"(M., 1962-1978), in the "literary dictionary-reference book" (K., 1997) there are no separate articles devoted to the concept of "literary school".

Using the expression of P. Sakulin, the concept of “literary school” can be attributed to “wandering” terms. “Insufficient attention to the semantic content of the term literary school,” notes A. Savenets, “... leads to confusion of concepts, in particular those that denote writing communities of different degrees of organization, classifying them as one paradigm.”

F. Schlegel identified the literary school with style. According to him, the school is “naturally homogeneous in style.”

School is understood as a set of principles for recognizing and reproducing the world. By the way, this is how the method is defined.

A literary school is identified with a direction, a literary movement. In the "literary dictionary-reference book" the direction is characterized as "lake school", " natural school". D. Nalivaiko, highlighting trends within romanticism, calls the "Byronic", "Hoffmannian" schools. In the textbook "Theory of Literature in Connection with Problems of Aesthetics" we read: "Under certain circumstances, within the framework of one literary movement, groups of writers related to both aesthetic and socio-political views. Such an ideological and aesthetic community is usually called a literary movement... Literary movement, which includes the closest followers of any outstanding writer, is usually called a literary school. its representatives are like-minded in all essential issues of artistic creativity."

The literary school is identified with the circle, literary group, grouping. The scope of the school is wider than them, but they are narrower from the concepts of “method” and “direction”.

So what is a literary school? Are there any signs of it? How does it compare with other writing communities? M. Sulima notes: “It is believed that one can speak of a literary school when the unity of programmatic and creative attitude, theme, genre and style is obvious to a certain group of artists. It is important that this group declares itself through an action, an act, a manifesto, what collective publication."

Most precise definition school is given by Yu. Kuznetsov: “A specific education in literature, a group of writers united by common stylistic preferences, genre practice, thematic interests, issues, primarily an aesthetic program, which, projected into a new creative space, relies on a certain tradition, polemicizes with it, rethinks it "2. A literary school is formed on the basis of stylistic similarity. It may have different time frames. "Ionic School" in Greek literature of the 19th century. functioned from the 30s to the 90s. A school almost always exists within the framework of one literary genre (the “Kiev school” of poetry), but can go beyond its boundaries (“Zhytomyr prose school”).

The school may not have known (noticeable) students.

The literary school sometimes focuses on the work of a famous writer (T. Shevchenko, I. Franko), in which case we're talking about about the "Shevchenko" and "Frankivsk" schools. A school can develop into a stylistic trend (Byronism), a movement (French symbolism), acquire the characteristics of a method ("natural school"), groupings ("Parnassians", "neoclassicists").

The “Prague school” of poets left a noticeable mark on Ukrainian literature. This name belongs to the literary critic V. Derzhavin. He called the Ukrainian poets of the interwar twenty years, who worked mainly in Poděbrady and Prague, the “Prague School”. The “Prague School” is represented by E. Malanyuk, Y. Daragan, L. Mosendz, A. Stefanovich, Yuri Klen, Natalya Levitskaya-Kholodnaya, Oksana Lyaturinskaya, Y. Lipa, Elena Teliga, Oleg Olzhich, Galya Mazurenko, I. Irlyavsky, and . Ear. This school had neither a program nor a charter. The work of the poets of the “Prague School” is characterized by bright “historiosophism,” national pathos, strong-willed intonations, and tragic optimism. All the poets of the “Prague School” were united by the idea of ​​the national liberation struggle for the freedom and independence of Ukraine.

IN last years The first steps have been taken towards understanding the features of the “Kyiv school” of poetry. This is the opposition wing of the sixties. The “Kyiv school” debuted in the mid-60s of the 20th century, when the Khrushchev thaw ended and arrests of the creative and scientific intelligentsia began. The “Kyiv school” of poetry is represented by V. Goloborodko, M. Vorobyov, V. Kordun, V. Ruban, M. Grigoriev, I. Semenenko, M. Rachuk, Marina Lesnaya, Alla Pavlenko, P. Marusik, M. Moskalenko. The poets of the “Kyiv school” - unlike the sixties, who sometimes flirted with the regime and wrote pro-communist poems - did not cooperate with the authorities, avoided socio-political vocabulary, ideological narrow-mindedness, political engagement, tried to revive the mythopoetic consciousness, transform ancient mythological thinking , relied on new philosophy and psychology, intensified folk poetic ideas, focused attention on man, nature, the universe, turned to ancient poetic traditions, used free verse, and avoided declarativeness and topicality.

Galina Karplyuk in the article " Summary posts of the Kyiv school" notes: "The Kyiv school of poetry can be spoken of in several aspects: as a purely poetic phenomenon, the main feature of which was the freedom of creation; as a group of young nonconformists whose life vector was freedom of freedom in all its manifestations: as an experimental attempt to live differently than other generations, to live as if everything was happening in a free independent country; as a brotherhood of creators, whose main and utmost task was poetry itself."

In the 90s of the 20th century, the “Galician (Lvov-Stanislav)” and “Kiev-Zhytomyr” schools were declared. The “Galician school” (Yu. Andrukhovich, Yu. Vinnichuk, V. Eshkilev, Yu. Izdrik, T. Prokhazko), according to the observation of V. Danilenko, absolutizes formalistic searches, stylization on existing literary samples, and the “Zhytomyr” school - on the study of existential depths of man, observation of love, horror, death." N. Belotserkovets points to the cultivation of these schools various types heroes." The heroes of the Galician-Stanislav school are refined intellectuals, prone to contemplation. The heroes of the Kiev-Zhitomir school are burdened with pathological consciousness." These schools represent the modern Ukrainian modern poet - method, direction and style. Yu. Kuznetsov considers the “Galician” and “Zhitomir” schools to be ephemeral formations, which, in his words, “have not yet taken shape, disappear from the space of literature.” The opinion of Yu. Kuznetsov deserves attention.

Historical and literary process — a set of generally significant changes in the literature. Literature is constantly evolving. Each era enriches art with some new artistic discoveries. The study of the patterns of development of literature constitutes the concept of “historical-literary process”. Development literary process is determined by the following artistic systems: creative method, style, genre, literary trends and trends.

Continuous change in literature is an obvious fact, but significant changes do not occur every year, or even every decade. As a rule, they are associated with serious historical shifts (change historical eras and periods, wars, revolutions associated with the entry of new social forces into the historical arena, etc.). We can identify the main stages in the development of European art, which determined the specifics of the historical and literary process: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
The development of the historical and literary process is determined by a number of factors, among which, first of all, it should be noted the historical situation (socio-political system, ideology, etc.), the influence of previous literary traditions and the artistic experience of other peoples. For example, Pushkin’s work was seriously influenced by the work of his predecessors not only in Russian literature (Derzhavin, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky and others), but also in European literature (Voltaire, Rousseau, Byron and others).

Literary process is a complex system of literary interactions. It represents the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends and movements.

Literary directions and movements:

classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism,

realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism)

IN modern literary criticism The terms "direction" and "flow" can be interpreted differently. Sometimes they are used as synonyms (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism and modernism are called both movements and directions), and sometimes a movement is identified with a literary school or group, and a direction with an artistic method or style (in this case, the direction includes two or more currents).

Usually, literary direction call a group of writers similar in type of artistic thinking. We can talk about the existence of a literary movement if writers realize theoretical basis their artistic activities, promote them in manifestos, program speeches, and articles. Thus, the first programmatic article of the Russian futurists was the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” which stated the basic aesthetic principles of the new direction.

In certain circumstances, within the framework of one literary movement, groups of writers may be formed, especially close to each other in their aesthetic views. Such groups formed within a particular movement are usually called a literary movement. For example, within the framework of such a literary movement as symbolism, two movements can be distinguished: “senior” symbolists and “younger” symbolists (according to another classification, there are three: decadents, “senior” symbolists, “younger” symbolists).

Classicism(from lat. classicus- exemplary) - artistic direction V European art turn XVII-XVIII - early XIX century, formed in France at the end of the 17th century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, and the cult of moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the rigor of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and subjects. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyazhnin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception ancient art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the direction). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of ancient ones. In addition, the formation of classicism was greatly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (the belief in the omnipotence of reason and that the world can be reorganized on a rational basis).

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creativity as strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws, created on the basis of the study of the best examples ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided works into “correct” and “incorrect”. For example, even Shakespeare’s best plays were classified as “incorrect.” This was due to the fact that Shakespeare’s heroes combined positive and negative traits. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by “purity” and unambiguity. Thus, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a hypocrite, or a hypocrite, or good, or evil, etc.

The main conflict of classic works is the hero’s struggle between reason and feeling. At the same time, a positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, when choosing between love and the need to completely devote himself to serving the state, he must choose the latter), and a negative one - in favor of feeling.

The same can be said about the genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be included in a comedy, and funny ones were not supposed to be included in a tragedy. IN high genres“exemplary” heroes were depicted - monarchs, generals who could serve as role models. In the low ones, characters were depicted who were seized by some kind of “passion,” that is, a strong feeling.

Special rules existed for dramatic works. They had to observe three “unities” - place, time and action. Unity of place: classical dramaturgy did not allow a change of location, that is, throughout the entire play the characters had to be in the same place. Unity of time: the artistic time of a work should not exceed several hours, or at most one day. Unity of action implies that there is only one storyline. All these requirements are related to the fact that the classicists wanted to create a unique illusion of life on stage. Sumarokov: “Try to measure the clock for me in the game for hours, so that I, having forgotten myself, can believe you.”. So, the characteristic features of literary classicism:

• purity of the genre(in high genres funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low genres tragic and sublime ones could not be depicted);
• purity of language(in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - colloquial);
• strict division of heroes into positive and negative, wherein goodies When choosing between feeling and reason, they give preference to the latter;
• compliance with the rule of “three unities”;
• affirmation of positive values ​​and the state ideal.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state - and not the person - was declared the highest value) combined with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, requiring everyone to serve for the good of society. Russian classicists, inspired by Peter's reforms, believed in the possibility of further improvement of society, which they saw as a rationally structured organism. Sumarokov: “Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science.” The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic manner. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that are opposed to reason, but at the same time amenable to education.

Sentimentalism(from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment - feeling) - a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. A person was judged by his capacity for deep experiences. Hence the interest in the hero’s inner world, the depiction of the shades of his feelings (the beginning of psychologism).

Unlike classicists, sentimentalists consider the highest value not the state, but the person. They contrasted the unjust orders of the feudal world with the eternal and reasonable laws of nature. In this regard, nature for sentimentalists is the measure of all values, including man himself. It is no coincidence that they asserted the superiority of the “natural”, “natural” person, that is, living in harmony with nature.

Sensitivity is at the core creative method sentimentalism. If classicists created generalized characters (prude, braggart, miser, fool), then sentimentalists are interested in specific people with individual fates. The heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. Positive endowed with natural sensitivity (responsive, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative- calculating, selfish, arrogant, cruel. The bearers of sensitivity, as a rule, are peasants, artisans, commoners, and rural clergy. Cruel - representatives of power, nobles, high clergy (since despotic rule kills sensitivity in people). Manifestations of sensitivity often acquire a too external, even exaggerated character in the works of sentimentalists (exclamations, tears, fainting, suicide).

One of the main discoveries of sentimentalism is the individualization of the hero and the image of the rich spiritual world of the commoner (the image of Lisa in Karamzin’s story “ Poor Lisa"). The main character of the works was an ordinary person. In this regard, the plot of the work often represented individual situations of everyday life, while peasant life was often depicted in pastoral colors. New content required new form

In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism the conflict develops between the serf peasant and the serf-owner landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism- artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany, and then spread throughout Western Europe. The prerequisites for its emergence were the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism), the Great French revolution, German classical philosophy.

The emergence of this literary movement, like any other, is inextricably linked with the socio-historical events of that time. Let's start with the prerequisites for the formation of romanticism in Western European literature. The Great French Revolution of 1789-1799 and the associated revaluation of Enlightenment ideology had a decisive influence on the formation of romanticism in Western Europe. As you know, the 18th century in France passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. For almost a century, French educators led by Voltaire (Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu) argued that the world could be reorganized on a reasonable basis and proclaimed the idea of ​​natural equality of all people. It was these educational ideas that inspired the French revolutionaries, whose slogan was the words: “Liberty, equality and fraternity.” The result of the revolution was the establishment of a bourgeois republic. As a result, the winner was the bourgeois minority, which seized power (previously it belonged to the aristocracy, the upper nobility), while the rest were left with nothing. Thus, the long-awaited “kingdom of reason” turned out to be an illusion, as did the promised freedom, equality and brotherhood. There was general disappointment in the results and results of the revolution, deep dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. Because at the heart of romanticism is the principle of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. This was followed by the emergence of the theory of romanticism in Germany.

As you know, Western European culture, in particular French, had a huge influence on Russian. This trend continued into the 19th century, which is why the Great French Revolution also shocked Russia. But, in addition, there are actually Russian prerequisites for the emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all this Patriotic War 1812, clearly showing greatness and strength common people. It was to the people that Russia owed the victory over Napoleon; the people were the true heroes of the war. Meanwhile, both before the war and after it, the bulk of the people, the peasants, still remained serfs, in fact, slaves. What had previously been perceived as injustice by progressive people of that time now began to seem like a blatant injustice, contrary to all logic and morality. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not cancel serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, a pronounced feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction arose in Russian society. This is how the soil for the emergence of romanticism arose.

The term “romanticism” when applied to a literary movement is arbitrary and imprecise. In this regard, from the very beginning of its occurrence, it was interpreted in different ways: some believed that it comes from the word “romance”, others - from chivalric poetry created in countries speaking Romance languages. For the first time, the word “romanticism” as a name for a literary movement began to be used in Germany, where the first sufficiently detailed theory of romanticism was created.

Very important for understanding the essence of romanticism is the concept of romantic two worlds. As already mentioned, rejection, denial of reality is the main prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. All romantics reject the world around them, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world. The world for romantics was divided into two parts: here and there . “There” and “here” are an antithesis (opposition), these categories are correlated as ideal and reality. The despised “here” is modern reality, where evil and injustice triumph. “There” is a kind of poetic reality, which the romantics contrasted with real reality. Many romantics believed that goodness, beauty and truth, displaced from, are still preserved in the souls of people. Hence their attention to the inner world of a person, in-depth psychologism. The souls of people are their “there”. For example, Zhukovsky was looking for “there” in the other world; Pushkin and Lermontov, Fenimore Cooper - in the free life of uncivilized peoples (Pushkin’s poems “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Gypsies”, Cooper’s novels about the life of Indians).

Rejection and denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. It is fundamentally new hero, the like of him was not known in previous literature. He is in a hostile relationship with the surrounding society and is opposed to it. This is an extraordinary person, restless, most often lonely and with tragic fate. The romantic hero is the embodiment of romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism(from Latin realis- material, real) - a method (creative attitude) or literary direction that embodies the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, aimed at artistic knowledge of man and the world. The term “realism” is often used in two meanings:

1. realism as a method;
2. realism as a direction formed in the 19th century.

Both classicism, romanticism, and symbolism strive for knowledge of life and express their reaction to it in their own way, but only in realism does fidelity to reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by rejection of reality and the desire to “recreate” it, rather than display it as it is. It is no coincidence that, turning to the realist Balzac, the romantic George Sand defined the difference between him and herself: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel a calling within myself to portray him the way I would like to see him.”

Thus, we can say that realists depict the real, and romantics depict the desired. The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and the poeticization of the human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is educational realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic realistic hero appears, a man “from the bottom” (for example, Figaro in the plays of Beaumarchais “" and "The Marriage of Figaro"). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: “fantastic” (Gogol, Dostoevsky), “grotesque” (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and “critical” realism associated with the activities of the “natural school”.

Basic requirements of realism: adherence to principles

• nationalities,
• historicism,
• high artistry,
• psychologism,
• depiction of life in its development.

Realist writers showed the direct dependence of the social, moral, and religious ideas of heroes on social conditions, and paid great attention to the social and everyday aspect. The Central Problem of Realism— the ratio of credibility and artistic truth. Plausibility, a plausible representation of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by plausibility, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of the most important features of realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual, the uniquely personal). The persuasiveness of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.
Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type of “little man” (Vyrin, Bashmachkin, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the type of “superfluous man” (Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of “new” hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, “ new people" by Chernyshevsky).

Modernism(from French modern- the newest, modern) philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.

This term has different interpretations:

1. denotes a number of non-realistic movements in art and literature at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries: symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, cubism, imagism, surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism;
2. used as a symbol for the aesthetic searches of artists of non-realistic movements;
3. denotes a complex complex of aesthetic and ideological phenomena, including not only modernist trends proper, but also creativity of artists, who do not completely fit into the framework of any direction (D. Joyce, M. Proust, F. Kafka and others).

The brightest and significant directions Symbolism, Acmeism and Futurism became Russian modernism.

Symbolism- a non-realist movement in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression through symbols of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860-1870s in the poetic works of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé. Then, through poetry, symbolism connected itself not only with prose and drama, but also with other forms of art. The ancestor, founder, “father” of symbolism is considered to be the French writer Charles Baudelaire.

The worldview of symbolist artists is based on the idea of ​​the unknowability of the world and its laws. They considered the spiritual experience of man and the creative intuition of the artist to be the only “tool” for understanding the world.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​​​creating art, free from the task of depicting reality. Symbolists argued that the purpose of art is not to represent real world, which they considered secondary, but in the transmission of “higher reality”. They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol.

The symbol is an expression of the poet’s supersensible intuition, to whom in moments of insight the true essence of things is revealed. Symbolists developed a new poetic language that did not directly name the object, but hinted at its content through allegory, musicality, colors, and free verse.

Symbolism is the first and most significant of the modernist movements that arose in Russia. The first manifesto of Russian symbolism was the article by D. S. Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature,” published in 1893. It identified three main elements of the “new art”: mystical content, symbolization and “expansion of artistic impressionability”.

• Symbolists are usually divided into two groups, or movements:"elder"
• symbolists (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, F. Sologub and others), who made their debut in the 1890s;"younger" Symbolists who began their creative activity

in the 1900s and significantly updated the appearance of the current (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

It should be noted that the “senior” and “younger” symbolists were separated not so much by age as by the difference in worldviews and the direction of creativity. Symbolists believed that art is, first of all,(Bryusov). After all, only phenomena that are subject to the law of linear causality can be rationally comprehended, and such causality operates only in lower forms of life (empirical reality, everyday life). The symbolists were interested in the higher spheres of life (the area “ absolute ideas ” in terms of Plato or the “world soul”, according to V. Solovyov), not subject to rational knowledge. It is art that has the ability to penetrate into these spheres, and symbolic images with their endless polysemy are capable of reflecting the entire complexity of the world universe. Symbolists believed that the ability to comprehend the true, ultimate reality

given only to a select few who, in moments of inspired insight, are able to comprehend the “highest” truth, the absolute truth. The image-symbol was considered by symbolists as more effective than artistic image , a tool that helps to “break through” the veil of everyday life (lower life) to a higher reality. A symbol differs from a realistic image in that it conveys not the objective essence of a phenomenon, but the poet’s own, individual idea of ​​the world. In addition, a symbol, as Russian symbolists understood it, is not an allegory, but, first of all, a certain image that requires a response from the reader. creative work

. The symbol, as it were, connects the author and the reader - this is the revolution brought about by symbolism in art. The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of limitless development of meanings. This feature of his was repeatedly emphasized by the symbolists themselves: “A symbol is only a true symbol when it is inexhaustible in its meaning” (Vyach. Ivanov);"The symbol is a window to infinity"

(F. Sologub). Acmeism (from Greek— Akme highest degree something, blooming power, peak) - modernist literary movement

Acmeism stood out from symbolism, criticizing its mystical aspirations towards the “unknowable”: “With the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its conceivable likenesses with mystical love or anything else” (Gorodetsky) . The Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses towards the ideal, from the polysemy and fluidity of images, complicated metaphors; talked about the need to return to the material world, the subject, exact value words. Symbolism is based on rejection of reality, and the Acmeists believed that one should not abandon this world, one should look for some values ​​in it and capture them in their works, and do this with the help of precise and understandable images, and not vague symbols.

The Acmeist movement itself was small in number, did not last long - about two years (1913-1914) - and was associated with the “Workshop of Poets”. "Workshop of Poets" was created in 1911 and at first united a fairly large number of people (not all of them later became involved in Acmeism). This organization was much more united than the scattered symbolist groups. At the “Workshop” meetings, poems were analyzed, problems of poetic mastery were solved, and methods for analyzing works were substantiated. The idea of ​​a new direction in poetry was first expressed by Kuzmin, although he himself was not included in the “Workshop”. In his article "On Beautiful Clarity" Kuzmin anticipated many declarations of Acmeism. In January 1913, the first manifestos of Acmeism appeared. From this moment the existence of a new direction begins.

Acmeism proclaimed “beautiful clarity” as the task of literature, or clarism(from lat. claris- clear). Acmeists called their movement Adamism, linking with the biblical Adam the idea of ​​a clear and direct view of the world. Acmeism preached a clear, “simple” poetic language, where words would directly name objects and declare their love for objectivity. Thus, Gumilyov called for looking not for “shaky words”, but for words “with a more stable content.” This principle was most consistently implemented in Akhmatova’s lyrics.

Futurism- one of the main avant-garde movements (avant-garde is an extreme manifestation of modernism) in European art of the early 20th century, which received greatest development in Italy and Russia.

In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the “Manifesto of Futurism.” The main provisions of this manifesto: the rejection of traditional aesthetic values ​​and the experience of all previous literature, bold experiments in the field of literature and art. Marinetti names “courage, audacity, rebellion” as the main elements of futurist poetry. In 1912, Russian futurists V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, and V. Khlebnikov created their manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste.” They also sought to break with traditional culture, welcomed literary experiments, and sought to find new means of speech expression (proclamation of a new free rhythm, loosening of syntax, destruction of punctuation marks). At the same time, Russian futurists rejected fascism and anarchism, which Marinetti declared in his manifestos, and turned mainly to aesthetic problems. They proclaimed a revolution of form, its independence from content (“it is not what is important, but how”) and the absolute freedom of poetic speech.

Futurism was a heterogeneous movement. Within its framework, four main groups or movements can be distinguished:

1. "Gilea", which united the Cubo-Futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh and others);
2. "Association of Egofuturists"(I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev and others);
3. "Mezzanine of Poetry"(V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev);
4. "Centrifuge"(S. Bobrov, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).

The most significant and influential group was “Gilea”: in fact, it was it that determined the face of Russian futurism. Its members published many collections: “The Judges’ Tank” (1910), “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” (1912), “Dead Moon” (1913), “Took” (1915).

The futurists wrote in the name of the crowd man. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of “the inevitability of the collapse of old things” (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a “new humanity.” Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should have become not an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which through the creative will of man creates “ new world, today, iron...” (Malevich). This determines the desire to destroy the “old” form, the desire for contrasts, the attraction to colloquial speech. Relying on the living colloquial, futurists were engaged in “word creation” (creating neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - the contrast of the comic and tragic, fantasy and lyricism.

Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.

Literary movement - often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. The laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed in the struggle and change of directions. It is customary to distinguish the following literary trends:

Classicism

Sentimentalism

Naturalism

Romanticism (which some include Baroque literature)

Symbolism

Realism (which distinguishes Renaissance realism, i.e. realism of the Renaissance, educational realism, i.e. realism of the Enlightenment era, critical realism and socialist realism).

There is no consensus on the legality of identifying other directions - such as mannerism, pre-romanticism, neoclassicism, neo-romanticism, impressionism, expressionism, modernism, etc. The fact is that literary trends, changing, give rise to many intermediate forms that do not exist for long and are not global in nature. There have been attempts to offer more universal systems divisions into literary movements - for example. "classic" and "romance"; or "realistic" and "irrealistic" literature.

Literary movement

2. Literary movement - often identified with literary group and school. Denotes a collection creative personalities, which are characterized by ideological and artistic closeness and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a type of literary movement.

For example, in relation to Russian romanticism they talk about “philosophical”, “psychological” and “civil” movements. In Russian realism, some distinguish “psychological” and “sociological” trends.

Speech as a means of individualizing an image.

In dramatic literature, the character of the hero is revealed mainly by means of language, by means of stage speech. That is why the method he widely and brilliantly developed in creative practice played such a major role in solving the problem of creating a typical character. speech characteristics acting person.

Psychological analysis in literature

Paradoxically, “psychological analysis” is a concept that is not often found in psychological literature.

Psychological analysis began its starting point long before the appearance of Freud’s works, but it was in his works that it acquired a special sound, like a new birth, and entered scientific practice.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS is a type of scientific analysis, similar to philosophical, mathematical, etc. Characteristic feature psychological analysis is that the object of its study is mental reality, mental processes, states, and properties of a person. As well as various socio-psychological phenomena that arise in groups and teams: opinions, communication, relationships, conflicts, leadership, etc. The methodological basis of psychological analysis can be philosophical systems, general scientific principles of knowledge, as well as general psychological principles about the subject, the connection between internal and external , the specificity of the psychological patterns to which this or that type of activity is subject. For example, a psychological analysis of self-education involves studying goals, motives, methods independent work on the acquisition, deepening, expansion and improvement of knowledge, skills, abilities, as well as its characteristics in the conditions of general and special education.

Psychological analysis is an example of psychological portrayal in literature.

Consists in the fact that complex states of mind characters are decomposed into their components and thereby explained and become clear to the reader. At psychological analysis Third-person narration has its advantages. This artistic form allows the author to introduce the reader into inner world character and show him in the most detail and depth.