Rig Veda. Mandala 1

Rigveda - the great beginning of Indian literature and culture

Undoubtedly, the beginning of Indian literature was laid. This beginning turned out to be not uncertain and timid, but brilliant. does not in any way resemble a weak stream from which a great river eventually arose. can be compared to a huge majestic lake, which amazes more than what arose from it, and at the same time always remains a source.

Meeting Rigveda consists of 1028 hymns of varying lengths: from 1 (I, 99) to 58 (IX, 97) verses (the average length of a hymn is 10-11 verses)…Total Rig Veda 10,462 verses.

Hymns Rigveda form cycles, or mandalas (lit. mandala - circle, disk), of which there are ten in the entire collection. These hymns were passed down orally in priestly families from generation to generation.

Mandalas Rigveda It is customary to call them family ones, since often in mandalas groups of hymns are attributed to certain families of singers.

At the same time, Mandalas I, VIII and X are not each associated with one particular type of rishi.

It has been established that the earliest addition to the family mandalas is the second part of mandala I (hymns 51-191). That the first part of this mandala (hymns 1-50) was later included in its composition is confirmed by its significant similarity to mandala VIII.

More than half of the hymns Rigveda Mandala I belongs to the Kanva family, to which also belongs the first part (hymns 1-66) of Mandala VIII.

To resolve the issue of the upper chronological limit Rigveda we have to turn to some chronological guidelines that appeared in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The first definite date in Indian history is the spread of Buddhism in the 6th century. BC. Buddhism is in many ways consonant with the ideas of the Upanishads, which complete the Vedic tradition, at the beginning of which stands.

There are no traces of acquaintance with Buddhism in the Vedas, and this means that it was codified much earlier than the 6th century. BC.

Weaving was famous. The raw materials were sheep's wool and the fibrous grass kuca or darbha (synonyms for Tragrostis cynosuroides R. and S.). First, parallel warp threads were pulled (tantu from tan to pull), then a transverse thread was passed through - weft (oto). Weaving terminology is widely used in Rig Veda, because the poetic art of rishis - the creation of hymns is often compared to weaving.

The hymn, along with sacrifice, was considered one of the main means of influencing the deity. To please the deity, it had to be made skillfully. According to the expressions found in the hymns, the rishis wove it like precious fabric, turning it like a carpenter’s ornate chariot. They worked out their hymns according to high models imprinted in the works of former rishis, ancestors, founders of priestly families, and ancestors belonging to these families.

Apparently, the last authors Rigveda They did not create new mythological stories themselves. The number of these stories in Rig Veda very limited. In the center there are two main plots that have a cosmogonic interpretation: the killing of the snake demon Vritra by Indra and the liberation by Indra (or other mythological characters) of cows from the Vala cave, hidden there by the Pani demons (historically, perhaps two options for the development of one initial plot).

These two stories are constantly sung from hymn to hymn, which is explained by the fact that the monument is dedicated to the New Year ritual. Here we need to remind you of one more thing important characteristic creative method hymn writers Rigveda. According to the ideas of that time, the knowledge of rishis was visual, it was revealed to them by the deity in the form of a static picture. One picture replaced another, and in the change of these revelations was the knowledge of the world, encoded by the Vedic name dhi f. thought, idea, look; concept; intuition, cognition, reason; knowledge, art; prayer, as well as with the verb dhi - to imagine, to reflect.

The poet was called dhira - possessing dhi, wise, gifted. The poets asked the gods to grant them dhi. Thanks to dhi, poets became intermediaries between the gods and the ice.

came to us in two editions: Samhita (samhita) - a more ancient continuous text in which words are connected into a single sequence by the rules of phonetic assimilation and changes at the junctions, and a later padapatha (lit. reading by words), in which the rules of sandhi are removed and the text is given in the form of individual words (and in some cases in the form of individual morphemes) in the form required by the grammar.

IN Rig Veda ancient root stems are preserved more completely than anywhere else, which function as a name or as a verb depending on what type of inflections they are connected to. For example: vid - know, vid-ma - we know, vid-a - you know.

Time (kala) in the form of an ageless thousand-eyed horse with seven reins.

The sharp contrast between the Aryans and the Dasas/Dasyas is characteristic of the very initial period of Aryan migration to India, reflected in the ancient parts Rigveda. It has been noted more than once that in the hymns Rigveda dasa and dasyu are not the same thing. More often they talk about the destruction and subjugation of dasyu, rather than dasa.

There is a word dasyahatua, murder of dasyu, but there is no similar word with dasa. After Rigveda the word dasyu disappears altogether, and dasa is used to mean servant. Apparently, the more militant dasya were killed, and the dasa were not only killed, but also reduced to dependent sections of the population.

Moreover, the mixing process occurred so rapidly that in Rig Veda Apparently, a number of the ancestors-dasas converted to the Aryan religion, and thereby were included in society (cf., for example, in VIII, 46, 32 the mention of how the priest receives a reward from dasa Balbuthi).

About Indra in Rig Veda It is no coincidence that it is said that he made Dasa an aryem. Previous attempts to translate Rigveda into Western languages ​​in verse (except for some short fragments in anthologies) were considered absolutely unsuccessful. Translations published in India Rigveda into English and modern Indian languages, as a rule, are in line with the orthodox Brahmanical tradition and contain valuable information in the field of ritual and realities.

It has never been fully translated into Russian before. Apart from the translations of individual hymns.

T. Ya. Elizarenkova

RIGVEDA

MANDALA I

I, 1. To Agni

1 I call on Agni - at the head of the placed

God of sacrifice (and) priest,

Hotara of the most abundant treasure.

2 Agni is worthy of the invocations of the Rishis -

Both previous and current:

May he bring the gods here!

3 Agni, through (him) may he achieve wealth

And prosperity - day after day -

Shining, most courageous!

4 O Agni, sacrifice (and) rite,

Which you cover from all sides,

They are the ones who go to the gods.

5 Agni-hotar with the insight of a poet,

True, with the brightest glory, -

May God and the gods come!

6 When you really desire it,

O Agni, do good to the one who worships (you),

Then this is true for you, O Angiras.

7 To you, O Agni, day after day,

O illuminator of darkness, we come

With prayer, bringing worship -

8 To him who reigns in the ceremonies,

To the shepherd of the law, shining,

To the one who grows in his house.

9 Like a father to his son,

O Agni, be available to us!

Accompany us for the greater good!

I, 2. To Vayu, Indra-Vai, Mitra-Varuna

Size - gayatri. This hymn, together with the following, forms part of the ritual of inviting the gods to the morning sacrifice of Soma. The hymn is divided into three tercets, each of which is dedicated to a single or double deity. Each verse, except the last two, begins with the name of the deity, and the text contains audio allusions to them

1a O Vayu, come vayav a yahi...Sound writing, the purpose of which is to repeat the name of the deity

4c...drops (soma) indavo... - Sound allusion to the name of Indra.

7b...taking care of someone else's ricadasam...- Compound word of unclear morphological composition

8 ...Multiplying truth - Truth rta... - Or universal law, cosmic order

9 Mitra-Varuna...with an extensive dwelling... - That is. whose home is the sky

1 O Vayu, come, pleasing to the eyes,

These catfish juices are cooked.

Drink them, hear the call!

2 O Vayu, they glorify in songs of praise

singers for you,

With the squeezed soma, knowing the (time) hour.

He goes to the one who worships (you) to drink soma.

4 O Indra-Vayu, these are the squeezed juices (soma).

Come with joyful feelings:

After all, the drops (catfish) are striving for you!

5 Oh Vayu and Indra, you understand

In the squeezed (soma juices), O rich in reward.

Come quickly, both of you!

6 O Vayu and Indra, to the squeezer (soma)

Come to the designated place -

In one moment, with genuine desire, O two husbands!

7 I call Mithras, who has pure power of action

And Varun, caring for someone else's (?), -

(Both of them) helping prayer greased.

8 By the truth, O Mitra-Varuna,

Multipliers of truth, cherishers of truth,

You have achieved high fortitude.

9 The pair of seers Mitra-Varuna,

Strong family, with an extensive home

(They) give us skillful power of action.

I, 3. To the Ashvins, Indra, All-Gods, Saraswati

Size - Gayatri. The anthem is divided into tercets

3b Nasatya is another name for the divine Ashwins. Here the idea of ​​​​an exchange of gods and adepts is expressed: in exchange for the sacrificial gifts of adepts, the gods donate to them various benefits requested from them

8a…crossing the waters apturah - I.e. who came from afar, through all obstacles, to sacrifice

8c...to the pastures of svasarani

9c Let the charioteers enjoy themselves - The gods are often called charioteers, either because they come to sacrifices, or because they generally ride chariots. Especially often this epithet defines the Ashvins and Maruts (with whom the All-Gods are often identified)

10-12 Saraswati - Chanted here as the goddess of sacred speech, prayer, bringing reward (10-11) and as a river goddess (12)

1 O Ashvins, rejoice

To sacrificial libations,

O swift-handed lords of beauty, full of joy!

2 O Ashwins, rich in miracles,

O two husbands, with great understanding

3 O wonderful ones, the (soma juices) have been squeezed out for you

From the one who laid out the sacrificial straw, O Nasatya.

Come, both of you, following the shining path!

4 O Indra, come, shining brightly!

These squeezed (soma juices) strive for you,

Peeled in one go with thin (fingers).

5 O Indra, come, encouraged by (our) thought,

Excited by inspired (poets) to prayers

The organizer of the victim, who squeezed out (soma)!

6 O Indra, come hastening

To prayers, O master of dun horses!

Approve our squeezed (soma)!

7 Helpers who protect people

O All-Gods, come

Be merciful to the squeezed (soma) of the donor!

8 O All-Gods who cross the waters,

Come, quick ones, to the squeezed (soma),

Like cows - to pasture!

9 All-Gods, blameless,

Desired, supportive,

Let the charioteers enjoy the sacrificial drink!

10 Pure Saraswati,

Rewarding with awards,

May the one who produces wealth through thought desire our sacrifice!

11 Encouraging rich gifts,

Attuned to good deeds,

Saraswati accepted the sacrifice.

12 The great stream illuminates

Saraswati (with her) banner.

She dominates all prayers.

I, 4. To Indra

1 Every day we call for help

Taking on a beautiful form,

Like a well milked cow - for milking.

2 Come to our squeezes (soma)!

Drink soma, O soma drinker!

After all, the drunkenness of the rich promises the gift of cows.

3 Then we want to be worthy

Your highest mercies.

Don't overlook us! Come!

4 Go ask a wise man

About the swift, irresistible Indra,

Who is the best of friends for you.

5 And let our detractors say:

And you have lost something else,

Paying respect only to Indra.

6 (Both) the stranger and (our) people, O amazing one,

Let them call us happy:

Only with Indra we would like to be protected!

7 Give this quick one to quick Indra,

(His) adorning the victim, intoxicating the husbands,

Flying (to a friend), making a friend happy!

8 Having drunk it, O hundred-strong one,

You have become a killer of enemies.

Only you helped (in battles) for rewards those who were eager for rewards.

9 You, eager for rewards (in battles) for rewards

We are pushing towards the reward, O hundred-strong one,

To seize wealth, O Indra.

10 Who great stream wealth,

(Who is) a friend who ferries the squeezing (soma) to the other side.

To this Indra sing (glory)!

I, 5. To Indra

1 Come now! Sit down!

Sing praises to Indra,

Praising friends!

2 The first of many,

Lord of the most worthy blessings,

Indra - with the squeezed catfish!

3 May he help us on our journey,

In wealth, in abundance!

May he come to us with rewards!

4 Whose pair of dun horses cannot be held

Enemies when colliding in battles.

Sing (glory) to this Indra!

5 To the drinking catfish these squeezed

Pure catfish juices mixed with sour milk

They flow, inviting (to drink them).

6 You were born, grew up immediately,

For drinking squeezed (soma),

O Indra, for excellence, O benevolent one.

7 May the quick ones pour into you

The juices of Soma, O Indra, thirsty for chanting!

May they be for the benefit of you, the wise one!

8 You have been strengthened by praises,

Songs of praise for you, O hundred-strong one!

May our praises strengthen you!

9 May Indra, whose help never fails, receive

This reward numbering a thousand,

(He) in whom are all the powers of courage!

10 Let mortals do no harm

To our bodies, O Indra, thirsty for chanting!

Turn away the deadly weapon, O (you), in whose (is) power!

I, 6. To Indra

Size - gayatri.

The anthem is dark and unclear. Contains reminiscences of the myth of Val (vala - a cave in the rock, nom. pr. of the demon who personifies it). The content of this myth boils down to the following. The milk cows were hidden by the Pani demons in the Vala rock. Indra and his allies: the god of prayer Brihaspati, a crowd of divine singers Angiras and the god of fire Agni - went in search of cows. Having found them, Indra broke the rock and released the cows (according to other versions of the myth, Vala broke the rock with his roar of Brihaspati and Angirasa with his singing). Under milk cows a number of commentators understand the abundant sacrificial libations, and then the hymn is interpreted as directed against the non-Aryan Dasa/Dasyu tribes who do not offer sacrifices to the Aryan gods. A cosmogonic interpretation of this myth is also possible, because Having broken through the rock, Indra (or his allies) found the light, the dawn, dispelled the darkness, let the water flow, i.e. established order in the universe.

1 They harness a yellowish (?), fiery,

Wandering around the motionless.

The lights are shining in the sky.

2 They harness a couple of his favorites

Damn horses on both sides of the chariot (?),

Fiery red, undaunted, carrying men.

3 Creating light for the lightless,

Form, O people, for the formless,

You were born along with the dawns.

4 Then they arranged that according to their own will

He began to be born again (and again),

And they created for themselves a name worthy of sacrifice.

5 With charioteers who break down even strongholds,

The Rig Veda was apparently compiled around 1700-1100. BC e. and is one of the oldest Indo-Iranian texts and one of the oldest religious texts in the world. For centuries it was preserved only in oral tradition and was probably first written down only in the early Middle Ages. The Rig Veda is the most ancient and significant of the Vedas, a valuable source for the study of ancient Indian history and mythology.

Etymology
The word rigveda is a compound word (tatpurusha), consisting of two Sanskrit roots: rich (Sanskrit ऋच्, ṛc?, “praise, poetry”) and veda (वेद, veda, “knowledge”).

Text
The Rig Veda consists of 1028 hymns (or 1017, not counting the apocryphal Valakhīlya? - hymns 8.49-8.59 composed in Vedic Sanskrit), many of which are intended for various sacrificial rituals. This long collection of short hymns is mainly devoted to the praise of the gods. It consists of 10 books called mandalas.

Each mandala consists of hymns called sūkta, which in turn consist of individual verses called rich (ṛc?), plural richas (ṛcas?). Mandalas are not equal in length or age. The "Family Books", mandalas 2-7, are considered the oldest part and include the shortest books, sorted by length, making up 38% of the text. Mandala 8 and Mandala 9 probably include hymns of various ages, making up 15% and 9% of the text respectively. Mandala 1 and Mandala 10 are the youngest and longest books, making up 37% of the text.

Preservation
The Rig Veda is preserved by two main sakhas ("branches", that is, schools or editions): Shakala (Śākala?) and Bashkala (Bāṣkala?). Given the age of the text, it is very well preserved, so that the two editions are practically identical and can be used equally without significant notes. Aitareya-Brahmana contacts Shakala. Bashkala includes Hilani and is associated with Kaushitaki-Brahmana. These redactions include book ordering and spelling changes in response to the regularization of the sandhi (called "orthoepische Diaskeunase" by Oldenberg) which occurred in the centuries after the composition of the earliest hymns, almost simultaneously with the redaction of the other Vedas.

Since its composition, the text has existed in two versions. In Samhitapatha all the rules of Sanskrit for sandhi are applied and its text is used for recitation. In Padapatha, each word is isolated and it is used for memorization. Padapatha is essentially a commentary on Samhitapatha, but both seem to be equivalent. The original text restored on metrical grounds (original in the sense that it seeks to restore the hymns as they were composed by the Rishis) lies somewhere between them, but closer to the Samhitapatha.

Organization
The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and verse (and also, if necessary, by foot (pada) - a, b, c, etc.) For example, the first pada -

1.1.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ? - “I praise Agni, the high priest”

And the last pada -

10.191.4d yáthāḥ vaḥ súsahā́sati? - “for your stay in good society”

At the same time, Hermann Grassmann numbered the hymns from 1 to 1028, placing Walachilla at the end.

All 1028 hymns of the Rigveda in the 1877 Aufrecht edition contain a total of 10,552 verses, or 39,831 padas. The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks of 432,000 syllables, while Van Nooten and Holland's (1994) metrical text has a total of 395,563 syllables (or an average of 9.93 syllables per pada); the count of the number of syllables is ambiguous due to sandhi. Most of the poems are written in the metrics of jagati (pada of 12 syllables), trishtubh (pada of 11 syllables), viraj (pada of 10 syllables) gayatri or anushtubh (both padas of 8 syllables).

The main gods of the Rigveda are Agni (the sacrificial flame), Indra (the heroic god praised for killing his enemy Vrtra) and Soma (the sacred drink or the plant from which it is made). Other prominent gods are Mitra, Varuna, Ushas (dawn) and Ashvins. Savitar, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati, Brahmanaspati, Dyaus Pita (sky), Prithivi (earth), Surya (sun), Vayu (wind), Apa (water), Parjanya (rain), Vak (word), are also invoked. Maruts, Adityas, Rbhu, Vishwadevs (all gods at once), many rivers (especially Sapta Sindhu and the Saraswati River), as well as various lesser gods, persons, concepts, phenomena and objects. The Rig Veda also contains fragmentary references to possible historical events, especially the struggle between the early Vedic people (known as the Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the dasa.

Manuscript of the Rig Veda on Devanagari, early 19th century. Mandala 1 consists of 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni and his name is the first word of the Rig Veda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 - 1.156 are addressed to Vishnu.

Mandala 2 consists of 43 hymns, dedicated mainly to Agni and Indra. She is usually attributed to the rishi Gritsamda Shaunohotra (gṛtsamda śaunohotra?).

Mandala 3 consists of 62 hymns addressed mainly to Agni and Indra. Verse 3.62.10 is of great importance in Hinduism and is known as the Gayatri Mantra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ.

Mandala 4 consists of 58 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vāmadeva Gautama.

Mandala 5 consists of 87 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra, the Visvadevs, the Maruts, the dual deity Mitra-Varuna and the Ashwins. Two hymns are dedicated to Ushas (dawn) and Savitar. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Atri family (atri?).

Mandala 6 consists of 75 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the barhaspatya (bārhaspatya?) family of Anigras.

Mandala 7 consists of 104 hymns addressed to Agni, Indra, Vishwadevs, Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, Ashwins, Ushas, ​​Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (wind), two - Saraswati and Vishnu, as well as other deities. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vasishta Maitravaurni (vasiṣṭha maitravaurṇi?).

Mandala 8 consists of 103 hymns addressed to various gods. Hymns 8.49 - 8.59 - apocryphal Valakhilya (valakhīlya?). Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Kanva (kāṇva?) family.

Mandala 9 consists of 114 hymns addressed to Soma Pavamana, the plant from which the sacred drink of the Vedic religion was made.

Mandala 10 consists of 191 hymns addressed to Agni and other gods. It contains the Nadistuti Sukta, a prayer to rivers, important for reconstructing the geography of Vedic civilization, and the Purusha Sukta, which has great importance in the Hindu tradition. It also contains the Nasadiyya Sukta (10.129), perhaps the most famous hymn in the West relating to Creation.

Rishi
Each hymn of the Rigveda is traditionally associated with a particular rishi, and each of the “family books” (Mandalas 2-7) is considered to have been compiled by a particular family of rishis. The major families, listed in descending order of the number of verses attributed to them:

Angiras: 3619 (especially Mandala 6)
Canvas: 1315 (especially Mandala 8)
Vasishta: 1267 (Mandala 7)
Vaishwamitra: 983 (Mandala 3)
Atri: 885 (Mandala 5)
Bhrgu: 473
Kashyapa: 415 (part of Mandala 9)
Grtsamada: 401 (Mandala 2)
Agastya: 316
Bharata: 170

Translations
The Rig Veda has been translated into English language by Ralph T. H. Griffith in 1896. There are also partial translations into English by Maurice Bloomfield and William Dwight Whitney. Considering the age of Griffith's translation, it is quite good, but it cannot replace Göldner's translation into German in 1951, the only independent scientific translation to date. Later translations by Elizarenkova in the 1990s. into Russian are largely based on Geldner's translation, but in themselves they are a valuable contribution to the scientific literature.

Hindu tradition
According to Hindu tradition, the hymns of the Rigveda were collected by Paila under the direction of Vyāsa, who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmana?, the number of syllables in the Rig Veda is 432,000, equal to the number of muhurtas in forty years (30 muhurtas equal 1 day). This emphasizes the statements of the Vedic books about the existence of a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, physiological and spiritual.

The authors of Brahmana (brāhmana?) described and interpreted the ritual of the Rigveda. Yaska was an early commentator on the Rig Veda. In the 14th century, Sāyana wrote a comprehensive commentary on it. Other bhāṣya (commentaries) that have survived to this day include those of Madhava (Mādhava?), Skandasvamin (Skaṃdasvāmin) and Venkatamadhava (Veṃkatamādhava).

Dating and historical reconstruction

Geography of the Rigveda, indicating the names of rivers; also shows the distribution of Swat and Cemetery H. The Rigveda is older than any other Indo-Aryan texts. Therefore, the attention of Western science has been focused on it since the time of Max Müller. The records of the Rig Veda in the early stage of the Vedic religion are strongly related to the pre-Zoroastrian Persian religion. Zoroastrianism and Vedic Hinduism are believed to have developed from an early common religious Indo-Iranian culture.

The core of the Rig Veda is considered to have been formed at the end of the Bronze Age, as a result of which it appears to be the only copy of Bronze Age literature preserved in an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to 1700-1000. BC uh..

In subsequent centuries the text underwent standardization and revision of pronunciation (samhitapatha, padapatha). This edition was completed around the 7th century BC. uh..

Records appeared in India around the 5th century. BC e. in the form of the Brahmi script, but texts comparable in length to the Rig Veda were most likely not written down until the early Middle Ages, when the Gupta script and the Siddham script appeared. In the Middle Ages, manuscripts were used for teaching, but before the advent of the printing press in British India, they played a minor role in preserving knowledge due to their fragility, because they were written on bark or palm leaves and were quickly destroyed in a tropical climate. The hymns were preserved in oral tradition for about a millennium from the time of their composition to the redaction of the Rig Veda, and the entire Rig Veda was preserved in its entirety in the shakhas for the next 2500 years, from the redaction up to the editio princeps of Müller - a collective feat of memorization unparalleled in any other famous society.

The Puranas call Vidagdha the author of the Pada text. Other scholars believe that the padakara of the Rig Veda is Sthavira Sak Aitareya Aranyaka. Once compiled, the texts were preserved and codified by the vast society of Vedic clergy as central philosophy Vedic civilization of the Iron Age.

The Rig Veda describes a mobile, nomadic culture with horse-drawn chariots and metal (bronze) weapons. According to some scholars, the geography described corresponds to Punjab (Gandhara): rivers flow from north to south, mountains are relatively distant but still accessible (soma is a plant that grows in the mountains and had to be bought from visiting merchants). However, the hymns were certainly composed over a long period, with older elements perhaps dating back to Indo-Iranian times, early in the second millennium BC. e. Thus, there is disagreement as to whether the claims of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and especially Indra refer to the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization or whether they refer to clashes between the ancient Indo-Aryans and the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex culture. Complex)) on the territory of modern northern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan, located 400 km from the upper Indus behind the Hindu Kush mountains. In any case, although most of the text was likely composed in the Punjab, even if it was based on early poetic traditions, there is not a single mention of tigers or rice (unlike the later Vedas), which gives rise to the assumption that Vedic culture penetrated the plains of India after the composition of the Rig Veda. Likewise, presumably there is no mention of iron in the text.

The Iron Age in northern India began in the 12th century BC. e. from the culture of Black and Red Ware (BRW). This period is widely accepted as the beginning of the codification of the Rig Veda (arranging individual hymns into books, correcting the samhitapatha by applying sandhi and padapatha to the early metrical text (by dividing the sandhi)) and compiling the early Vedas. This time probably coincides with the early Kuru dynasty, shifting the center of Vedic culture from Punjab to modern Uttar Pradesh.

Some of the names of gods and goddesses contained in the Rig Veda are found in other religious systems also based on Proto-Indo-European religion: Dyaus-Pita is similar to the ancient Greek Zeus, the Latin Jupiter (from deus-pater) and the Germanic Tyr ); Mithra is similar to the Persian Mithra; Ushas - with Greek Eos and Latin Aurora; and, less reliably, Varuna - with the ancient Greek Uranus. Finally, Agni is similar in sound and meaning to the Latin word "ignis" and the Russian word "fire".

Kazanas (2000), in a polemic against the "Aryan Invasion Theory", suggests a date around 3100 BC. BC, based on the identification of the early Rigvedic rivers Sarasvati (river) and Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. While at odds with the mainstream scholarly view, this view is diametrically opposed to mainstream historical linguistics and supports the still controversial Out of India theory, which places late Proto-Indo-European language around 3000 BC. e.

Flora and fauna in Rigveda
Horse (Asva) and cattle play an important role in the Rig Veda. There are also references to the elephant (Hastin, Varana), camel (Ustra), especially in Mandala 8, buffalo (Mahisa), lion (Simha) and gaur. . The Rig Veda also mentions birds - the peacock (Mayura) and the red or "Brahman" duck (Anas Casarca) Chakravaka.

More modern Indian views
Hindu perception of the Rig Veda has shifted from its original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, descriptions of animal sacrifice are seen not as literal killing, but as transcendental processes. It is known that the Rig Veda considers the Universe to be infinite in size, dividing knowledge into two categories: “lower” (relating to objects, filled with paradoxes) and “higher” (relating to the perceiving subject, free from paradoxes). Swami Dayananda, who started the Arya Samaj, and Sri Aurobindo emphasized the spiritual (adhyatimic) interpretation of the book.

River Sarasvati, glorified in RV 7.95 as greatest river, flowing from the mountain to the sea, is sometimes identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which dried up perhaps before 2600 BC. e. and definitely before 1900 BC. e.. There is another opinion that the Saraswati was originally the Helmand River in Afghanistan. These questions are related to the debate of the Indo-Aryan migration theory (called the "Aryan Invasion Theory") and the claim that Vedic culture and Vedic Sanskrit originated from the Indus Valley Civilization (called the "Exit India Theory"), having vital importance in Hindu nationalism (Hindutva), see, for example, Amal Kiran and Shrikant G. Talageri. Subhash Kak has stated that there is an astronomical code in the organization of hymns. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, also based on astronomical parallels in the Rig Veda, in his book "The Orion" (1893) declared the presence of Rig Vedic culture in India in the 4th millennium BC. BC, and in his book "Arctic Home in the Vedas" (1903) even argued that the Aryans originated from the North Pole region and came south during the Ice Age.

Notes

1 The oldest surviving manuscripts date back to the 11th century.

2 There are some difficulties regarding the use of the term "Veda", which is usually also applied to texts associated with a particular samhita, such as the Brahmanas or Upanishads. The term "Rigveda" is usually used to name only the Rigveda Samhita, and texts like the Ayatareya Brahmana are not considered part of the Rigveda, but rather related to the Rigveda in the tradition of a particular shakha.

3 Oberlies (1998 edition, p. 155) dates the formation of the youngest hymns in Mandala 10 to 1100 BC. e. Terminus post quem estimates of the earliest hymns are much more uncertain. Oberlis (p. 158), based on “cumulative evidence,” defines a large period of time: 1700-1000. BC e. The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (EIEC) (see Indo-Iranian Languages, p. 306) gives a range of 1500-1000. BC e. Certainly, the hymns were formed after the Indo-Iranian division around 2000 BC. e. The ancient elements of the Rig Veda could only appear a sufficiently large number of generations after this time; philological estimates place most of the text in the second half of the second millennium BC. e.

4 Oldenberg (p. 379) dates it to the end of the Brahmana period, noting that the older Brahmanas still contain unnormalized quotations from the Rigveda. The Brahman period took place later than the compilation of the Samhitas of the rest of the Vedas, stretching around the 9th-7th centuries. BC e. This may mean that the editing of the texts in the form in which they have come down to us was completed around the 7th century. BC e. The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (EIEC) (p. 306) also speaks of the 7th century. BC e.

5 Satapatha Brahmana refers to Vidagdha Sakalya without discussing anything related to Padapatha, and no grammatical work refers to Vidagdha as padakara. However, the Brahmanda Purana and Vayu Purana say that he was the Padakara of the Rig Veda. Satapatha Brahmana is older than Aitareya Aranyaka. Aitareya Aranyaka is usually dated to the 7th century. BC e. (Jha, Vashishta Narayan. 1992. A linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha. Sri Satguru Publications. Delhi)

6 Rkpratisakhya of Saunaka also refers to Sthavira Sakalya. (Jha, Vashishta Narayan. 1992. A linguistic Analysis of the Rgveda-Padapatha. Sri Satguru Publications. Delhi)

7 However, in the Rig Veda there are references to ApUpa, Puro-das and Odana (rice porridge), terms which, at least in later texts, are used to refer to rice dishes (see . Talageri (2000))

8 The term "ayas" ("metal") is found in the Rig Veda, but it cannot be said with certainty whether it refers to iron or not. “It should be obvious that any controversy regarding the meaning of ayas in the Rig Veda or the issue of the familiarity or unfamiliarity of the Rigveda with iron is meaningless. There is no positive evidence for any of these views. It can mean either copper bronze or iron, and based strictly on context, there is no reason to choose one of the meanings." (Chakrabarti, D.K. The Early Use of Iron in India (1992) Oxford University Press)

9 collected by Klaus Klostermaier in 1998 presentation

10 e.g. Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December); Koenraad Elst Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. - Aditya Prakashan, 1999. ISBN ISBN 81-86471-77-4; Bryant, Edwin and Laurie L. Patton (2005) The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Routledge/Curzon.

Each mandala consists of hymns called sukta (sūkta IAST ), which in turn consist of individual verses called "rich" ( ṛc IAST ), in the plural - "richas" ( ṛcas IAST ). Mandalas are not equal in length or age. The "family (family) books", mandalas 2-7, are considered the oldest part and include the shortest books, sorted by length, making up 38% of the text. Mandala 8 and Mandala 9 probably include hymns of various ages, making up 15% and 9% of the text respectively. Mandala 1 and Mandala 10 are the youngest and longest books, making up 37% of the text.

Preservation

The Rig Veda is preserved by two main sakhas ("branches", that is, schools or editions): Shakala ( Śākala IAST ) and Bashkala ( Bāṣkala IAST ). Given the age of the text, it is very well preserved, so that the two editions are practically identical and can be used equally without significant notes. Aitareya the Brahmana contacts Shakala. Bashkala includes Khilani and is associated with Kaushitaki Brahmana. These redactions include the order of the books and orthoepic changes like the regularization of the sandhi (called "orthoepische Diaskeunase" by G. Oldenberg), which occurred in the centuries after the composition of the earliest hymns almost simultaneously with the redaction of other Vedas.

Since its composition, the text has existed in two versions. The Samhitapatha applies all the Sanskrit rules for sandhi and its text is used for recitation. In Padapatha, each word is isolated and it is used for memorization. Padapatha is essentially a commentary on Samhitapatha, but both seem to be equivalent. The original text restored on metrical grounds (original in the sense that it seeks to restore the hymns as they were composed by the Rishis) lies somewhere between them, but closer to the Samhitapatha.

Organization

The most common numbering scheme is by book, hymn and verse (and, if necessary, by foot ( pada) - a, b, c etc.) For example, the first pada -

• 1.1.1a agním īḷe puróhitaṃ IAST - “I praise Agni, the high priest”

and the last one pada -

• 10.191.4d yáthāḥ vaḥ súsahā́sati IAST - “for your stay in good society”

• Mandala 1 consists of 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni and his name is the first word of the Rig Veda. The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 - 1.156 are addressed to Vishnu.
• Mandala 2 consists of 43 hymns, dedicated mainly to Agni and Indra. She is usually attributed to the rishi Gritsamada Shaunohotra ( gṛtsamda śaunohotra IAST ).
• Mandala 3 consists of 62 hymns addressed mainly to Agni and Indra. Verse 3.62.10 is of great importance in Hinduism and is known as the Gayatri Mantra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vishwamitra Gathina ( viśvāmitra gāthinaḥ IAST ).
• Mandala 4 consists of 58 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vamadeva Gautama ( vāmadeva gautama IAST ).
• Mandala 5 consists of 87 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra, the Vishvedevas, the Maruts, the dual deity Mitra-Varuna and the Ashwins. Two hymns are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and Savitar. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Atri family ( atri IAST ).
• Mandala 6 consists of 75 hymns addressed primarily to Agni and Indra. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to barhaspatya( barhaspatya IAST ) - the Angiras family.
• Mandala 7 consists of 104 hymns addressed to Agni, Indra, Vishwadevs, Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, Ashwins, Ushas, ​​Varuna, Vayu (wind), two - Saraswati and Vishnu, as well as other deities. Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to Vasistha Maitravaurni ( vasiṣṭha maitravaurṇi IAST ). It is in it that the “Mahamrityumjaya mantra” is first found (Hymn “To the Maruts”, 59.12).
• Mandala 8 consists of 103 hymns addressed to various gods. Hymns 8.49 - 8.59 - apocryphal Valakhilya ( vālakhilya IAST ). Most of the hymns in this book are attributed to the Kanwa family ( kāṇva IAST ).
• Mandala 9 consists of 114 hymns addressed to Some Pawamana, a plant from which the sacred drink of the Vedic religion was made.
• Mandala 10 consists of 191 hymns addressed to Agni and other gods. It contains a prayer to the rivers, important for reconstructing the geography of the Vedic civilization, and the Purusha Sukta, which is of great importance in the Hindu tradition. It also contains the Nasadiyya Sukta (10.129), perhaps the most famous hymn in the West relating to Creation.

Rishi

Each hymn of the Rigveda is traditionally associated with a particular rishi, and each of the “family books” (Mandalas 2-7) is considered to have been compiled by a particular family of rishis. The major families, listed in descending order of the number of verses attributed to them:

• Angiras: 3619 (especially Mandala 6)
• Canvas: 1315 (especially Mandala 8)
• Vasistha: 1267 (Mandala 7)
• Vishwamitra: 983 (Mandala 3)
• Atri: 885 (Mandala 5)
• Kashyapa: 415 (part of Mandala 9)
• Gritsamada: 401 (Mandala 2)

Translating to Russian language

"Rigveda" in 1989-1999 was completely translated into Russian by T. Ya. Elizarenkova. The translation takes into account the work of European predecessors on the text, being an undoubted most valuable contribution to domestic Indology, linguistics and philology.

Hindu tradition

According to Hindu tradition, the hymns of the Rig Veda were collected by Paila under the direction of Vyasa ( Vyāsa IAST ), who formed the Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to Shatapatha Brahmana ( Śatapatha Brahmana IAST ), number of syllables in Rig Veda is 432,000, equal to the number of muhurtas in forty years (30 muhurtas equal 1 day). This emphasizes the claims of the Vedic books about the existence of a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, physiological and spiritual.

Dating and historical reconstruction

Rigveda older than any other Indo-Aryan texts. Therefore, the attention of Western science has been focused on it since the time of Max Muller. The records of the Rig Veda in the early stage of the Vedic religion are strongly related to the pre-Zoroastrian Persian religion. Zoroastrianism and the Vedic religion are believed to have developed from the early common religious Indo-Iranian culture.

The text of the Rig Veda (as well as the other three Vedas), according to the statement contained in the Vedas themselves, states that the Vedas have always existed - from the beginning of time. And they were passed on, from generation to generation, by rishis (sages), to their students, orally. In a time horizon closer to us, they were put into text form - at least 6 thousand years ago. Today, it appears to be the only copy of Bronze Age literature preserved in a continuous tradition. Its composition is usually dated to 1700-1000. BC e.

In subsequent centuries, the text underwent standardization and revision of pronunciation (samhitapatha, padapatha). This edition was completed around the 7th century BC. e.

Records appeared in India around the 5th century BC. e. in the form of the Brahmi script, but texts comparable in length to the Rigveda were most likely not written down until the early Middle Ages, when the Gupta script and the Siddham script appeared. In the Middle Ages, manuscripts were used for teaching, but before the advent of the printing press in British India, they played a minor role in preserving knowledge due to their fragility, because they were written on bark or palm leaves and were quickly destroyed in a tropical climate. The hymns were preserved in oral tradition for about a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rig Veda, and the entire Rig Veda was preserved in its entirety in the shakhas for the next 2500 years, from the redaction up to editio princeps Müller is a collective feat of memorization unparalleled in any other known society.

Some names of gods and goddesses contained in the Rig Veda are found in other religious systems, also based on Proto-Indo-European religion: Dyaus-Pithar is similar to the ancient Greek Zeus, Latin Jupiter (from deus-pater) and Germanic Tyr ( Tyr); Mithras ( Mitra) similar to the Persian Mithra ( Mithra); Ushas - with Greek Eos and Latin Aurora; and, less reliably, Varuna - with the ancient Greek Uranus and the Hittite Aruna. Finally, Agni is similar in sound and meaning to the Latin word “ignis” and the Russian word “fire”.

Some authors have traced astronomical references in the Rig Veda, which place it back to the 4th millennium BC. e. , by the time of the Indian Neolithic. The rationale for this view remains controversial.

Kazanas (2000), in a polemic against the "Aryan Invasion Theory", suggests a date around 3100 BC. BC, based on the identification of the early Rigvedic rivers Sarasvati and Ghaggar-Hakra and on glottochronological arguments. While at odds with the mainstream scholarly view, this view is diametrically opposed to mainstream historical linguistics and supports the still controversial Out of India theory, which places late Proto-Indo-European language around 3000 BC. e.

However, the argument with the Sarasvati River is not particularly convincing, since it is known that the Indo-Aryans, when they came to Hindustan, brought with them Indo-Iranian hydronyms. In particular, the Iranians also had an analogue of the Sarasvati River - Harahvaiti (in Iranian the sound “s” turns into “x”).

Flora and fauna in Rigveda

Horses Asva, Târkshya and cattle play an important role in the Rig Veda. There are also references to the elephant (Hastin, Varana), camel (Ustra), especially in Mandala 8, buffalo (Mahisa), lion (Simha) and gaur. . The Rig Veda also mentions birds - the peacock (Mayura) and the red or “Brahman” duck (Anas Casarca) Chakravaka.

More modern Indian views

Hindu perception of the Rig Veda has shifted from its original ritualistic content to a more symbolic or mystical interpretation. For example, descriptions of animal sacrifice are seen not as literal killing, but as transcendental processes. It is known that the Rig Veda considers the Universe to be infinite in size, dividing knowledge into two categories: “lower” (relating to objects, filled with paradoxes) and “higher” (relating to the perceiving subject, free from paradoxes). Dayananda Saraswati, founder of the Arya Samaj, and Sri Aurobindo emphasized spirituality adhyatimik) interpretation of the book.

The Sarasvati River, celebrated in RV 7.95 as the greatest river flowing from a mountain to the sea, is sometimes identified with the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which dried up perhaps before 2600 BC. e. and definitely before 1900 BC. e.. There is another opinion that originally Saraswati was a river

ऋग्वेद

Rig Veda is a collection of inspired hymns or songs and is the main source of information about the "Rigvedic civilization". It is the oldest book in the Indo-European language and contains the oldest forms of Sanskrit mantras dating back to the period 1500 - 1000 AD. e. Some scholars believe that the Rig Veda was created in such early period, like 12,000 BC – 4000 BC e.

The Rigvedic "samhita" or collection of mantras consists of 1017 hymns or suktas, which include 10,600 verses divided into eight "ashtakas", each containing eight "adhyayas" or chapters; they, in turn, are divided into various groups. There are ten books of the Rig Veda, called mandalas (literally “circles”). These hymns are the creations of many authors or sages called “rishis”. There are seven main rishis: Atri, Kanva, Jamadagni, Gotama and Bhardwaja.

Rig Veda contains detailed descriptions social, religious, political and economic realities of Rigvedic civilization. Although some of the hymns of the Rig Veda are characterized by monotheism, in the religion of the Rig Veda one can discern features of naturalistic polytheism and monism. Being one of the oldest and most important religious texts ancient india, Rig Veda is the oldest of the four collections of hymns and other sacred texts known as . These writings are considered the "sacred knowledge" of the people who invaded India around 1600 BC. When the Aryans settled in India, their beliefs gradually developed into the religion of Hinduism, and the Rig Veda and other Vedas became the most sacred Hindu texts.

The Vedas were compiled between 1500 and 1000 BC. e. in Vedic Sanskrit, an ancient Indo-European language. For centuries they were passed down through oral tradition until they were eventually written down. By 300 n. e. The Vedas took their present form. The Rig Veda contains more than a thousand mantras or hymns addressed to the gods and natural elements.

According to ancient Hindu tradition, mantras are based on divine revelations received by members of certain families. Some families grouped mantras to form new mandalas. In each mandala, the mantras are grouped according to the deities with which they are associated.

Vedic ideas about time

The Vedas are primordial knowledge. Where did the Vedic texts come from? Four Vedas. Rig Veda. Veda itself. Yajur Veda. Atharva Veda. The discoveries of modern scientists have long been described in the Vedas. Vedas - practical knowledge. The hidden power of the Vedas. Puranas in the goodness of passion and ignorance. Sutra. Vedic time scale. Maha kalpa. Satya Yuga is the golden era. Tretta Yuga - Silver Age. Dvapara Yuga - Copper Age. Kali Yuga - Iron Age. Confirmations in ancient scriptures. Ancient Greek sources. Indian legends. Scandinavian sagas. Astronomical records. Evidence from the Bible. Kali Yuga Society. The story of Siddhartha Gautama. The story of Isha putra. Levels of consciousness. Level 1 - anomaia. Level 2 - pranamaya. Level 3 - manomaya. Level 4 - vigyanamaya. Level 5 - anandamaya. Different perceptions