Everything about Indian castes. Castes in modern India

Caste is the original civilizational model,
built on its own conscious principles.
L. Dumont “Homo Hierarchicus”

The social structure of the modern Indian state is unique in many ways, primarily due to the fact that, like several thousand years ago, it is still based on the existence of a caste system, which is one of its main components.

The word “caste” itself appeared later than the social stratification of ancient Indian society began. Initially the term "varna" was used. The word "varna" is of Indian origin and means color, mode, essence. In the later laws of Manu, instead of the word “varna”, the word “jati” was sometimes used, meaning birth, gender, position. Subsequently, in the process of economic and social development, each varna was divided into a large number of castes, in modern India there are thousands of them. Contrary to popular belief, the caste system in India has not been abolished, but still exists; Only discrimination on the basis of caste is abolished by law.

Varna

In ancient India there were four main varnas (chaturvarnya), or classes. The highest varna - brahmans - are priests, clergy; their duties included studying sacred texts, teaching people and performing religious rites, since they were considered to have the proper holiness and purity.

The next varna is the kshatriyas; these are warriors and rulers who had necessary qualities(for example, courage and strength) to govern and protect the state.

They are followed by Vaishyas (merchants and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers). The attitude to the last, fourth varna is told in the ancient legend about the creation of the world, which says that at first three varnas were created by God - brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas, and later people (praja) and cattle were born.

The first three varnas were considered the highest, and their representatives were “twice-born.” The physical, “first” birth was only a door to this earthly world, however, for internal growth and spiritual development, a person had to be born a second time - anew. This meant that representatives of privileged varnas underwent a special rite - initiation (upanayana), after which they became full members of society and could learn the profession that they inherited from representatives of their clan. During the ritual, a cord of a certain color and material, prescribed in accordance with the tradition of this varna, was placed around the neck of a representative of a given varna.

It was believed that all varnas were created from the body of the first man - Purusha: brahmanas - from his mouth (the color of this varna is white), kshatriyas - from his hands (the color is red), vaishyas - from the thighs (the color of varna is yellow), shudras - from his feet (black color).

The “pragmatism” of such a class division lay in the fact that initially, as it is assumed, the assignment of a person to a certain varna occurred as a result of his natural inclinations and inclinations. For example, a brahmana became one who could think with his head (therefore the symbol is the mouth of Purusha), who himself had the ability to learn and could teach others. A Kshatriya is a person with a warlike nature, more inclined to work with his hands (that is, to fight, therefore the symbol is the hands of Purusha), etc.

Shudras were the lowest varna, they could not participate in religious rituals and study the sacred texts of Hinduism (Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmins and Aranyakas), they often did not have their own household, and they were engaged in the most difficult types of labor. Their duty was unconditional obedience to the representatives of the higher varnas. The Shudras remained “once-born,” that is, they did not have the privilege of rebirth to a new, spiritual life (probably because their level of consciousness was not ready for this).

Varnas were absolutely autonomous, marriages could only take place within a varna, the mixing of varnas, according to the ancient laws of Manu, was not allowed, as well as the transition from one varna to another - higher or lower. Such a rigid hierarchical structure was not only protected by laws and tradition, but was directly related to the key idea of the Indian religion - the idea of reincarnation: “As childhood, youth and old age come to the incarnate here, so does a new body come: a sage cannot be puzzled by this” ( Bhagavad Gita).

It was believed that being in a certain varna is a consequence of karma, that is, the cumulative result of one’s actions and deeds in past lives. The better a person behaved in past lives, the more chances he had to incarnate in a higher varna in his next life. After all, varna affiliation was given by birth and could not change throughout a person’s life. For modern western man This may seem strange, but such a concept, which completely dominated India for several millennia until today, created, on the one hand, the basis for the political stability of society, on the other, it was a moral code for huge sections of the population.

Therefore, the fact that the varna structure is invisibly present in the life of modern India (the caste system is officially enshrined in the main law of the country) is most likely directly related to the strength of religious convictions and beliefs that have stood the test of time and have remained almost unchanged to this day.

But is the secret of the “survivability” of the varna system only in the power of religious ideas? Perhaps ancient India managed to somewhat anticipate the structure of modern societies, and it is no coincidence that L. Dumont calls castes a civilizational model?

A modern interpretation of the varna division might look, for example, like this.

Brahmins are people of knowledge, those who receive knowledge, teach it and develop new knowledge. Since in modern “knowledge” societies (a term officially adopted by UNESCO), which have already replaced information societies, not only information, but knowledge is gradually becoming the most valuable capital, surpassing all material analogues, it becomes clear that people of knowledge belong to the highest strata of society .

Kshatriyas are people of duty, senior managers, state level administrators, military personnel and representatives of " security forces" - those who guarantee law and order and serve their people and their country.

Vaishyas are people of action, businessmen, creators and organizers of their business, main goal whose goal is to make a profit, they create a product that is in demand in the market. Vaishyas now, just like in ancient times, “feed” other varnas, creating the material basis for the economic growth of the state.

Shudras are people for hire, hired workers, for whom it is easier not to take responsibility, but to carry out the work assigned to them under the control of management.

Living “in your varna,” from this point of view, means living in accordance with your natural abilities, innate predisposition to a certain type of activity and in accordance with your calling in this life. This can give a feeling of inner peace and satisfaction that a person is living his own, and not someone else’s, life and destiny (dharma). It is not for nothing that the importance of following one’s dharma, or duty, is spoken of in one of the sacred texts included in the Hindu canon - the Bhagavad Gita: “It is better to fulfill one’s duties, even imperfectly, than the duties of others perfectly. It’s better to die doing your duty; someone else’s path is dangerous.”

In this “cosmic” aspect, the varna division looks like a completely pragmatic system for realizing a kind of “call of the soul”, or, in higher language, fulfilling one’s destiny (duty, mission, task, calling, dharma).

The Untouchables

In ancient India there was a group of people who were not part of any of the varnas - the so-called untouchables, who de facto still exist in India. The emphasis on the actual state of affairs is made because the situation with the untouchables in real life somewhat different from the legal formalization of the caste system in modern India.

The untouchables in ancient India were a special group that performed work associated with the then ideas about ritual impurity, for example, dressing animal skins, collecting garbage, and corpses.

In modern India, the term untouchables is not officially used, just like its analogues: harijan - “children of God” (a concept introduced by Mahatma Gandhi) or pariah (“outcast”) and others. Instead, there is a concept of Dalit, which is not believed to carry the connotation of caste discrimination prohibited in the Indian Constitution. According to the 2001 census, Dalits constitute 16.2% of India's total population and 79.8% of the total rural population.

Although the Indian Constitution has abolished the concept of untouchability, ancient traditions continue to dominate the mass consciousness, which even leads to the killing of untouchables under various pretexts. At the same time, there are cases when a person belonging to a “pure” caste is ostracized for daring to do “dirty” work. Thus, Pinky Rajak, a 22-year-old woman from the caste of Indian washerwomen, who traditionally wash and iron clothes, caused outrage among the elders of her caste because she began cleaning at a local school, that is, she violated the strict caste ban on dirty work, thereby insulting her community.

Castes Today

To protect certain castes from discrimination, there are various privileges given to citizens of lower castes, such as reservation of seats in legislatures and public service, partial or full tuition fees in schools and colleges, quotas in higher educational institutions. In order to avail the right to such a benefit, a citizen belonging to a state-protected caste must obtain and present a special caste certificate - proof of his membership in a particular caste listed in the caste table, which is part of the Constitution of India.

Today in India, belonging to a high caste by birth does not automatically mean a high level of material security. Often, children from poor families of the upper castes, who enter college or university on a general basis with great competition, have much less chance of getting an education than children from lower castes.

The debate about actual discrimination against upper castes has been going on for many years. There are opinions that in modern India there is a gradual erosion of caste boundaries. Indeed, it is now almost impossible to determine which caste an Indian belongs to (especially in major cities), and not only in appearance, but often also in the nature of his professional activity.

Creation of national elites

The formation of the structure of the Indian state in the form in which it is presented now (developed democracy, parliamentary republic) began in the 20th century.

In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms were carried out, the main goal of which was the establishment and development of a system of local government. Under the English governor-general, who had previously virtually ruled the Indian colony single-handedly, a bicameral legislative body was created. In all Indian provinces, a system of dual power (diarchy) was created, when both representatives of the English administration and representatives of the local Indian population were in charge. Thus, at the very beginning of the twentieth century, democratic procedures were introduced for the first time on the Asian continent. The British, unwittingly, contributed to the formation of the future independence of India.

After India gained independence, the need arose to attract national personnel to lead the country. Since only the educated strata of Indian society had a real opportunity to “restart” public institutions under conditions of independence, it is clear that the leading role in governing the country mainly belonged to the brahmins and kshatriyas. That is why the unification of the new elites was practically conflict-free, since the brahmins and kshatriyas historically belonged to the highest castes.

Since 1920, the popularity of Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated a united India without the British, began to grow. The Indian National Congress, which he headed, was not so much a party as a national social movement. Gandhi managed to accomplish what no one had succeeded before him - albeit temporarily, but he practically eliminated the conflict of interests between the higher and lower castes.

What tomorrow?

In India in the Middle Ages there were no cities similar to European ones. These cities could rather be called large villages, where time seemed to stand still. Until recently (especially intensive changes began to occur in the last 15–20 years), tourists coming from the West could feel themselves in a medieval atmosphere. Real changes began after independence. The course towards industrialization taken in the second half of the twentieth century caused an increase in the rate of economic growth, which, in turn, led to an increase in the share of the urban population and the emergence of new social groups.

Over the past 15–20 years, many Indian cities have changed beyond recognition. Most of the almost “homey” neighborhoods in the center turned into concrete jungles, and the poor neighborhoods on the outskirts were transformed into residential areas for the middle class.

According to forecasts, by 2028, India's population will exceed 1.5 billion people, the largest percentage of them will be young people and, compared to Western countries, the country will have the largest labor force.

Today, in many countries there is a shortage of qualified personnel in the field of medicine, education and IT services. This situation has contributed to the development in India of such a rapidly growing economic sector as the provision of remote services, for example in the United States and Western European countries. The Indian government is now investing heavily in education, especially in schools. You can see with your own eyes how in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas, where 15-20 years ago there were only remote villages, state technological colleges have grown up in large areas, with excellent buildings and infrastructure, intended for local children from the same villages. The bet on education in the age of “knowledge” societies, especially on school and university education, is a win-win, and it is no coincidence that India occupies one of the leading places in the field of computer technology.

This projection of Indian population growth could be optimistic for India and lead to significant economic growth as well. But growth doesn't happen by itself. It is necessary to create conditions: new jobs, ensuring industrial employment and, no less important, providing qualified training to all this huge mass of human resources. All this is not an easy task and is more of a challenge for the state than a bonus. If not fulfilled necessary conditions There will be mass unemployment, a sharp decline in the living standards of the population and, as a consequence, negative changes in the social structure.

Until now, the existing caste system has been a kind of “fuse” against various kinds social upheaval throughout the country. However, times are changing, Western technologies are intensively penetrating not only the Indian economy, but into the consciousness and subconscious of the masses, especially in cities, forming a new, non-traditional for many Indians model of desires according to the principle “I want more now.” This model is intended primarily for the so-called middle class (“so-called” because for India its boundaries are blurred and the criteria for membership are not entirely clear). The question of whether the caste system can still serve as a protector against social cataclysms in the new conditions remains open.

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Castes(Port. casta, from Latin castus - pure; Sanskrit jati)

In the broadest sense of the word - closed groups (clans) of people, isolated due to the performance of specific social functions, hereditary occupations, professions, level of wealth, cultural traditions And so on. For example, - officer castes (within military units they are separated from soldiers), members of political parties (separated from members of competing political parties), religious and also non-integrated national minorities (separated due to adherence to a different culture), castes of football fans (separated from fans of other clubs), patients with leprosy (separated from healthy people due to the disease).

According to some experts, a union of tribes and race can be considered a caste. Trade, priestly, religious, corporate and other castes are known.

The phenomenon of caste society is observed everywhere to one degree or another, but, as a rule, the term “caste” is erroneously applied primarily to the oldest division of living beings existing in the Indian subcontinent. varnas. This confusion of the term “caste” and the term “varna” is incorrect, since there are only four varnas, and castes ( jati), even within each varna, there can be many.

Hierarchy of castes in medieval India: the highest - priestly and military-agricultural castes - constituted the class of large and medium-sized feudal lords; below are the trading and usurious castes; then the landowning castes of small feudal lords and farmers - full-fledged community members; even lower - a huge number of castes of landless and disadvantaged farmers, artisans and servants; Among the latter, the lowest layer is the powerless and most oppressed untouchable castes.

Indian leader M.K. Gandhi fought against caste discrimination, which is reflected in the religious, philosophical and socio-political doctrine of Gandhism. Ambedkar came up with even more radical egalitarian ideas, who sharply criticized Gandhi for moderation on the issue of caste.

Story

Varna

From the earliest works of Sanskrit literature it is known that the peoples who spoke Aryan dialects during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas” (Sanskrit “color”) : Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, herders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

During the early Middle Ages, the varnas, although preserved, were divided into numerous castes (jatis), which even more strictly consolidated class affiliation.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that whoever follows the rules of his caste future life rises by birth to a higher caste, the one who violates these rules will lose social status.

Researchers from the Institute of Human Genetics at the University of Utah took blood samples from various castes and compared them with a genetic database of Africans, Europeans and Asians. A comparative genetic analysis on the maternal and paternal lines, carried out on five hereditary characteristics, made it possible to reasonably assert that people of higher castes are clearly closer to Europeans, and lower castes - to Asians. Among the lower castes, mainly those peoples of India are represented who inhabited it before the Aryan invasion - speakers of Dravidian languages, Munda languages, Andamanese languages. Genetic mixing between castes is due to the fact that sexual violence against lower castes, as well as the use of prostitutes from lower castes, were not considered violations of caste purity.

Stability of castes

Throughout Indian history the caste structure showed remarkable stability before changes. Even the rise of Buddhism and its adoption as the state religion by Emperor Ashoka (269-232 BC) did not affect the system of hereditary groups. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism as a doctrine does not support caste division, but at the same time it does not insist on the complete abolition of caste differences.

During the rise of Hinduism, which followed the decline of Buddhism, from a simple, uncomplicated system of four varnas, a complex multi-layered system grew, which built a strict order of alternation and correlation of different social groups. Each varna defined in the course of this process the framework for many independent endogamous castes (jatis). Neither the Muslim invasion, which ended with the formation of the Mughal Empire, nor the establishment of British rule shook the fundamental foundations of the caste organization of society.

Nature of castes

As the organizing basis of society, caste is characteristic of all Hindu India, but there are very few castes that are found everywhere. Each geographical region has its own, separate and independent ladder of strictly ranked castes, for many of them there is no equivalent in neighboring territories. The exception to this regional rule is the number of Brahmin castes, which are represented over vast areas and everywhere occupy the highest position in the caste system. IN ancient times the meaning of castes came down to the concepts of different degrees of enlightenment, that is, at what stage the enlightened one is, what was not inherited. Transitions from caste to caste, in fact, occurred only under the supervision of elders (other enlightened ones from the highest caste), and marriages were also concluded. The concept of castes related only to the spiritual side and therefore the higher was not allowed to converge with the lower, in order to avoid transition to a lower stage.

Castes in modern India

Indian castes are literally countless. Since each named caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even approximately calculate the number of social units possessing the minimum necessary characteristics of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information about the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as stand-alone podcasts. social groups.

It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes have lost their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. The position taken by the INC and the Government of India after Gandhi's death is controversial. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need politicians in the support of the electorate they gave new importance to esprit de corps and internal cohesion of the castes. As a consequence, caste interests became an important factor during election campaigns.

Preservation of the caste system in other religions of India

Social inertia has led to the fact that stratification into castes exists among Indian Christians and Muslims, although it is an anomaly from the point of view of the Bible and the Koran. Christian and Muslim castes have a number of differences from the classical one Indian system, they even have some social mobility, that is, the opportunity to move from one caste to another. In Buddhism, castes do not exist (which is why Indian “untouchables” are especially willing to convert to Buddhism), but it can be considered a relic of Indian traditions that in Buddhist society the social identification of the interlocutor is of great importance. In addition, although Buddhists themselves do not recognize castes, speakers of other Indian religions can often easily determine what caste their Buddhist interlocutor comes from and treat him accordingly. Indian legislation provides a number of social guarantees for “disadvantaged castes” among Sikhs, Muslims and Buddhists, but does not provide such guarantees for Christians - representatives of the same castes.

See what “Caste system” is in other dictionaries: Caste system - (caste system), a system of social stratification in which people are grouped in accordance with a certain definition. ranks. Options K.s. can be found in all ind. religious about you, not only Hindus, but also among Jains, in Muslims, Bud. and christ... ...

See what “Caste system” is in other dictionaries: - – Peoples and cultures social stratification , based on social background or birth...

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The ancient Indian epic Mahabharata gives us a little insight into the caste system that was prevalent in ancient India. In addition to the four main orders of Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra, the epic also mentions others formed from them... ... Wikipedia

The Yucatan Race War (also known as the Yucatan Caste War of Yucatan) is an uprising of the Mayan Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula (the territory of the modern Mexican states of Quintana Roo, Yucatan and Campeche, as well as the north of the state of Belize).... ... Wikipedia

The caste system among Christians in India is an anomaly for the Christian tradition, but at the same time it has deep roots in the Indian tradition itself and is a kind of hybrid of the ethics of Christianity and Hinduism. Christian communities in India... ... Wikipedia, a term applied primarily to the major division of Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent. It is also used to designate any social group that adheres to strict norms of group behavior and does not allow outsiders into its ranks. The main characteristics of the Indian caste: endogamy (marriage exclusively between members of the caste); hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste); prohibition on sharing meals with representatives of other castes, as well as having physical contact with them; recognition of the firmly established place of each caste in hierarchical structure society as a whole; restrictions on choosing a profession; autonomy of castes in regulating intra-caste social relations.

STORY

Origin of Varnas . From the earliest works of Sanskrit literature it is known that the Aryan-speaking peoples during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas” (Sanskrit “color”). : Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, herders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that those who follow the rules of their caste will rise to a higher caste by birth in a future life, while those who violate these rules will lose social status. See also METEMPSYCHOSIS.

Stability of castes . Throughout Indian history, the caste structure has shown remarkable stability in the face of change. Even the rise of Buddhism and its adoption as the state religion by Emperor Ashoka (269-232 BC) did not affect the system of hereditary groups. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism as a doctrine does not support caste division, but at the same time it does not insist on the complete abolition of caste differences.

Castes in modern India . The Indian castes are literally countless. Since each named caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even approximately calculate the number of social units possessing the minimum necessary characteristics of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information about the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as independent social groups.

It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes have lost their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. The position taken by the INC and the Government of India after Gandhi's death is controversial. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need for political leaders to support the electorate gave new importance to esprit de corps and internal caste cohesion. As a consequence, caste interests became an important factor during election campaigns.

NATURE OF CASTES

Brahmins. In a typical rural area upper layer The caste hierarchy is formed by members of one or more Brahmin castes, constituting from 5 to 10% of the population. Among these Brahmins there are a number of landowners, a few village clerks and accountants or accountants, and a small group of clergy who perform ritual functions in local sanctuaries and temples. Members of each Brahmin caste marry only within their own circle, although it is possible to marry a bride from a family belonging to a similar subcaste from a neighboring area. Brahmins are not supposed to follow the plow or perform certain types of manual labor; women from their midst can serve in the house, and landowners can cultivate plots, but not plow. Brahmins are also allowed to work as cooks or domestic servants.

A Brahman has no right to eat food prepared outside his caste, but members of all other castes can eat from the hands of Brahmans. When choosing food, a Brahmin observes many prohibitions. Members of the Vaishnava caste (who worship the god Vishnu) have adhered to vegetarianism since the 4th century, when it became widespread; Some other castes of Brahmans who worship Shiva (Shaiva Brahmans) do not in principle abstain from meat dishes, but abstain from the meat of animals included in the diet of lower castes.

Brahmins, more than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for in their varna. Over the course of many centuries, scribes, clerks, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials emerged from their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.

In communicating with the rest of the population, Brahmins do not allow reciprocity; Thus, they accept money or gifts from members of other castes, but they themselves never make gifts of a ritual or ceremonial nature. There is no complete equality among the Brahman castes, but even the lowest of them stands above the rest of the highest castes.

Kshatriyas. After the Brahmins, the most prominent hierarchical place is occupied by the Kshatriya castes. In rural areas they include, for example, landowners, possibly related to former ruling houses(for example, with the Rajput princes in North India). Traditional occupations in such castes are working as managers on estates and serving in various administrative positions and in the army, but now these castes no longer enjoy the same power and authority. In ritual terms, the Kshatriyas are immediately behind the Brahmins and also observe strict caste endogamy, although they allow marriage with a girl from a lower subcaste (a union called hypergamy), but in no case can a woman marry a man from a subcaste lower than her own. Most kshatriyas eat meat; they have the right to accept food from Brahmins, but not from representatives of any other castes.

Vaishya. The third category of "twice-born" castes includes merchants, shopkeepers and moneylenders. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show the same attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict in observing the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of Vaishyas is trade and banking; they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landowners and village entrepreneurs, without directly participating in the cultivation of the land.

"Pure" Shudras. Members of the above "twice-born" castes constitute only a minority of the inhabitants of any rural area, while the majority of the agrarian population consists of one or more castes, called the "pure" Shudra castes. Although such castes are included in the fourth varna, this does not mean that they occupy the lowest level in the social hierarchy: there are many areas where the peasant caste, due to its numbers and ownership of a significant part of the local land, plays a vital role in solving social and political issues . In ancient times, the Shudra peasant castes recognized the political dominance of the Kshatriyas who ruled the area, but today these relations are a thing of the past, and the superiority of the Kshatriya landowners is recognized only in ritual terms, and even then not always. Peasants employ Brahmins as family priests and market their produce through members of merchant castes. Individuals from “pure” sudras can act as tenants of plots from brahmanas, landowners, and merchants.

All peasant castes are endogamous, and even with approximately equal status, as is observed in many areas, out-of-caste marriages are not allowed. The rules regarding food intake among the farming castes are less strict than among the “twice-born”; they eat meat. Their regulations also leave much more space for social acts, allowing, for example, the marriage of widows and divorced women, which is strictly prohibited among the “twice-born”.

Lower Shudras. Below those Shudras who are engaged in agriculture are numerous castes whose profession is of a highly specialized nature, but is generally considered less respectable. These are the castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, weavers, oil makers, distillers, masons, barbers, musicians, tanners, butchers, scavengers and many others. Members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or craft; however, if a Shudra is able to acquire land, any of them can engage in agriculture. Members of many craft and other professional castes have traditionally had traditional relationships with members of higher castes, which consist of the provision of services for which no cash is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village whose requests are satisfied by a given member of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he makes and repairs equipment and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.

The Untouchables. Those whose professions require physical touching of clients (such as barbers or people who specialize in washing clothes) serve members of castes higher than their own, but potters or blacksmiths work for the entire village, regardless of the caste of the client. Activities such as tanning leather or slaughtering animals are considered clearly polluting, and although this work is very important to the community, those who engage in it are considered untouchables. In many respects they are outside the boundaries of Hindu society, they were called "outcaste", "low", "scheduled" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijans" ("children of God"), which became widely used. Members of these castes are prohibited from visiting the houses of the “pure” castes and drawing water from their wells. Most Hindu temples until recently were closed to untouchables; there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than a set number of steps. The nature of caste barriers is such that Harijans are believed to continue to pollute members of the “pure” castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in others social conditions and situations, for example, while in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable can have physical contact with members of higher castes and not pollute them; in his home village, untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.

Economic interdependence . The various professional castes are economically interdependent, and their functions are complementary rather than competitive. Each caste has the right to perform certain jobs that other castes are prohibited from doing. Its members in any given locality usually form a closely knit group of relatives who do not compete to provide services to other castes, but by mutual agreement share the clientele among themselves. For this reason, they are in an advantageous position in relation to members of the castes standing at the upper levels of the caste hierarchy, who are forbidden to change at their discretion the blacksmith, barber or person who washes their clothes.

Lack of competition does not apply to those cultivating the land. Although there are traditional peasant castes from which people will never become potters or weavers, tillage is not an exclusively hereditary occupation and a member of any caste can work the land. Wherever a group of artisans becomes too numerous and lacks a clientele, or where the advent of machine-made goods creates unemployment, those who can no longer live on the traditional trade tend to turn to peasant labor and become agricultural laborers or tenants.

The special patron-client relationship between the upper, land-owning castes and the professional castes of artisans and laborers is called the jajmani system. To jajman, which means patron-landlord in Hindi, people from other castes provide services in exchange for a certain amount of grain received annually.

Hierarchy. The rigid hierarchy and economic interdependence of castes have the closest connection with the fact that castes and sub-castes are endogamous and represent hereditary groups. However, in practice, a person from a high caste may be accepted into a lower caste; so, in the case of deviating from the rule unequal marriage between members of two different castes, the person who is higher in status has no choice but to ask for his (or her) life partner. Such mobility is always unilinear and directed from top to bottom.

The idea of maintaining social distance between castes is based on the concepts of pollution and ritual purity. Many activities, from performing religious rites and offering prayers to cooking, are permitted only in a state of ritual purity. Thus, a person belonging to a high caste may be defiled not only by an intentional act, such as sexual intercourse with an untouchable, but also unintentionally, such as by eating food prepared by a person of lower ritual status, or even by sharing a meal with a person of another high caste, having, however, lost their ritual purity. Defilement is contagious, and the family or caste group must remain constantly vigilant against any contact with a potential carrier of defilement. Caste members in highest degree are intolerant of deviant behavior on the part of fellow caste members and excommunicate anyone who does not comply with accepted norms. Most castes have their own regional councils, which deal with issues affecting the welfare and especially the prestige of the caste. These councils also function as judicial bodies and have the power to investigate and punish misconduct, expelling the offender from the caste if necessary. Return to it is possible in all cases, except for particularly egregious ones, provided that the violator pays a fine and undergoes a purification ceremony. Being extremely strict regarding the observance of rules and prohibitions within their own caste, Hindus are usually tolerant of the norms of behavior accepted in other castes.

Indian caste system outside India . This system is widespread throughout the country, with the exception of a few marginal tribal areas such as Nagaland. It also prevails in much of Nepal, where immigrants from India brought with them a social order essentially replicating that of medieval India. Largely organized and organized on a caste basis. indigenous people the main Nepalese cities where the Newars live, but the idea of castes did not spread to the peoples of the mountainous regions and adherents of Tibetan Buddhism.

In Bangladesh, the caste system continues to operate among the remaining Hindus there, and even in the country's Muslim community there is a similar stratification.

In Sri Lanka, Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus are also divided into castes. Although there are no Brahmins or other “twice-born” on the island, here, as in India, the division of labor along caste lines and mutual obligations of a ritual and economic nature are preserved.

Outside India, the ideas and practices inherent in the caste system prevail, often in a modified and weakened form, wherever significant numbers of Indians have settled, such as Malaysia, East Africa and Fiji.

Recently I was preparing an anthropology essay on the topic “Indian Mentality”. The creation process was very exciting, since the country itself amazes with its traditions and characteristics. If anyone is interested, read it.

I was especially struck by the plight of women in India, the phrase that “The husband is the earthly God” is very difficult life untouchables (the last class in India), and the happy existence of cows and bulls.

Contents of the first part:
1. general information
2. Castes

1 . General information about India

INDIA, Republic of India (in Hindi - Bharat), a state in South Asia.
Capital - Delhi
Area - 3,287,590 km2.
Ethnic composition. 72% Indo-Aryans, 25% Dravidians, 3% Mongoloids.

The official name of the country , India, comes from the ancient Persian word Hindu, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit sindhu (Sanskrit: सिन्धु), the historical name of the Indus River. The ancient Greeks called the Indians Indoi (ancient Greek Ἰνδοί) - “people of the Indus”. The Indian Constitution also recognizes a second name, Bharat (Hindi भारत), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of the ancient Indian king, whose history was described in the Mahabharata. The third name, Hindustan, has been used since the time of the Mughal Empire, but has no official status.

Indian territory in the north it extends 2930 km in the latitudinal direction, and 3220 km in the meridional direction. India is bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its neighbors are Pakistan in the northwest, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. India also shares maritime borders with the Maldives in the southwest, Sri Lanka in the south and Indonesia in the southeast. The disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with Afghanistan.

India ranks seventh in the world by area, second largest population (after China) , currently lives in it 1.2 billion people. India has had one of the highest population densities in the world for thousands of years.

Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent, which had a great influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.

More than 900 million Indians (80.5% of the population) profess Hinduism. Other religions with significant numbers of followers are Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism (0.4%). Religions such as Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Baha'i and others are also represented in India. Animism is common among the aboriginal population, which makes up 8.1%.

Almost 70% of Indians live in rural areas, although last decades migration to large cities led to a sharp increase in the urban population. The largest cities in India are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. In terms of cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity, India ranks second in the world after the African continent. The gender composition of the population is characterized by an excess of men over the number of women. The male population is 51.5%, and the female population is 48.5%. For every thousand men there are 929 women, this ratio has been observed since the beginning of this century.

India is the birthplace of the Indo-Aryan language group(74% of the population) and the Dravidian language family (24% of the population). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, the most widely spoken language in India, is the official language of the Indian government. English language, which is widely used in business and administration, has the status of an “auxiliary official language”, it also plays a large role in education, especially in secondary and higher education. The Constitution of India defines 21 official languages that are spoken by a significant part of the population or that have classical status. There are 1652 dialects in India.

Climate humid and warm, mostly tropical, tropical monsoon in the north. India, located in tropical and subequatorial latitudes, fenced off by the wall of the Himalayas from the influence of continental Arctic air masses, is one of the hottest countries in the world with a typical monsoon climate. The monsoon rhythm of precipitation determines the rhythm economic works and the whole way of life. 70-80% of the annual rainfall falls during the four months of the monsoon season (June-September), when the southwest monsoon arrives and rains almost incessantly. This is the main Kharif field season. October-November is the post-monsoon period when the rains mostly stop. The winter season (December-February) is dry and cool, at this time roses and many other flowers bloom, many trees bloom - this is the most pleasant time to visit India. March-May is the hottest, driest season, when temperatures often exceed 35 °C, often rising above 40 °C. This is a time of sweltering heat, when the grass burns out, leaves fall from the trees, and air conditioners work at full capacity in rich houses.

National animal - tiger.

National bird - peacock.

National flower - lotus.

National fruit - mango.

The national currency is the Indian rupee.

India can be called the cradle human civilization. The Indians were the first in the world to learn how to grow rice, cotton, and sugar cane, and they were the first to raise poultry. India gave the world chess and decimal system calculus.
The average literacy rate in the country is 52%, with the figure for men being 64% and for women 39%.

2. Castes in India

CASTES - division of Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent.

For many centuries, caste was determined primarily by profession. The profession that passed from father to son often did not change throughout the lives of dozens of generations.

Each caste lives according to its own dharma - with that set of traditional religious instructions and prohibitions, the creation of which is attributed to the gods, to divine revelation. Dharma determines the norms of behavior of members of each caste, regulates their actions and even feelings. Dharma is that elusive but immutable thing that is pointed out to a child already in the days of his first babble. Everyone must act in accordance with his own dharma, deviation from dharma is lawlessness - this is what children are taught at home and at school, this is what the brahmana - mentor and spiritual leader - repeats. And a person grows up in the consciousness of the absolute inviolability of the laws of dharma, their immutability.

Currently, the caste system is officially prohibited, and the strict division of crafts or professions depending on caste is gradually being eliminated, while at the same time a government policy is being pursued to reward those who have been oppressed for centuries at the expense of representatives of other castes. It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes are losing their former significance. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case.

In fact, the caste system itself has not gone away: when entering school, a student is asked about his religion, and if he professes Hinduism, his caste, in order to know whether there is a place in this school for representatives of this caste in accordance with state norms. When entering a college or university, caste is important in order to correctly estimate the threshold score (the lower the caste, the lower the number of points required for a passing grade). When applying for a job, caste is again important in order to maintain balance. Although castes are not forgotten even when arranging the future of their children - weekly supplements with marriage advertisements are published in major Indian newspapers, in which columns are divided into religions, and the most voluminous column is with representatives of Hinduism - to castes. Often under such advertisements, which describe the parameters of both the groom (or bride) and the requirements for the prospective applicants (or applicants), there is a standard phrase “Cast no bar”, which translated means “Caste does not matter”, but, to be honest, I doubt a little that for a bride from the Brahman caste, her parents will seriously consider a groom from a caste lower than the Kshatriyas. Yes, inter-caste marriages are also not always approved, but they do happen if, for example, the groom occupies a higher position in society than the bride’s parents (but this is not a mandatory requirement - cases vary). In such marriages, the caste of the children is determined by the father. So, if a girl from a Brahmin family marries a Kshatriya boy, then their children will belong to the Kshatriya caste. If a Kshatriya youth marries a Veishya girl, then their children will also be considered Kshatriyas.

The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information about the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as independent social groups. In 2011, India plans to conduct a general population census, which will take into account the caste affiliation of the inhabitants of this country.

The main characteristics of the Indian caste:
. endogamy (marriage exclusively between caste members);
. hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste);
. prohibition on sharing meals with representatives of other castes, as well as having physical contact with them;
. recognition of the firmly established place of each caste in the hierarchical structure of society as a whole;
. restrictions on choosing a profession;

Indians believe that Manu is the first person from whom we all descended. Once upon a time, the god Vishnu saved him from the Flood, which destroyed the rest of humanity, after which Manu came up with rules that should henceforth guide people. Hindus believe that it was 30 thousand years ago (historians stubbornly date the laws of Manu to the 1st-2nd centuries BC and generally claim that this collection of instructions is a compilation of the works of different authors). Like most other religious precepts, the laws of Manu are distinguished by exceptional meticulousness and attention to the most insignificant details human life- from changing babies to cooking recipes. But it also contains much more fundamental things. It is according to the laws of Manu that all Indians are divided into four estates - varnas.

Varnas, of which there are only four, are often confused with castes, of which there are a great many. Caste is a fairly small community of people united by profession, nationality and place of residence. And varnas are more similar to categories such as workers, entrepreneurs, employees and the intelligentsia.

There are four main varnas: Brahmanas (officials), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (peasants, workers, servants). The rest are “untouchables”.

Brahmins are the highest caste in India.

Brahmins appeared from the mouth of Brahma. The meaning of life for brahmins is moksha, or liberation.
These are scientists, ascetics, priests. (Teachers and priests)
Today Brahmins most often work as officials.
The most famous is Jawaharlal Nehru.

In a typical rural area, the highest stratum of the caste hierarchy is formed by members of one or more Brahmin castes, constituting 5 to 10% of the population. Among these Brahmins there are a number of landowners, a few village clerks and accountants or accountants, and a small group of clergy who perform ritual functions in local sanctuaries and temples. Members of each Brahmin caste marry only within their own circle, although it is possible to marry a bride from a family belonging to a similar subcaste from a neighboring area. Brahmins are not supposed to follow the plow or perform certain types of manual labor; women from their midst can serve in the house, and landowners can cultivate plots, but not plow. Brahmins are also allowed to work as cooks or domestic servants.

Brahmins serve as spiritual guides in the families of most high- or middle-status castes, except those considered "impure". Brahmin priests, as well as members of a number of religious orders, are often recognized by their “caste marks” - patterns painted on the forehead with white, yellow or red paint. But such marks indicate only membership in a major sect and characterize a given person as a worshiper of, for example, Vishnu or Shiva, and not as a subject of a particular caste or sub-caste.
Brahmins, more than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for in their varna. Over the course of many centuries, scribes, clerks, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials emerged from their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.

The mission of a member of the Brahmin caste is to study, teach, receive gifts and give gifts. By the way, all Indian programmers are Brahmins.

Kshatriyas

Warriors who emerged from the hands of Brahma.
These are warriors, administrators, kings, nobles, rajas, maharajahs.
The most famous is Buddha Shakyamuni
For a kshatriya, the main thing is dharma, fulfillment of duty.

After the Brahmins, the most prominent hierarchical place is occupied by the Kshatriya castes. In rural areas they include, for example, landowners, possibly associated with former ruling houses (for example, the Rajput princes in North India). Traditional occupations in such castes are working as managers on estates and serving in various administrative positions and in the army, but now these castes no longer enjoy the same power and authority. In ritual terms, the Kshatriyas are immediately behind the Brahmins and also observe strict caste endogamy, although they allow marriage with a girl from a lower subcaste (a union called hypergamy), but in no case can a woman marry a man from a subcaste lower than her own. Most kshatriyas eat meat; they have the right to accept food from Brahmins, but not from representatives of any other castes.

Vaishya

They emerged from the thighs of Brahma.
These are artisans, traders, farmers, entrepreneurs (layers that engage in trade).
The Gandhi family is from the Vaishyas, and at one time the fact that it was born with the Nehru Brahmins caused a huge scandal.
The main motivation in life is artha, or the desire for wealth, for property, for hoarding.

The third category includes merchants, shopkeepers and moneylenders. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show the same attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict in observing the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of Vaishyas is trade and banking; they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landowners and village entrepreneurs, without directly participating in the cultivation of the land.

Shudras

Came from the feet of Brahma.
Peasant caste. (farms, servants, artisans, workers)
The main aspiration at the sudra stage is kama. These are pleasures, pleasant experiences delivered by the senses.
Mithun Chakraborty from "Disco Dancer" is a sudra.

They, due to their numbers and ownership of a significant part of local land, play an important role in solving social and political issues in some areas. Shudras eat meat, and widows and divorced women are allowed to marry. The lower Shudras are numerous sub-castes whose profession is of a highly specialized nature. These are the castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, weavers, oil makers, distillers, masons, hairdressers, musicians, tanners (those who sew products from finished leather), butchers, scavengers and many others. Members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or craft; however, if a Shudra is able to acquire land, any of them can engage in agriculture. Members of many craft and other professional castes have traditionally had traditional relationships with members of higher castes, which consist of the provision of services for which no cash is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village whose requests are satisfied by a given member of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he makes and repairs equipment and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.

The Untouchables

Those engaged in the dirtiest jobs are often poor or very poor people.
They are outside the Hindu society.

Activities such as tanning leather or slaughtering animals are considered clearly polluting, and although this work is very important to the community, those who engage in it are considered untouchables. They are engaged in cleaning dead animals from streets and fields, toilets, tanning leather, and cleaning sewers. They work as scavengers, tanners, flayers, potters, prostitutes, laundresses, shoemakers, and are hired for the hardest work in mines, construction sites, etc. That is, everyone who comes into contact with one of the three dirty things specified in the laws of Manu - sewage, corpses and clay - or leads wandering life on the street.

In many respects they are outside the boundaries of Hindu society, they were called "outcaste", "low", "scheduled" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijans" ("children of God"), which became widely used. But they themselves prefer to call themselves “Dalits” - “broken”. Members of these castes are prohibited from using public wells and taps. You cannot walk on the sidewalks so as not to inadvertently come into contact with a representative of the upper caste, because they will have to cleanse themselves after such contact in the temple. In some areas of cities and villages they are generally prohibited from appearing. Dalits are also prohibited from visiting temples; only a few times a year they are allowed to cross the threshold of the sanctuaries, after which the temple is subjected to thorough ritual cleansing. If a Dalit wants to buy something in a store, he must put money at the entrance and shout from the street what he needs - the purchase will be taken out and left on the doorstep. A Dalit is prohibited from starting a conversation with a representative of a higher caste or calling him on the phone.

After some Indian states passed laws fining canteen owners for refusing to feed Dalits, most catering establishments installed special cabinets with dishes for them. However, if the canteen does not have a separate room for Dalits, they have to dine outside.

Most Hindu temples until recently were closed to untouchables; there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than a set number of steps. The nature of caste barriers is such that Harijans are believed to continue to pollute members of the “pure” castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in other social settings and situations, such as being in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable may have physical contact with members of higher castes and not pollute them, in his home village untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.

When British journalist of Indian origin Ramita Navai decided to make a revolutionary film revealing to the world the terrible truth about the life of untouchables (Dalits), she endured a lot. She courageously looked at the Dalit teenagers frying and eating rats. Of little children splashing in the gutter and playing with parts of a dead dog. A housewife cutting up more decorative pieces from a rotten pig carcass. But when the well-groomed journalist was taken on a work shift by ladies from a caste that traditionally cleans toilets by hand, the poor thing vomited right in front of the camera. “Why do these people live like this?!! - the journalist asked us in the last seconds documentary film“Dalit means broken.” Yes, because the child of the Brahmins spent the morning and evening hours in prayers, and the son of a Kshatriya at the age of three was put on a horse and taught to swing a saber. For a Dalit, the ability to live in the dirt is his valor, his skill. Dalits know better than anyone: those who are afraid of dirt will die faster than others.

There are several hundred untouchable castes.
Every fifth Indian is a Dalit - that's at least 200 million people.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that the one who follows the rules of his caste will rise by birth to a higher caste in a future life, while the one who breaks these rules will become unknown in the next life.

The first three high classes of varnas were required to undergo an initiation rite, after which they were called twice-born. Members of high castes, especially Brahmins, then wore a “sacred thread” over their shoulders. Twice-born people were allowed to study the Vedas, but only brahmanas could preach them. Shudras were strictly forbidden not only to study, but even to listen to the words of Vedic teachings.

Clothing, despite its apparent uniformity, is different for different castes and significantly distinguishes a member of a high caste from a member of a low one. Some wrap their hips with a wide strip of fabric that falls to the ankles, for others it should not cover their knees, women of some castes should drape their bodies in a strip of fabric of at least seven or nine meters, while women of others should not use fabric longer than four or five on their sari meters, some were required to wear a certain type of jewelry, others were prohibited from it, some could use an umbrella, others did not have the right to do so, etc. and so on. The type of housing, food, even the vessels for its preparation - everything is determined, everything is prescribed, everything is studied from childhood by a member of each caste.

That is why in India it is very difficult to pretend to be a member of any other caste - such imposture will be immediately exposed. Only one can do this who has studied the dharma of another caste for many years and had the opportunity to practice it. And even then he can only succeed so much far from his locality, where they know nothing about his village or city. And that’s why the most terrible punishment has always been exclusion from the caste, the loss of one’s social person, a break with all production ties.

Even the untouchables, who from century to century performed the dirtiest work, were brutally suppressed and exploited by members of higher castes, those untouchables who were humiliated and disdained as something unclean - they were still considered members of caste society. They had their own dharma, they could be proud of their adherence to its rules, and they maintained their long-legalized industrial ties. They had their own very definite caste face and their own very definite place, albeit in the lowest layers of this multi-layered hive.

Bibliography:
1. Guseva N.R. - India in the mirror of centuries. Moscow, VECHE, 2002
2. Snesarev A.E. - Ethnographic India. Moscow, Nauka, 1981
3. Material from Wikipedia - India:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F
4. Online Encyclopedia Around the World - India:
http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/strany_mira/INDIYA.html
5. Marry an Indian: life, traditions, features:
http://tomarryindian.blogspot.com/
6. Interesting articles about tourism. India. Women of India.
http://turistua.com/article/258.htm
7. Material from Wikipedia - Hinduism:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC
8. Bharatiya.ru - pilgrimage and travel through India, Pakistan, Nepal and Tibet.
http://www.bharatiya.ru/index.html

In the colonies Latin America. Later, by analogy, it was extended to a similar phenomenon in India and since then has been applied mainly in relation to Indian varnas and jatis. However, there is a fundamental difference between the Latin American castes and the Indian varnas; between the former, at least formally, mixing of any kind was allowed, as a rule, leading to the transfer of offspring to another caste; furthermore, Latin American castes were based primarily on visual differences. Mixing between Indian varnas was in most cases unacceptable, and between jatis (subdivisions of varnas) was sharply limited.

Varnas and jati

From the earliest works of Sanskrit literature it is known that the peoples who spoke Aryan dialects during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas" (with Skt. - “color”): Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, cattle breeders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

While a Hindu may not have varna, he always has jati. While enjoying political equality in India, members of different jatis have varying degrees of access to traditional religious practices. By prohibiting the official use of the category "untouchable" and equating the term "community" with "jati", the Indian government creates favorable conditions for Sanskritization: the creation by untouchables of a mythology about the origin of their jati from groups possessing varna, and the assumption ritual rules higher jatis - which gives a chance for a gradual change in the status of the jati. Over the course of one or two generations, an untouchable jati may be included in the number of sudras or even “twice-born”.

Castes in modern India

Indian castes are literally countless. Since each named caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even approximately calculate the number of social units possessing the minimum necessary characteristics of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information on the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as independent social groups.

It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes have lost their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. Position [ ], occupied by the INC and the Government of India after the death of Mahatma Gandhi, is notable for its inconsistency. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need for political leaders to support the electorate gave new importance to esprit de corps and internal caste cohesion.

However, despite the fact that castes have existed in India for more than two millennia, their influence and importance in society (especially in cities) is gradually being lost, although this process is quite slow in rural areas. IN big cities castes are especially quickly losing their importance among the liberal intelligentsia, as well as in the business community.

Researcher Andre Padou in the article “Tantric Guru” states that a Hindu tantric guru, according to tradition, usually must be a Brahmin varna, come from a good family, as a rule, the guru must be male, married, know the shastras and be able to teach them, etc. d. The Hindu guru Paramahamsa Prajnanananda, in his commentary on the Jnana Sankalini Tantra, states: “The scriptures say that a competent guru must be a person of pure birth, coming from a Brahmin family.”

Sanskritization: vertical mobility of castes

If in theory the status of a caste is fixed and cannot be raised, in practice there is the possibility of a gradual revision of the hierarchical status of the caste. Indian ethnologist Mysore Srinivas called this process "Sanskritization". The creation of a mythology about higher origins and the internalization of the rules of ritual purity of higher castes play a key role.

Sanskritization is a way of including foreigners (mlecchas, outcastes) who are outside the varna system into traditional Hinduism. Mysore Srinivas wrote: “Sanskritization is not limited to Hindu castes but occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups such as the Bhīl of Western India, the Gond and Orāon of Central India, and the Pahārī of the Himalayas. This usually results in the Sanskritized tribe claiming to be a caste and thus becoming Hindu. In the traditional system, the only way to become a Hindu is to belong to a caste." The subject of Sanskritization is not an individual person or even a family - but only ethnic group, which has its own cult, which is included in the orbit of traditional Hinduism. A representative of the priestly caste, finding himself surrounded by foreigners (mlecchas), recognizes his own deities in the images of their religion, then interprets the genealogy of the rulers in favor of descent from the Hindu caste - and adapts the local cult to Hindu ritual.

According to a study by S. L. Shrivastava, conducted in the village of Asalpur in the state of Rajasthan, Naths and Dhobis were included in the untouchables: “Among the “untouchables” are Balais (Balāī), Chamars (Chamār), washerwomen Dhobi (Dhobī), “sect”-caste Nath (Nāt/Nāth) and Bhangī cleaners." According to a study by K. Mathur, conducted in the village of Potlod in the Malwa region of the same state of Rajasthan, the Sanskritized Naths already “occupy a place between the “twice-born” and the Shudras, only slightly higher than the latter, because they are engaged in religion”; and “their way of life is quite well Sanskritized, they follow the rules of ritual purity.” Sanskritization also allowed the Dhobi washer caste to upgrade their status in the Potlod from untouchable to sudra.

Ethnic non-Hindus find themselves outside the varna system: in particular, Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims. In the hermit order of Natha Yoga, hermits of Hindu origin refuse to eat together with hermits who do not have varna. Sannyas excludes the spiritual practitioner from hereditary professional group(jati), but does not deprive him of varna if he initially possessed varna: the rules of ritual purity when eating food continue to be observed in hermitage.

Preservation of the caste system in other religions of India

Social inertia has led to the fact that stratification into castes exists among Indian Christians and Muslims, although it is an anomaly from the point of view of the Bible and the Koran. Christian and Muslim castes have a number of differences from the classical Indian system; they even have some social mobility, that is, the opportunity to move from one caste to another. In Buddhism, castes do not exist (which is why Indian “untouchables” are especially willing to convert to Buddhism), but it can be considered a relic of Indian traditions that in Buddhist society the social identification of the interlocutor is of great importance. In addition, although Buddhists themselves do not recognize castes, speakers of other Indian religions can often easily determine what caste their Buddhist interlocutor comes from and treat him accordingly. Indian legislation provides a number of social guarantees for “disadvantaged castes” among Sikhs, Muslims and Buddhists, but does not provide such guarantees for Christians - representatives of the same castes.

Castes in modern Nepal

The Nepalese caste system developed in parallel with the Indian one. Indian influence in Nepal especially increased during the Gupta dynasty (320−500); Nepal then had the status of a “neighboring kingdom”, but subordinate to Samudragupta.

Later, from the 10th century, many Hindus (as well as numerous Brahmins) migrated from India to Nepal, predominantly fleeing the Arab invasion and the introduction of Islam, especially from northeastern India. At the same time, refugees sought to preserve their original culture and rituals.

To understand Nepali caste relations, let's look at the various caste systems schematically.

Classical Hindu model of caste hierarchy Nepalese caste system from the perspective of Bahuns and Chhetris

The untouchable caste makes up about 7 percent of the population in Nepal.

Caste system from the Newari point of view

The Hindu Newaris, who exclusively inhabit the Kathmandu Valley, use the following caste system, partly adopted from the Buddhist Newars. However, the caste system in Newari communities is not as important as in other nations.

The diagram above shows the castes according to the Newari Hindus, and the bottom - the Newari Buddhists.

Majority opinion on the caste system

The majority, which includes liberal Bahuns and Chhetris and peoples without their own caste systems, consider the following hierarchy to be significant for religious ritual:

chokho jaat(Pure Castes) / pani initial jaat(Untouchable Castes)

In practice, it happens that belonging to castes is associated with material well-being, that is, the poor are classified as untouchables, and the rich are classified as higher castes. This results in foreigners of European origin, who are not Hindus and should therefore be considered untouchables, being classified as upper castes, but when it comes to dealings related to ritual activities, they are treated as untouchables. In particular, we are talking about rituals related to water and cooking rice.