Service- an activity that is not embodied in a material product, but always manifests itself in some useful effect that its consumer receives.

The main foreign trade transactions for the purchase and sale of services include:

Operations for maintenance and provision of spare parts for mechanical products - manufacturing process, occurring in the sphere of circulation of industrial or personal consumption. It is aimed at ensuring reliable operation of sold mechanical products. The level of technical service offered to customers is an important factor in their competitiveness. A technical service system is formed before products are delivered to a given market.

In the circulation area, among technical service operations, pre-sale service and pre-sale completion are distinguished. Pre-sale service- this is unpacking the goods, correcting damage received during transportation, testing components and systems, instructing consumers and assisting them in installation or installation. Pre-sale revision- this is the completion of exported products, taking into account the requirements of the importing country and adaptation to local conditions, the replacement of components and parts in accordance with the national standards of the importing country, as well as the elimination of production defects and defects.

In the consumer sector, maintenance also includes two types of operations: maintenance during the warranty period and during the post-warranty period. In the first case, it is assumed that a number of services will be provided without additional payment by the buyer of the product - assistance in installation and commissioning, consulting consumers, eliminating detected defects, and carrying out preventive inspections. During the post-warranty period, maintenance is carried out on a commercial basis. It includes the same services as warranty service, as well as the supply of spare parts, product repair and modernization. It should be borne in mind that the reliability of the supply of spare parts is also an important factor in the competitiveness of exported machinery and equipment.

Trade in engineering and technical services, generally known as engineering - a range of commercial services for preparing and supporting the process of production and sales of products, servicing the construction and operation of industrial, infrastructure, agricultural and other facilities. It is not embodied in a material product, but manifests itself in some useful effect that the consumer of the service can receive.

As a subject of agreement between countries engineering - various kinds engineering and consulting services necessary for the buyer to optimize capital investments during the construction or reconstruction of an industrial enterprise or other facility. The agreement may provide for the provision of the entire range of services for the project or only part of them. The complete set of services and supplies needed to construct a new facility is called integrated engineering. It consists of several types of engineering services: consulting engineering- this is the provision of services for designing a facility, conducting a feasibility study of the project, preparing tenders, developing construction plans and monitoring the work; technological engineering- transfer to the customer of the technology necessary for the construction of an industrial facility and its operation, development of projects for energy and water supply, transport, etc.; construction engineering- supply of equipment, machinery and installation of plants; management engineering- providing the customer with services for organizing the production structure and administrative management of the enterprise on the basis of modern achievements in this field, developing principles of production planning, methods of statistical accounting, etc.

Engineering objects are newly developed projects. The objects of engineering can be individual technical, technological, economic, financial, organizational and other activities related to increasing the efficiency of already operating enterprises in all spheres of non-domestic economy.

Engineering and consulting services are provided in accordance with the order of the interested party and are formalized by an international contract.

Rental relations. International leasing is the leasing of machinery and equipment to a foreign counterparty. One of the forms of export credit without transferring ownership of the goods to the lessee. The owner of the means of production leases them to the tenant for exclusive use for a specified period for a certain fee. Rental relationships are a mutually beneficial business. On the one hand, leasing of machinery, equipment, ships, aircraft and other equipment allows the lessor to expand the export of manufactured products with a relative reduction in the risk of losses from the insolvency of the customer. On the other hand, rent allows the tenant to reduce the scale of mobilization financial resources to purchase the necessary equipment, and pay rental payments as profits are received from its operation.

In world practice, there is a distinction between short-term rental, or rating, which involves the rental of equipment for a period of several hours to one year, medium-term rental, or hiring, provided for a period of one to three to five years, and long-term rental, or leasing, which involves the delivery of property rent for three to five years or more.

Leasing is most widespread in international rental relations. Leasing companies can quickly satisfy the non-standard needs of counterparties for machines, apparatus, production facilities for launching pilot plants, as well as other goods. Varieties: financial leasing- during the term of the agreement, full reimbursement of all expenses of the lessor and provision of an established profit to him through rental payments ( characteristic feature financial leasing is the impossibility of terminating the contract during the so-called main lease period, i.e. the time when reimbursement of the landlord's expenses must occur; upon expiration of the agreement, the tenant can return the leased item, sign a new lease agreement, or buy this item at the residual value); production or operational leasing- a transaction for a period that is less than the depreciation period of the equipment.

At the end of the agreed time, the rental item is returned to the owner or the tenant enters into a new agreement with him.

In the practice of international economic relations, there is export and import leasing. In the first case, the leasing company purchases equipment from a national company and provides it to a foreign lessee. With import leasing, the opposite effect occurs - the leasing company purchases equipment from a foreign company and leases it to a domestic entrepreneur. Rental relations such as leasing are among the complex foreign economic transactions. To carry them out, funds are required to provide loans, substantial capital investments in the creation of technical service bases, as well as in the training of local personnel. Licensing operations are carried out as industrial enterprises, and specialized companies. Currently, all forms of international leasing are controlled, as a rule, by transnational banks and corporations.

Tourist services. Tourists are people who travel abroad and do not engage in paid activities there. Currently international tourism has become widespread and has become a highly profitable industry in the economies of many countries around the world. The types of tourism services offered as goods on the world market are very diverse. These include accommodation services for tourists in hotels, boarding houses, motels, catering services, meeting the cultural needs of tourists, services aimed at satisfying the business interests of tourists participating in congresses, symposiums, conferences, fairs, etc. Tourist services are offered either individually by choice, or in a complex, which is provided by so-called inclusive tours and package tours. The latter involve providing the client with a full range of services and are usually organized according to a specific, pre-advertised program.

Consulting services and in the area of information and management improvement. Their range is diverse. Among them, the so-called audit services, which include verification of commercial and financial economic activity, development of proposals for its improvement, consultations on tax issues, etc. These services are provided to economically independent enterprises. The conclusions prepared by auditors on the state of the financial situation of clients serve as the basis for confirming the reality of the balance sheets of enterprises and their compliance with accounting rules, which allows for correct calculations and payments related to the payment of taxes.

In addition to audits, auditors can provide consultations on accounting, taxation, management, marketing and other issues. The group of consulting services in the field of information and management improvement also includes operations for servicing goods turnover. These are operations for international transportation of goods, storage of goods and their insurance, operations for international payments and a number of others.

Commercial entrepreneurship in the service market is characterized by general signs economic activity. At the same time, it has a certain specific content, focus, and a mandatory sequence of procedures for business entities.

To implement a service, a business entity must organize the technology for their provision and ensure their promotion on the market for sale to the buyer.

The process of selling a service by a business entity requires appropriate elements of infrastructure support (Is):

Material;

Information;

Financial;

Labor resources.

A business entity can partially own them independently. Otherwise, he has to buy these elements for money (G s). Taking this into account, the scheme of commercial entrepreneurship in the services market can be given by a logical formula (Fig. 2.1):

Rice. 2.1. Scheme of commercial entrepreneurship in the services market

A business entity in the services market purchases for money (G s) means of commercial entrepreneurship (I s), then turns them into services (77) and sells them, receiving money as a result (G p), which must be more than money (G s), spent on infrastructure elements. This is how he makes a profit.

Commercial entrepreneurship in the services market must be organized so that all actions take place within the prescribed time frame. To do this, the business entity must ensure high level organizing technology for providing and purchasing and selling services. Its efficiency and profitability significantly depend on the duration of the operation: the less time it takes, the higher the effect for the enterprise, since costs are reduced and turnover increases.

Operations of purchase and sale of services

Commercial entrepreneurship in the services market is a set of sequential, parallel or simultaneous transactions for the purchase and sale of services (Fig. 2.2).

Rice. 2.2. Scheme of commercial operation in the services market

To implement the operation of selling services (P) to buyers for money (G p), a business entity must have funds entrepreneurial activity, partly he has to acquire, and partly he may have infrastructure support.

An important factor in commercial entrepreneurship, as in any type of economic activity, is work force. Since the business entity’s use of its own labor is not enough, it is forced to buy labor (R c) on the market, that is, hired workers, and pay them wages(g) with appropriate social insurance contributions.

Basically, to provide and sell services, material resources are needed (raw materials, materials, energy, finished goods, food, etc.). Acquiring no material resources (M r) from their owners, the entrepreneur pays them funds (G m). Sometimes receiving material resources occurs through barter exchange.

In commercial entrepreneurship in the services market, these resources can be finished goods, catering services, hotel services, and the like. An equally important factor in the purchase and sale of services is fixed assets (buildings, structures, machinery, equipment, apparatus, computer and organizational equipment, etc.). The business entity does not have fixed assets (B f) have to rent from their owners for money (G in f). Most commercial transactions also require information (statistics, drawings, technologies, designs, knowledge, documents). By necessary information(And n) the entrepreneur also pays money (G And).

A business entity in the services market may require work and services that it is not able to perform on its own. In this case we're talking about on ensuring the purchase and sale process. The infrastructure services he purchased (I Infra) also require a certain amount of money (Ginf). When making a transaction for the purchase and sale of services, the enterprise also spends its own resources (labor, materials, funds, information). All this has internal costs and also requires money (Gen).

A business entity in the services market buys a lot of resources on credit, taking out loans, since he needs these resources and funds even before they are reimbursed, paid off as a result of selling the service and receiving cash proceeds (G P). Consequently, an entrepreneur needs initial capital, and if he does not own it, there is a need for credit, investment, and the like. He can receive a loan in kind, material and monetary forms.

However, this income, which is usually called gross income, does not remain entirely at the disposal of the enterprise, since it is necessary to pay obligatory payments(By).

The amount of taxes and payments depends on the type of business activity in the services market, the resources used, and the benefits provided. As a result, the net profit (NP) that a business entity receives from the sale of a service is equal to:

A commercial transaction for the purchase and sale of a service is considered appropriate if gross profit is at least 20% of the level of expenses.

1) essence and classification of services, state of the global services market

Service– this is an activity aimed at meeting the needs of other individuals or organizations on the basis of contractual relations between the producer and the consumer of services.

A service, unlike a product, cannot be accumulated. The service is always directly related to production.

International trade in services- This is a form of world economic relations for the exchange of services between sellers and buyers of different countries.

12 groups of services. More than 160 types of services.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) classifies services as follows(in accordance with the instructions for compiling the balance of payments):

1) transport:

Passenger

Cargo

2) trips:

3) communication services:

Postal

Courier

Telephone

4) construction

5) insurance

6) financial services

8) royalties and license fees

9) other business services:

· -intermediary services

· - search for partners

· -market research

· -leasing

10) personal, cultural and recreational (organization of recreation and leisure) services

11) government services:

· -supply of goods to governments and so on

For statistical accounting in the Republic of Belarus, services are classified as follows:

1) transport services

2) trips (tourist only)

3) communication services

4) construction services

5) insurance services

6) financial services

7) computer and information services

8) other business services

Features of international trade in services:

· Services are regulated not at the border, but within the country.

· Services are not subject to storage and are provided through direct contacts between the manufacturer and the consumer.

· Not all types of services can be subject to international trade.

· Production and sale of services have greater government protection.

The General Agreement on Trade in Services GATS highlights 4 ways of international trade in services:

1) Cross-border trade. It means the supply of a service to a foreign consumer from the territory of one country to the territory of another country.

2) Consumption abroad. That is, the buyer moves to the country where the service is produced.

3) Trade (commercial) presence. This is the provision of services abroad in host countries through the creation of commercial structures.

4) Presence individuals providing the service. In this case, the service lies directly in the activities of people who come from the country exporting the service to the buyer.

Geographical distribution of services. 75% of the volume of services is exported by developed countries. 24% of the volume of services comes from developing countries and countries with economies in transition. 1% comes from international organizations. The leading region is Western Europe, its share is 45%, followed by Asia with 26%, North America– 14.9%, and the US share is about 12% of trade in services. In terms of countries, the US leads, followed by Germany and the UK.

The share of CIS countries is 2.7%. The leader is Russia – 62.3% among the CIS countries.

The share of highly developed countries in international trade in services is gradually decreasing, while volume growth is increasing in China and Singapore.

India occupies a leading position in IT services.

The share of exports of tourism services is gradually decreasing by about 2% per year. Commercial services are actively growing. Greatest growth provide financial services by 16% during the year. In general, the growth of computer and information services is 13% per year. Cultural services are growing by 12% per year.

2) regulation of international trade in services

In world practice, 3 are used groups of measures to regulate transactions in the service sector:

1)National legislation establishing certain modes of activity for foreign companies.

National legislations use 2 groups of methods:

Measures to regulate market access. These include restrictions on trade in services, the introduction of quantitative quotas on the import of foreign services, restrictions on the creation of branches of foreign companies providing services in the domestic market, and restrictions on the movement of service providers.

Withdrawal from national regime. This includes providing price advantages to local service providers and providing foreign producers with less favorable conditions than local producers.

2)Bilateral agreements between countries.

Agreements are: sectoral and trade-economic. Sectoral ones concern individual sectors of the service sector. They establish the conditions for foreign trade exchange of services on the territory of both countries and the conditions for the activities of foreign companies in domestic markets.

3)Conventions and decisions of international organizations.

Regulation can be carried out within the framework of specialized international organizations, for example, the world tourism organization. Regulation can be carried out within integration associations of states. GATS provides for 3 types of agreements:

- framework agreements defining general principles and rules for regulating trade services

· -special agreements relating to certain service sectors

· -list of obligations of national governments to eliminate restrictions on trade in services

3) types of services in international trade

4) foreign trade in services in the Republic of Belarus (independently)

Main deals:

1. Production and technical (engineering) – a range of commercial services for preparing and supporting the process of production and sales of products, servicing the construction and operation of industrial and other facilities.

This type of service has the following varieties:

Integrated engineering – provision of a full range of services and supplies;

Consulting engineering – intellectual services for designing facilities, developing construction projects and monitoring work;

Technological engineering – providing the customer with technology for construction and operation, development of heat and power supply projects, etc.

Construction and/or general engineering - supply of equipment, machinery and installation of plants;

2. Lease transactions - leasing of goods to a foreign counterparty. Long-term lease has become most widespread in international practice - leasing .

Types of leasing:

Financial – a rental transaction for a period close to the service life of the equipment, during which all expenses of the lessor are fully reimbursed and profits are provided through the lease. A feature of financial leasing is the impossibility of terminating the contract during the main lease period (until reimbursement of the lessor's expenses);

Operating leasing – a transaction that does not involve compensation for the lessor’s costs associated with the acquisition of leased equipment during the main lease term. The rental periods are short (shorter than the physical service life of the equipment), which implies repeated rental. In operational leasing, rental rates are higher than in financial leasing.

3. Tourist services:

Inclusive – tours– used for air transportation, and the cost of transportation is determined on the basis of specially developed tariffs, usually lower than usual (on an all-inclusive basis)

Package – tours– providing the client with a full range of services, without including transportation costs.

4.Trade turnover maintenance operations:

International cargo transportation

Freight forwarding

Cargo storage

Cargo insurance

International payments

Stages of preparation of international trade transactions.

Preparation of a specific transaction includes both the study of general issues and information directly related to the subject of the future agreement.

General information includes information:

On the state and prospects for the development of the domestic economy;

On the development of the industry whose goods are traded;

About the position of your company relative to other manufacturers or buyers of products;

On commercial and industrial conditions, trade customs, transport conditions of those countries with whose counterparties the company has entered into or intends to enter into business relations;

About the specific trading conditions that exist on the market for a certain product in the partner’s country.

To the most important elements of preparation foreign trade transactions This includes analysis of current world market prices and determination of the level of contract prices.

Depending on the presence of intermediate links on the path from manufacturer to consumer, there are manufacturer prices, wholesale and retail prices.

Depending on whether the product is sold in the domestic or foreign markets, there are domestic and export prices. Export prices are usually lower than domestic market prices (due to competition)

When analyzing price dynamics and determining their level, a number of price indicators are used:

Contract prices– reflect the actual price level for goods of a certain quality under appropriate conditions of delivery and payment;

Stock quotes– the prices of goods traded on these exchanges are the prices of real contracts concluded on unified terms in relation to quality, volume and delivery time, payment currency, etc.

Auction prices– close to exchange prices, as they reflect the prices of real transactions;

Reference prices– prices published by commodity sellers. They do not reflect the real level of contract prices, as they differ from them by the amount of discounts provided to buyers (the real price level is somewhat lower).

Price lists and price tags– price indicator finished products consumer and industrial purposes.

Offer prices– negotiated prices arising in the process of negotiations between the seller and the buyer.

Price indices– relative indicators that reflect price dynamics, but do not give an idea of their level.

When preparing transactions to determine the current price, it is necessary to analyze the prices currently prevailing on the market for a particular product.

Comparative and calculation methods are used to analyze prices.

The comparative method involves the following operations:

Analysis of stock quotes;

Analysis of auction prices;

Analysis of reference and list prices.

The calculation method includes two directions of analysis:

Unit cost method;

Approximate calculation method.

The use of the comparative method is possible if there is sufficient price information that allows one to make a reasonable conclusion about the price level at the time of conclusion and execution of the transaction.

The calculation method is used when there is a lack of information and consists in calculating the possible price level using special formulas, taking into account prices for similar products, production costs and other indicators.

Most simple method price analysis is studying the level of stock quotes and their dynamics for a certain period (to identify trends for the future).

Exchange quotations are used not only to check the prices of exchange-traded goods, but also to evaluate finished products produced from exchange-traded goods.

For this, the formula is used:

X = Ci(Pi –K)/100 – Sp

Where X is the determined price;

Ci– average price 1 ton of pure product on the London Stock Exchange for a certain period (from 6 months to 1 year);

Pi – Percentage of metal, etc. in ore;

K – loss coefficient;

Sp is the cost of processing one ton of raw materials into pure material.

Task: The exporter offered zinc concentrate with a zinc content of 69% at a price of US$120 per ton. At the same time, the loss rate is 9%, the cost of processing is $60, the London Exchange price for 1 ton of pure zinc is $250. Determine the reasonableness of the asking price.

250(69 – 9)/100 -60 = $90.

The calculation shows that the proposed price is too high.

By auction goods reference material is information on prices at relevant auctions

If the product is not sold in special markets, then as a method of price analysis in preparation for transactions, reference prices.

When analyzing prices according to list prices you need to have information about the relationship between the level of list prices and the level actually fixed in contracts for real transactions.

Of the calculation methods, the most commonly used methods are unit cost And approximate costing.

Unit cost – the cost of a technical and economic unit of a product: unit of weight, power, etc. The indicator is very approximate and cannot be based only on it. It can only serve as a preliminary comparison of prices, mainly for equipment that has similar comparative characteristics.

Approximate costing method– this is the determination of the cost of a product by summing the costs of its individual elements (materials, salary, etc.) at the world average cost.

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1. Purchase and sale transactions.

2. Sales and purchase agreements.

3. International sale and purchase agreement.

4. Features of commodity exchange transactions.

5. Clearing agreements.

1. Transactionspurchase and sale

Sales transactions are the execution of agreements (contracts) of a commercial nature with foreign partners (counterparties). International trade purchase and sale transactions include export, import, re-export, re-import transactions.

Export transactions are the sale of goods to a foreign buyer with their export from the seller’s country abroad.

Import transactions represent the purchase of goods from a foreign seller and their import into the buyer’s country with subsequent sale on the domestic market. The object of an import transaction also includes goods imported into the buyer’s country for auctions, fairs and exhibitions. Goods imported may be finished products or undergo deep processing in the buyer's country.

A re-export transaction involves the purchase of a product from a foreign seller, importation of it into the buyer's country, and then resale of this product (without processing it) abroad to the foreign buyer.
These operations are practiced to avoid increasing transport costs and lengthening delivery times.

A re-import transaction is an operation of the return import from abroad of domestic goods that were not sold at a foreign auction, rejected by a foreign buyer, not processed there, or returned due to the insolvency of the buyer. Domestic goods returned from abroad that were temporarily exported abroad, for example to an exhibition, are not included in re-import.

According to the delivery time (agreed by the parties and fixed in the contract, the time periods during which the seller undertakes to transfer the goods to the buyer), international sales transactions are divided into imperative, optional, definite, indefinite.

Mandatory deadlines imply that delivery deadlines cannot be changed by agreement of the parties. Dispositive delivery dates provide for the possibility of changing the terms based on the agreement of the parties in the legislation of both counterparty countries.
Certain delivery times require their exact calculation by indicating their beginning and end, as well as indicating some point or event, etc.

2. Contract of sale

Uncertain terms of export-import goods for purchase and sale transactions are established by indicating coordinates, for example, “in a timely manner,” “without delay,” “within a reasonable time.” The rule for establishing the beginning of their flow, common to all delivery periods, applies: the next day after the calendar date or the occurrence of the event that determines their beginning. The end of the delivery period, especially for export-import goods, is set differently for different types of deadlines. The delivery period, calculated in years (long-term transactions for a period of 2 to 5 years), expires in the corresponding month and day last year term. Prices are set for the first year of supply and are adjusted on an agreed basis in subsequent years. If the period is defined in months (short-term transactions), then it expires on the corresponding date last month term. Delivery times determined in six months are calculated in the same manner as terms determined in months. If the end of a period calculated in months falls on a month that does not have a corresponding date, then the period expires on the last day of that month. The delivery period for export-import goods, equal to half a month, is considered equal to 15 days, but if calculated in weeks, it expires on the corresponding day last week term. If the last day of the period falls on a non-working day, the end of the period is considered to be the next closest working day. Delivery times in an international agreement can be specified as follows:

* determination of a fixed delivery date;

* determining the period in which it should be carried out (month, quarter, year);

* application special terms-- “immediate delivery”, “from warehouse”, etc.

In the case when delivery is carried out in parts, a calendar plan, which indicates the delivery time for each batch. However, if the agreement provides for the supply of homogeneous export goods in separate batches, then, in the absence of another agreement of the parties, deliveries of goods within the time limits stipulated by the agreement must be carried out evenly.

In cases where the contract for the supply of trade export-import goods or other goods does not provide for delivery dates for its individual parts, it is considered fulfilled on the day of delivery of the last part of the set. In international trade, the buyer has the right to refuse to accept goods whose delivery is overdue, unless otherwise provided in the contract. In this case, the buyer sends a notice of refusal to accept the export goods. The buyer is obliged to accept and pay for the goods sent by the supplier before receiving the notification. Systematic delay by the supplier in the delivery of export goods beyond the terms stipulated in the contract for purchase and sale transactions is considered a significant violation of the contract and may entail the buyer’s unilateral refusal to fulfill the contract. The possibility of early delivery must be stipulated in the contract: if this is not specified, then such delivery is possible only with the consent of the buyer. An early delivery clause requires the buyer to pay for the goods ahead of time. If the seller delivers the goods ahead of schedule without agreement with the buyer, the latter has the right to refuse to accept it until the date specified in the contract. Delivery times to any country under international trade transactions are associated not only with the time period, but also with any specific action of the buyer, which accordingly must be reflected in the contract. If for some reason the international contract does not specify the delivery time and does not indicate how it can be established, it is determined by the current legislation of the country. In cases where the obligation does not provide for and does not allow determining the deadline for the execution of the contract, it must be fulfilled within a reasonable period of time, determined on the basis of the specific terms of the transaction provided for by the export trade contract, or from the terms of the purchase and sale transaction. This takes into account the distance to which the export-import product must be transported, the type of transport, and the quantity of this product. When concluding an export-import trade contract for purchase and sale transactions, it must be agreed upon who is responsible for the transportation and who pays for what.

3. International sales contract

An international sale and purchase agreement is the most widely used type of foreign trade transaction.

The UN Vienna Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods of 1980 defines such contracts as agreements for the sale of goods between parties whose places of business are located in different states:

A) when those States are Contracting States;

B) when, according to the rules of private international law, the law of a Contracting State is applicable.

In fact, CT.1 of the Convention names the criterion that allows a sale and purchase transaction to be considered international from the point of view of the Convention. Consequently, if the places of business of the parties to a sales contract are located in the same state, then such a contract is not recognized as international and does not fall within the scope of the Convention.

In addition, it follows from Clause 2 of Article 1 of the Convention that the mere fact that the parties’ commercial enterprises are located in different states is not enough for its application. The subjective factor is also important, namely, the awareness of both counterparties about this fact no later than at the time of conclusion of the contract.

In addition to the location of commercial enterprises in different countries, it is also important that the international sales contract must be associated with member states of the Convention. The Convention essentially becomes part of the law of the country that is party to the Convention. Therefore, if the seller's and buyer's places of business are located in different countries, one or both of which are not parties to the Convention, and the applicable conflict of law rules refer to the law of a member state of the Convention, then its provisions will govern such a contract of sale.

At the same time, as follows from Article 2 of the Convention, its effect does not apply to the purchase and sale of:

Products purchased “for personal, family or household use”;

Goods from auction;

By way of enforcement proceedings or otherwise by force of law;

Stock papers, shares, security papers, negotiable instruments and money;

Water and air transport vessels, as well as hovercraft;

Electricity.

Thus, an international sales contract is a contract between commercial enterprises various states, according to which the seller undertakes to transfer the goods (except for those listed above) into the ownership of the buyer, and the buyer - to accept the goods and pay a certain amount of money for it.

In addition to traditional purchase and sale transactions, in the practice of international entrepreneurship, various types of commodity exchange and compensation transactions on a non-currency basis are often encountered. One type of such transaction is barter transactions, which involve the exchange of agreed quantities of one good for another. Such an agreement either indicates the quantity of mutually supplied goods, or stipulates the amount for which the parties undertake to supply the goods.

4. Features of commodity exchange transactions

Barter or commodity exchange transactions are transactions in which one product is exchanged for another. Barter transactions are based on agreements on the mutual supply of goods in strictly established quantities. Currency in such transactions has no independent meaning, since one product is exchanged for another and payment for their value is not made. Currency in commodity exchange transactions is used as a means to fulfill the main goal of a barter transaction - the exchange of goods according to established coefficients.

Commodity exchange (barter) transactions in foreign economic activity dominate in cases where in one of the counterparty countries to the transaction there are and/or currency or other restrictions on foreign trade transactions have been introduced. In addition, barter transactions are used primarily in cases where the demand for certain types of goods significantly exceeds supply. In this form, a barter transaction guarantees the purchasing power of one good relative to the other goods being exchanged. At the same time, of course, it should be taken into account that in case of deviations in the quality of the goods exchanged, a revision of commodity equivalents is necessary. Payments for supplies of goods are made in foreign currency if prices for goods during barter transactions are set in foreign currency. However, the currency received by the supplier of the goods is credited to a special account. The exporter can use this currency only to pay for the counter goods provided for in the goods exchange transaction. Settlements for barter transactions carried out through commercial banks are carried out in the following forms:

Obligations for the supply of counter goods:

Counter letters of credit;

Special account.

Obligations for the supply of counter goods are used in barter transactions in which commodity equivalents are established without the participation of currency (in kind). After shipping the goods to the buyer, the exporter simultaneously sends the documents for this shipped goods to the importer through his bank. The list of documents is usually established by the parties in the barter contract. In order to avoid delays or failure to fulfill stipulated deliveries of goods, one of the parties may provide conditions for issuing a guarantee. In this case, the guarantee obliges the party that violated the terms of the contract to pay the difference between the cost of the goods received and the goods delivered in the currency of the exchange transaction.

In barter transactions, in which prices for goods are set in foreign currency and the calculation of the supply of goods is also carried out in foreign currency, the mutual offset of the amounts received in payment for the goods supplied is carried out in special accounts in banks. In this case, accounts are opened in the banks of the corresponding countries for each commodity exchange transaction. This form of settlement can be considered as partial clearing, because equality of mutual supplies is provided. Therefore, upon completion of the transaction, special accounts must be closed without leaving a balance. The procedure for opening and maintaining special accounts is established by the participants in the commodity exchange transaction and the banks in which special accounts are opened.

Settlements for barter transactions in the form of counter letters of credit are mainly used in cases where the prices of goods in a commodity exchange contract are established in foreign currency, but the currency received by the exporter for the delivered goods is credited to a special account and can be used by the exporter only to pay for the counter goods.

Payment using a letter of credit is made in the following forms:

The buyer of the goods issues a letter of credit in favor of the seller with the condition that the amounts payable to the exporter when the exporter submits trade documents to the bank do not go to the free disposal of the beneficiary, but are credited to a special account in the bank. A special account has a special purpose and all currency received into this account can only be used to pay for counter deliveries of goods from the party that opened the letter of credit in favor of the other party under the barter agreement;

Each of the participants in the goods exchange transaction simultaneously issues a counter letter of credit.

A letter of credit can be opened for the full cost of the goods supplied and for a portion of this cost, with subsequent renewal. However, letters of credit must be irrevocable.

So, barter transactions involve the exchange of goods exclusively. In the case when one party provides the other not with goods, but with work or services, the transaction is not a barter transaction. Any property of the organization (fixed assets, materials, finished products, goods, etc.) can act as a commodity in a commodity exchange transaction.

5 . Clearingagreements

Clearing agreement - international trade agreements that provide for the use of export revenues in order to achieve equilibrium in mutual trade. They were formed as bilateral ones in the late 20s, and subsequently turned into multilateral payment agreements. When concluding such agreements, the official exchange rate is used.

Clearing agreements are often used in international marketing. Clearing agreements (currency clearing) are intergovernmental agreements on the mutual offset of counterclaims and obligations arising from the value equality of commodity supplies and services provided. Clearing agreements are usually used in international trade by countries that do not have free convertibility of their national currency. Settlements based on clearing agreements can be bilateral or multilateral. An example of multilateral clearing is the settlements between CMEA member countries in transferable rubles that existed before 1991. According to the method of repayment of the balance arising during settlements, clearing agreements are divided into three types:

Clearing with free conversion (balances in excess of acceptable limits are paid in freely convertible currency);

Clearing without the right of conversion (balances in excess of the permissible amount are repaid only by deliveries of goods);

Clearing with limited conversion (the balance in excess of the permissible amount is paid in convertible currency if it exceeds the amount established by the parties or is not cleared within a pre-agreed time).

Technically, clearing agreements can be carried out under a dual account system or a single account system.

1. The double counting system provides for opening in central banks countries participating in the payment agreement of special accounts through which all clearing settlements occur.

2. The single account system provides for the opening of a special account (or accounts) in a bank (or several banks) in one of the countries through which all payments are made. The double counting system is used more often. Clearing agreements allow all settlements with exporting firms to be carried out only in national currency (the exporter receives national currency as payment for goods delivered from the bank that conducts clearing settlements, and the importer deposits national currency into this bank as payment for imports received through clearing goods). The main disadvantage of clearing agreements is that funds received from exports as clearing funds must be used to purchase goods only in the country in which the exported goods were sold. Despite the fact that clearing agreements assume the balance of mutual trade, in practice, due to price fluctuations and other reasons, imbalances often arise that cannot be quickly eliminated and which interfere with the normal development of trade. In the event of an imbalance in supplies, settlement mechanisms are provided, as well as the timing within which the balance should be determined (for example, once a year or once a quarter), the amount of acceptable debt and the timing of its repayment.
IN modern conditions An interbank clearing system has become widespread, minimizing the balance amounts that must be settled in cash. The need for systematic settlements between banks on the basis of offsetting mutual claims leads to the creation of special institutions called clearing houses.

Active implementation electronic means the transfer of information to banking and the high concentration of a significant part of settlements in certain centers of the banking system made it possible to create automated clearing houses, which operate in many countries and represent an interbank system for transferring funds and repaying counter payments using electronic impulses or based on magnetic storage media.

List of used literature and sources

1. http:://referat-kursovaya.repetitor.info

2. Belyaev V.I. Structure and content of an international trade contract: Tutorial. - Barnaul, 1993.

3. http://www.xserver.ru/user/vdkpr/

4. http://www.bibliotekar.ru/bank-13/30.htm

5. http://www.fin-buh.ru/text/90859-1.html

6. Dictionary of economic terms (http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/econ_dict/7438)

7. http://www.leasingworld.ru/megdunarodniy_marketing/page,2,95-kliringovye-soglashenija.html