Question No. 1
Main features of Old Russian literature.
Old Russian literature - 10th – 12th century
Peculiarities:
1. Handwritten character. There were not individual handwritten works, but collections with specific purposes.
2. Anonymity. This was a consequence of society’s attitude towards the writer’s work. It is rare that the names of individual authors are known. In the work, the name is indicated at the end, title and in the margins with evaluative epithets "thin" and "undignified". Medieval authors did not have the concept of “authorship.” The main task: to convey the truth.
Types of anonymity:
3. Religious character. Everything is explained by God's purpose, will and providence.
4. Historicism. The author has the right to write only historically reliable facts. Fiction is excluded. The author is convinced of the accuracy of what is stated. Heroes are historical figures: princes, rulers standing at the top of the hierarchical ladder of feudal society. Even stories about miracles are not so much the imagination of the author as accurate records of the stories of eyewitnesses or the participants themselves.
5. Patriotism. The works are filled with deep content, the heroic pathos of serving the Russian land, state, and homeland.
6. main topic ancient Russian literature - world history and the meaning of human life.
7. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in the power, the ultimate triumph of good and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and defeat evil.
8. Feature artistic creativity The ancient Russian writer also has the so-called “literary etiquette”.
9. This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what and how should be depicted Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state
10. The traditions of Old Russian literature are found in the works of Russian writers of the 18th–20th centuries.
The word is imbued patriotic pathos of glorifying Rus', as equal among all states of the world. The author contrasts the Byzantine theory of the universal empire and the church with the idea of equality of all Christian peoples. Proves the superiority of grace over the law. The law was extended only to the Jews, but grace was extended to all nations. In summary, the new covenant is a Christian creed that has worldwide significance and in which every people has the full right to freely choose this grace. Thus, Hilarion rejects the monopoly rights of Byzantium to the exclusive possession of grace. According to Likhachev, the author creates his own patriotic concept of history, where he glorifies Rus' and the enlightener Vladimir. Hilarion exalts Vladimir's feat in the adoption and spread of Christianity. He lists the prince's services to his homeland, emphasizes that the Christian faith was adopted by Russians as a result of free choice. The work put forward demand for the canonization of Vladimir as a saint, also the author glorifies the activities of Yaroslav, who successfully continued his father’s work in spreading Christianity. The work is very logical. The first part is a kind of introduction to the second – the central one. The first part is a comparison of Law and Grace, the second is praise to Vladimir, the third is a prayerful appeal to God. In the first part it is observed sign of antithesis- a typical technique of oratorical eloquence. Hilarion widely uses book metaphors, rhetorical questions, exclamations, repetitions and verbal rhymes. The word is a model for scribes of the 12th-15th centuries.
Question #10
The Walk of Abbot Daniel
Already in the 11th century, Russian people began traveling to the Christian East, to “holy places.” These travel-pilgrimages (a traveler who visited Palestine brought with him a palm branch; pilgrims were also called kaliki - from the Greek name for shoes - kaliga, worn by the traveler) contributed to the expansion and strengthening of international relations of Kievan Rus, and contributed to the development of national identity.
So, at the beginning of the 12th century. "The Walk of Abbot Daniel" arises. Daniel committed pilgrimage to Palestine in 1106-1108 Daniel undertook a long journey, “compelled by his thoughts and impatience,” desiring to see “the holy city Jerusalem and the promised land,” and “for the sake of love, for the sake of these holy places, I wrote down everything I saw with my eyes.” His work is written “for the sake of the faithful people”, so that when they hear about “these holy places,” rushed to these places with thought and soul and thus they themselves accepted “from God an equal reward” with those who “reached these holy places.” Thus, Daniel gave his “Walk” not only cognitive, but also moral, educational value: his readers-listeners must mentally make the same journey and receive the same benefits for the soul as the traveler himself.
Daniel's "walk" is of great interest detailed description“holy places” and the personality of the author himself, although it begins with etiquette self-deprecation.
Talking about a difficult journey, Daniel notes how difficult it is to “experience and see all the holy places” without a good “leader” and without knowing the language. At first, Daniel was forced to give from his “meager earnings” to people who knew those places, so that they would show them to him. However, he was soon lucky: he found St. Savva, where he stayed, his old husband, “the book of Velmi,” who introduced the Russian abbot to all the sights of Jerusalem and its environs. This land.”
Daniel shows great curiosity: he is interested nature, city layout and character of buildings of Jerusalem, irrigation system near Jericho. Row interesting information Daniel reports about the Jordan River, which has gentle banks on one side and steep banks on the other, and in every way resembles the Russian river Snov. Daniel also strives to convey to his readers the feelings that every Christian experiences when approaching Jerusalem: these are feelings of “great joy” and “shedding of tears.” The abbot describes in detail the path to the city gates past the pillar of David, the architecture and size of the temples. A large place in the “Walk” is occupied by legends that Daniel either heard during his journey or read in written sources. He easily combines canonical scripture and apocrypha in his mind. Although Daniel’s attention is absorbed in religious issues, this does not prevent him from recognizing himself as an authorized representative Russian land in Palestine. He proudly reports that he, the Russian abbot, was received with honor by King Baldwin (Jerusalem was captured by the crusaders during Daniel's stay there). He prayed at the Holy Sepulcher for the entire Russian land
. And when the lamp set by Daniel on behalf of the entire Russian land was lit, but the “flask” (Roman) one was not lit, he sees in this a manifestation of God’s special mercy and favor to the Russian land.
Question #12
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was found in the early 90s of the 18th century famous amateur and collector of Russian antiquities A.I. Musin-Pushkin.
“The Word” is the pinnacle of literature created during the period of feudal fragmentation.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 of Novgorod-Seversky Prince Igor Svyatoslavich with a few allies, a campaign that ended in a terrible defeat. Author calls on the Russian princes to unite to repel the steppe and to jointly defend the Russian land.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” with brilliant power and insight reflected the main disaster of its time - the lack of state unity of Rus' and, as a consequence, the weakness of its defense against the onslaught of steppe nomadic peoples, who in quick raids ravaged old Russian cities, devastated villages, drove the population into slavery, penetrated into the very depths of the country, everywhere bringing death and destruction with them.
The all-Russian power of the Kyiv prince had not yet completely disappeared, but its importance was falling uncontrollably . The princes were no longer afraid of the Kyiv prince and sought to capture Kyiv, to increase their possessions and use the fading authority of Kyiv to their advantage.
In the Lay there is no systematic account of Igor’s campaign. Igor’s campaign against the Polovtsians and the defeat of his army is for the author a reason for deep thought about the fate of the Russian land, for a passionate call to unite and defend Rus'. This idea - the unity of Russians against common enemies - is main idea works. An ardent patriot, the author of “The Lay” sees the reason for Igor’s unsuccessful campaign not in the weakness of the Russian soldiers, but in the princes who are not united, act separately and ruin their native land, forgetting all-Russian interests.
The author begins his story with a memory of how alarming the beginning of Igor's campaign was, what ominous signs - an eclipse of the sun, the howling of wolves through the ravines, the barking of foxes - it was accompanied. Nature itself seemed to want to stop Igor, not to let him go further.
The defeat of Igor and its terrible consequences for the entire Russian land seem to force the author to remember that not long ago the Kiev prince Svyatoslav, with the united forces of the Russian princes, defeated these same Polovtsians. He is transported mentally to Kyiv, to the tower of Svyatoslav, who has an ominous and incomprehensible dream
And so Svyatoslav plunged into bitter thoughts. He utters the “golden word”, in which he reproaches Igor and his brother, the buoy of Vsevolod, for the fact that they disobeyed him, did not respect his gray hair, alone, without collusion with him, they arrogantly went against the Polovtsians.
Svyatoslav's speech gradually turns into an appeal by the author himself to all the most prominent Russian princes of that time.
The author sees them as powerful and glorious.
But then he remembers Igor’s young wife, Yaroslavna. He quotes the words of her mournful cry for her husband and for his fallen soldiers. Yaroslavna cries on the city wall in Putivl. She turns to the wind, to the Dnieper, to the sun, yearns and begs them for the return of her husband. As if in response to Yaroslavna’s plea, the sea began to gush at midnight, and tornadoes swirled on the sea: Igor is escaping from captivity.
The description of Igor's flight is one of the most poetic passages in the Lay. The Lay ends joyfully with Igor’s return to the Russian land.
and singing his glory upon entering Kyiv. Despite the fact that “The Lay” is dedicated to the defeat of Igor, it is full of confidence in the power of the Russians, full of faith in the glorious future of the Russian land. The call for unity is permeated in the “Word” with the most passionate, strongest and most tender love for the homeland.“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is a written work
oh.
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” became the main phenomenon not only of ancient literature, but also of modern literature - the 19th and 20th centuries.“The Word” is a direct response to the events of Igor’s campaign . It was a call for an end to princely civil strife, for unification to fight against an external enemy.
This call is the main content of the Word. Using the example of Igor's defeat, the author shows the sad consequences of political fragmentation in Rus' and the lack of cohesion between the princes. The word not only tells about the events of Igor’s campaign, and also represents a passionate and excited speech true patriot . His speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but. always full of faith in the homeland.
The author is proud of his homeland and believes in its bright future The author is a supporter of princely power , which would be capable of curbing the arbitrariness of petty princes.
. He sees the center of united Rus' in Kyiv The author embodies his call for unity in the image of the Motherland, the Russian land. In fact, the main character of the word is not Igor or any other prince. Main character
– this is the Russian people, the Russian land. Thus, the theme of the Russian land is central to the work. . After all, Igor is defeated only because he is alone.
Igor – brave but short-sighted, goes on a hike despite bad omens - a solar eclipse. Although Igor loves his homeland, his main goal is to gain fame.
Talking about female images , it is important to note that they are imbued with tenderness and affection, the national principle is clearly expressed in them, they embody sadness and care for the Motherland. Their crying is deeply national in nature.
The central lyrical element of the plot is Yaroslavna’s cry. Yaroslavna – a collective image of all Russian wives and mothers, as well as the image of the Russian land, which also mourns.
No. 14 Russian pre-revival. Emotionally - expressive style. "Zadonshchina"
Russian pre-renaissance - mid-14th - early 15th centuries!
This is a period of expressive-emotional style and patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of revival of chronicle writing, historical narration, panegyric hagiography, appeal to the times of independence of Rus' in all areas of culture: literature, architecture, painting, folklore, political thought, etc.
The Russian Pre-Renaissance of the XIV-XV centuries was the era of the greatest spiritual figures, scribes and painters. The names of Rev. served as the personification of the national spiritual culture of that time. Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm and Kirill Belozersky, Epiphanius the Wise, Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev and Dionysius. During the Pre-Renaissance period. coinciding with the gathering of Russian lands Around Moscow, there was an appeal to the spiritual traditions of ancient Kievan Rus, and attempts were made to revive them in new conditions. We are, of course, talking about the traditions of Russian asceticism. In the era under review, these traditions were strengthened, but they acquired a slightly different character. The activities of ascetics during the formation of the Moscow state in the second half of the 14th century became socially, and to some extent, politically active. This was reflected in ancient Russian literature of that period. Especially a shining example The works of Epiphanius the Wise can serve - “The Lives” of Sergius of Radonezh and Stephen of Perm.
There comes a period in Russian history when a person somehow begins valued as a person, there is a discovery of its historical significance and internal merits. In the literature, increasing attention is paid to the emotional sphere, and interest in human psychology is emerging. This leads to expressive style. Dynamic descriptions.
In literature, an emotionally expressive style develops, and in ideological life everything higher value acquires “silence”, “solitary prayer”.
Attention to the inner life of man, demonstrating the fluidity of what is happening, the variability of everything that exists, was associated with the awakening of historical consciousness. Time was no longer represented only in the forms of changing events. The character of the eras changed, and first of all, the attitude towards the foreign yoke. The time has come to idealize the era of Russian independence. Thought turns to the idea of independence, art - to the works of pre-Mongol Rus', architecture - to the buildings of the era of independence, and literature - to the works of the 11th–13th centuries: to the “Tale of Bygone Years”, to the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, to “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, to the “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, to the “Life of Alexander Nevsky”, to the “Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, etc. Thus, for the Russian Pre-Renaissance, Rus' during the period of independence, Pre-Mongol Rus' became its “antique.”
There is an increasing interest in the internal states of the human soul, psychological experiences, and the dynamics of feelings and emotions. Thus, Epiphanius the Wise in his works conveys feelings of delight and surprise that fill the soul. Literature and art in general embody the ideal of beauty, spiritual harmony, the ideal of a person who devotes himself to serving the idea of the common good
According to DS Likhachev, “The focus of attention of writers of the late XIV - early XV centuries. turned out to be individual psychological states of a person, his feelings, emotional responses to events outside world. But these feelings, individual states of the human soul are not yet united into characters. Individual manifestations of psychology are depicted without any individualization and do not add up to psychology. The connecting, unifying principle - the character of a person - has not yet been discovered. Man's individuality is still limited by the straightforward classification of it into one of two categories - good or evil, positive or negative."
It is important to note that the emergence of man as a measure of all values in Rus' is only partial. This is how man, the titan, the man at the center of the Universe, does not appear. So, despite the existence of a pre-renaissance period, the Renaissance itself never comes!!!
Pushkin’s words “The Great Renaissance had no influence on it (Russia).”
"Zadonshchina"
Degree book"
Created in 1563 on the initiative of the Metropolitan Macarius by the royal confessor Andrei - Athanasius - “The Grave Book of the Royal Genealogy.” The Work makes an attempt to present the history of the Russian Moscow State in the form of genealogical continuity from Rurik to Ivan the Terrible.
History of the state presented in the form of hagiobiographies of rulers. Period the reign of each prince is a certain facet in history.
So the book is divided into 17 degrees and facets. Introduction – a lengthy life of Princess Olga. In each facet after the author's biography, the most important events are outlined. At the center of the story are the personalities of the autocratic princes. They endowed with the qualities of ideal wise rulers, brave warriors and exemplary Christians. The compilers of the Degree Book try to emphasize the greatness of the deeds and the beauty of the virtues of the princes, the psychologist introduces the characteristics of the heroes, trying to show their inner world and pious stories.
The idea of a autocratic form of government in Rus' is being pursued, power is surrounded by an aura of holiness, the need for resigned submission to it is proven.
Thus, in the Degree Book, historical material acquired topical political significance, everything is subordinated to the task of the ideological struggle to strengthen the autocratic power of the sovereign in Rus'. The degree book, like chronicles, serves as an official historical document, relying on which Moscow diplomacy conducted negotiations in the international arena, proving the original rights of Moscow sovereigns to own Russian territories.
Also An important part of the period of the second monumentalism is the work of Ivan the Terrible and the Tale of Peter and Fevronia.
No. 18 The work of Ivan the Terrible
Ivan groznyj was one of the most educated people of their time, had phenomenal memory and erudition.
He founded the Moscow Printing Yard, By his order, a unique literary monument was created - the Facial Chronicle.
And the works of Ivan the Terrible - the most famous monument Russian literature of the 16th century. Messages from Tsar Ivan the Terrible - one of the most unusual monuments of ancient Russian literature. The central themes of his messages- international the importance of the Russian state(the concept of Moscow - “the third Rome”) and the monarch's divine right to unlimited power. The themes of the state, ruler, and power occupy one of the central places in Shakespeare, but are expressed in completely different genres and artistic means. The power of influence of Ivan the Terrible's messages lies in the system of argumentation, including biblical quotes and extracts from sacred authors; facts from world and Russian history to draw analogies; examples from personal impressions. In polemical and private messages, Grozny uses facts from personal life. This allows the author, without cluttering the message with rhetoric, to significantly enliven the style. A fact conveyed briefly and accurately is immediately remembered, receives an emotional overtones, and imparts the urgency necessary for polemics. The messages of Ivan the Terrible suggest a variety of intonations - ironic, accusatory, satirical, instructive. This is only a special case of the extensive influence on the messages of the living colloquial speech XVI century, which is very new in ancient Russian literature.
The work of Ivan the Terrible - REALLY GREAT LITERATURE.
Main literary monuments, created by Ivan the Terrible, this is the Message of the Terrible to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and Correspondence with Andrei Kurbsky.
Message from Ivan the Terrible to Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery to Abbot Kozma of the monastery. Around 1573.
Written regarding violation of the monastic decree exiled there by the Terrible boyars Sheremetev, Khabarov, Sobakin.
Message permeated with caustic irony escalating into sarcasm, in relation to the disgraced boyars, who “introduced their own lustful regulations” into the monastery. Grozny accuses the boyars of destroying the monastic rule and this leading to social inequality. Terrible attacks the monks, who were unable to curb the temper of the boyars. Ivan the Terrible's words are imbued with irony arising from self-deprecation: “woe is me” O. And further, the more Grozny talks about his respect for the Kirillov Monastery, the more caustic his reproaches sound. He shames the brethren for allowing the boyars to violate the rules, and thus it is not known, the tsar writes, who took tonsure from whom, whether the boyars were the monks or the monks were the boyars.”
Grozny ends the letter with an angry, irritable appeal, forbidding the monks to bother him with such problems. According to Likhachev, the Message is a free improvisation, passionate, written in the heat of the moment, turning into an accusatory speech. Ivan the Terrible is confident that he is right and is annoyed that the monks are bothering him.
In general, Ivan the Terrible’s messages are evidence of the beginning of the destruction of the strict system of literary style and the emergence of an individual style. True, at that time only the king was allowed to declare his individuality. Realizing his high position, the king could boldly break all the established rules and play the roles of either a wise philosopher, or a humble servant of God, or a cruel ruler.
An example of a new type of life is precisely the “Life of Ulyaniya Osorgina” (Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya, The Tale of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya)
“The Tale of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya” is the first biography of a noblewoman in ancient Russian literature.(at that time a noblewoman was not upper layer society, rather middle class).
Main features of the product:
1. Life writes relative of the saint(in this case son)
2. The medieval principle of historicism is violated. The work must convey the most important historical events, the heroes are major figures, and not a simple married woman with children.
3. The story is a clear indication that liter becomes closer to the reader.
Written by the son of Ulyana Druzhina at the beginning of the 17th century. The second level of anonymity, little is known about the author. The son is well acquainted with the facts of the heroine’s biography, her personal qualities, and her moral character is dear to him. Positive character of a Russian woman is revealed in the everyday surroundings of a rich noble estate.
The qualities of an exemplary housewife come to the fore. After marriage, Ulyany’s shoulders fall on the responsibility of running a complex household. A woman pulls a house, pleases father-in-law, mother-in-law, sister-in-law, monitors the work of slaves, herself resolves social conflicts in the family and between servants and gentlemen. So, one of the sudden riots of the courtyards leads to the death of her eldest son, but Ulyaniya resignedly endures all the hardships that befall her.
The story truthfully and accurately depicts the position of a married woman in a large family, her lack of rights and responsibilities. Running the household consumes Ulyanya, she doesn’t have time to go to church, but nevertheless she is a “saint.” Thus, the story affirms the holiness of the feat of highly moral worldly life and service to people. Ulyaniya helps the hungry, cares for the sick during the “pestilence”,
The story of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya creates the image of an energetic, intelligent Russian woman, an exemplary housewife and wife, enduring all trials with patience and humility.
Which falls to her lot. So Druzhina depicts in the story not only the real character traits of her mother, but also paints the general ideal appearance of a Russian woman as it seemed to a Russian nobleman of the early 17th century. In biography The squad does not completely depart from the hagiographic tradition. So Ulyaniya comes from “God-loving” parents, she grew up in “piety” and “from a young age loved God.” In the character of Ulyany the inherent traits of a true Christian can be traced - modesty, meekness, humility, tolerance and generosity (“doing immeasurable alms.” As befits Christian ascetics, although Ulyaniya does not go to the monastery, she in old age indulges in asceticism
: refuses carnal “coitus with her husband”, walks in winter without warm clothes. The story also uses traditional hagiography Motives of religious fiction: Demons want to kill the Hive
, but she is saved by the intervention of St. Nicholas. In some cases, “demonic machinations” have very specific manifestations - conflicts in the family and rebellion of “slaves”. As befits a saint,
Juliana has a presentiment of her death and dies piously; later her body works miracles.
Thus, The Tale of Juliania Lazarevskaya is a work in which elements of an everyday story are intertwined with elements of the hagiographic genre, however, the everyday description still prevails. The story is devoid of the traditional introduction, lamentation and praise. The style is quite simple.
The story of Juliania Lazarevskaya is evidence of growing interest in society and literature in the private life of a person, his behavior in everyday life. As a result, as a result of the penetration of such realistic elements into hagiography, the hagiography is destroyed and turns into the genre of a secular biographical story.
No. 21 “The Tale of the Tver Otroche Monastery”.
17th century Historical story gradually turns into a love and adventure story , which can be easily traced in the Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery. DS Likhachev studied this in detail in selected works most interesting work
, so we will rely on his opinion. “The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery,” undoubtedly composed in the 17th century, tells about a rather ordinary everyday drama: the bride of one marries another. The conflict intensifies because both heroes of the story - and, and the future spouse are connected by friendship and feudal relations: the first is the servant, the “youth” of the second.
A remarkable feature of the story is that it is not based on the usual conflict between good and evil in medieval stories. In “The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery” there are no evil characters, no evil principle at all . In it there is not even social conflict : action takes place as if in an ideal country where exist good relations between the prince and his subordinates . The peasants, boyars and their wives strictly follow the prince’s instructions, rejoice at his marriage, and happily meet his young wife, a simple peasant woman. They come out to meet her with children and offerings, and are amazed at her beauty. All the people in this story are young and beautiful. Several times the beauty of the heroine of the story is persistently spoken of - Ksenia. She is pious and meek, humble and cheerful , has “a great mind and walked in all the commandments of the Lord.” Youth Gregory, Xenia's fiancé, is also young and handsome (his expensive clothes are mentioned several times in the story). He always “stood before the prince,” was “loved by him dearly,” and was faithful to him in everything. The young Grand Duke Yaroslav Yaroslavich received no less praise . They all behave as they should and are distinguished by piety and intelligence. Ksenia’s parents also behave ideally. None of the characters made a single mistake. Little of, everyone acts as planned . The youth and the prince see visions and carry out the will revealed to them in these visions and signs. Moreover, Ksenia herself foresees what is about to happen to her. She is illuminated not only with bright beauty, but also with a bright vision of the future. And yet, the conflict is obvious - an acute, tragic conflict, forcing all the characters in the story to suffer, and one of them, the youth Gregory, to go into the forests and found a monastery there.. She obediently does what is destined for her and what she cannot help but do. By this, the author seems to free her from the burden of responsibility for the decisions she makes; in essence, she does not decide anything and does not change Gregory; she only follows what was revealed to her from above. Of course, this intervention from above weakens the earthly, purely human nature of the conflict, but this intervention is told in the story with the utmost tact. The intervention of fate is not ecclesiastical in nature. Nowhere is it said about Ksenia’s visions, about her prophetic dreams, the voice she heard or something similar. Ksenia has the gift of clairvoyance, but this clairvoyance is not ecclesiastical, but entirely folklore in nature. She knows what must happen, but why she knows is not told to the reader. She knows as she knows the future a wise man. Ksenia is a “wise maiden”, a character well known in Russian folklore and reflected in ancient Russian literature: let us remember the maiden Fevronia in “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” of the 16th century.
But, in contrast to the fairy-tale development of the plot, in “The Tale of the Tver Youth Monastery” everything is transferred to a more “human plane”. The story is still far from being immersed in everyday life, but it is already developing in the sphere of ordinary human relationships. The plot itself: the foundation of the Tver Otroche Monastery.
When it turns out that Ksenia has been given to another, Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavovich, Grigory dresses in a peasant dress and goes into the forest, where “build yourself a hut and a chapel.” The main reason that Gregory decides to found a monastery is not a pious desire to devote himself to God, but unrequited love.
The founding of the monastery and the prince’s help in its construction finally confirm the main idea of the story, that everything that happens happens for the betterment of the world. “The monastery still stands today through the grace of God and the prayers of the Most Holy Theotokos and the Great Saint Peter, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, the Wonderworker.”“The Tale of the Tver Youth Monastery” has the features of an epic plot. It is similar to the translated chivalric novel by its love theme; as in "Bova",
we meet here a classic love triangle and the twists and turns within this triangle that are beyond the reader’s foresight. Fate is inescapable, but it promised the prince a happy love, and Gregory - an unhappy one. The youth has nothing more to look forward to in this world; he must build a monastery only in order to please the Lord and become “blessed.” Thus, on the ladder of Christian moral values, carnal, earthly love turns out to be one step higher - a conclusion apparently not intended by the author.
The Tale of "Grief - Misfortune"
One of the outstanding works of literature of the second half of the 17th century.
Central theme: theme of tragic fate younger generation, trying to break with the old forms of family and everyday life, domostroevsky morality.
The plot of the story is based on the tragic life story of Young Man, who rejected his parents’ instructions and wished to live of his own free will, “as he pleases.” Appearance in general – collective image representative of the younger generation of his time - an innovative phenomenon. Per liter
The historical personality is replaced by a fictional hero, embodying the typical traits of an entire generation. Well done, he grew up in a patriarchal family living according to the principles of Domostroy. He was surrounded by the love and care of his parents. But because of this, he has not learned to understand people and understand life, so he wants to break out from under his parents’ wing and live according to his own will. He is too gullible, and this gullibility and belief in the sanctity of the bonds of friendship destroys him, but he does not want to give up and wants to prove that he is right by going to a foreign country. The reason for the further misadventures of the Young Man is his character. He is ruined by boasting about his happiness and wealth. This is the moral - “but the word of praise has always rotted.” From this moment on, the image of Grief appears in the work, which personifies the unfortunate fate of a person. The young man, who rejected parental authority, is forced to bow his head before Grief. “Good people” sympathize with him and advise him to return to his parents. But now it’s just
Gore Literature Ancient Rus' arose in the 11th century. and developed over seven centuries until the Petrine era. Old Russian literature is a single whole with all the diversity of genres, themes, and images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works there are conversations about the most important philosophical, moral problems
The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. Thus, images, ideas, even the style of writings were inherited by A. S. Pushkin, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
Old Russian literature did not arise out of nowhere. Its appearance was prepared by the development of language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria and due to the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. The first literary works to appear in Rus' were translated. Those books that were necessary for worship were translated.
The first original works, that is, written by the Eastern Slavs themselves, date back to the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. V. The formation of Russian national literature was taking place, its traditions and features were taking shape, determining its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.
The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.
II. Features of Old Russian literature.
2. 1. Historicism of content.
Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's imagination. Authors of works of fiction, even if they describe the true events of real people, conjecture a lot. But in Ancient Rus' everything was completely different. The ancient Russian scribe only talked about what, in his opinion, really happened. Only in the 17th century. Household stories appeared in Rus' with fictional characters and plots.
Both the ancient Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described actually happened. Thus, chronicles were a kind of legal document for the people of Ancient Rus'. After the death of Moscow Prince Vasily Dmitrievich in 1425, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar Khan to arbitrate their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to reign in Moscow, referred to ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.
2. 2. Handwritten nature of existence.
Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of its existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Rus' changed the situation little until the middle of the 18th century. The existence of literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special veneration of the book. What even separate treatises and instructions were written about. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to instability ancient Russian works literature. Those works that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could last for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are such concepts as “manuscript” (handwritten text) and “list” (rewritten work). The manuscript may contain lists various works and can be written either by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term “edition,” i.e., the purposeful processing of a monument caused by socio-political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor.
Closely related to the existence of a work in manuscripts is such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.
The author's principle in Old Russian literature is muted, implicit. Old Russian scribes were not thrifty with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were processed: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or inserted into them, and stylistic “decorations” were added. Sometimes the author's ideas and assessments were even replaced by the opposite ones. The lists of one work differed significantly from each other.
Old Russian scribes did not at all strive to reveal their involvement in literary composition. Many monuments have remained anonymous; the authorship of others has been established by researchers based on indirect evidence. So it is impossible to attribute to someone else the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated “weaving of words.” The style of Ivan the Terrible’s messages is inimitable, boldly mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of simple conversation.
It happens that in a manuscript one or another text was signed with the name of an authoritative scribe, which may or may not correspond to reality. Thus, among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave these works additional authority.
The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the ancient Russian “writer” did not consciously try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.
2. 4. Literary etiquette.
The famous literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature, Academician D. S. Likhachev, proposed a special term to designate the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - “literary etiquette”.
Literary etiquette consists of:
From the idea of how this or that course of events should have taken place;
From ideas about how one should behave actor according to your position;
From ideas about what words the writer should have described what was happening.
We have before us the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words. The hero is supposed to behave this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only in appropriate terms.
III. The main genres of ancient Russian literature.
The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of “genre poetics.” It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature the genre did not play such an important role.
A sufficient amount of research has been devoted to the genre uniqueness of ancient Russian literature, but there is still no clear classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.
3. 1. Hagiographic genre.
Life is a description of the life of a saint.
Russian hagiographic literature includes hundreds of works, the first of which were written already in the 11th century. The Life, which came to Rus' from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity, became the main genre of ancient Russian literature, that literary form, in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Rus' were clothed.
The compositional and verbal forms of life have been refined over the centuries. High theme - story about a life that embodies ideal service to the world and God - determines the image of the author and the style of narration. The author of the life tells the story excitedly; he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic and his admiration for his righteous life. The author's emotionality and excitement color the entire narrative in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. This atmosphere is also created by the style of narration - high solemn, full of quotations from the Holy Scriptures.
When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) was obliged to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of a correct life should be three-fold: introduction, story about the life and deeds of the saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author asks forgiveness from readers for their inability to write, for the rudeness of the narrative, etc. The introduction was followed by the life itself. It cannot be called a “biography” of a saint in the full sense of the word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of a saint is freed from everything everyday, concrete, and accidental. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, names of historical figures. The action of the life takes place, as it were, outside of historical time and specific space; it unfolds against the backdrop of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of the hagiographic style.
At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most important parts of life, requiring great literary art, good knowledge of rhetoric.
The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora.
3. 2. Eloquence.
Eloquence is an area of creativity characteristic of the most ancient period of the development of our literature. Monuments of church and secular eloquence are divided into two types: teaching and solemn.
Solemn eloquence required depth of concept and great literary skill. The speaker needed the ability to construct a speech effectively in order to capture the listener, set him in a high mood corresponding to the topic, and shock him with pathos. Existed special term to denote a solemn speech - “word”. (There was no terminological unity in ancient Russian literature. A military story could also be called “the Word.”) Speeches were not only pronounced, but written and distributed in numerous copies.
Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrow practical goals; it required the formulation of problems of broad social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for creating “words” are theological issues, issues of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, internal and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.
The most ancient monument of solemn eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050.
Teaching eloquence is teachings and conversations. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and written in the Old Russian language, which was generally accessible to people of that time. Church leaders and princes could deliver teachings.
Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes and contain necessary for a person information. “Instruction to the Brethren” by Luke Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of behavior that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not utter “shameful” words. Go to church and behave quietly in it, honor your elders, judge truthfully, honor your prince, do not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.
Theodosius of Pechora is the founder of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: not to be late for church, make three prostrations, maintain decorum and order when singing prayers and psalms, and bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechora demands complete renunciation from the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigil. The abbot sternly denounces idleness, money-grubbing, and intemperance in food.
3. 3. Chronicle.
Chronicles were weather records (by “summers” - by “years”). The annual entry began with the words: “Into the summer.” After this there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of posterity. These could be military campaigns, raids by steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.
It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.
Most often, the ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk who sometimes spent many years compiling the chronicle. In those days, it was customary to start telling stories about history from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had to first of all find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had at his disposal not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to “reduce” them, that is, combine them, choosing from each what he considered necessary to include in his own work. When materials relating to the past were collected, the chronicler moved on to presenting the events of his time. The result of this great work was the chronicle collection. After some time, other chroniclers continued this collection.
Apparently, the first major monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing was the chronicle code compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this code is believed to have been the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).
Nikon's work formed the basis of another chronicle, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. In the scientific literature it received the code name “Initial arch”. Its nameless compiler replenished Nikon's collection not only with news from recent years, but also with chronicle information from other Russian cities.
“The Tale of Bygone Years”
Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle monument of the era of Kievan Rus - “The Tale of Bygone Years” was born.
It was compiled in Kyiv in the 10s. 12th century According to some historians, its probable compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, also known for his other works. When creating “The Tale of Bygone Years,” its compiler used numerous materials with which he supplemented the Primary Code. These materials included Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions.
The compiler of “The Tale of Bygone Years” set as his goal not just to tell about the past of Rus', but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among the European and Asian peoples.
The chronicler talks in detail about the settlement of Slavic peoples in ancient times, about the settlement of territories by the Eastern Slavs that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the morals and customs of different tribes. The Tale of Bygone Years emphasizes not only the antiquity of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.
The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus'. The story of the first Russian Christians, the baptism of Rus', the spread of the new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, and the success of Christian enlightenment occupies a central place in the Tale.
The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in “The Tale of Bygone Years” suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, a deep thinker, and a brilliant publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the Tale, sought to imitate him and almost necessarily placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new chronicle.
1. Literature of the period of Kievan Rus (XI-XII centuries)
This is the literature of a single ancient Russian nation. The literature of this period is also called the literature of Kievan Rus. The Kiev state was one of the most advanced states of its time. The Russian land was famous for its rich cities. In the 12th century. it had more than 200 cities. The oldest Russian cities included Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, and Smolensk.
In Kyiv and other Russian cities, from the end of the 11th century in Kyiv, the sister of Prince Yaroslav, Anna, established a women's school, the first in Europe. Literature XI-XII centuries. was the basis on which the subsequent development of the literatures of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus took place. The main monuments of this period are associated with Kyiv. The most important genres of literature are created here: chronicle, historical story, hagiography, word.
2. Literature of the period of feudal fragmentation and unification of North-Eastern Rus' (XII-XV centuries)
The process of feudal fragmentation led to the collapse of Kievan Rus and the formation of new political and cultural centers: Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, and Tver principalities. Literature develops separately in each of them. But during the period of the struggle against the Tatar-Mongols, literature called for the unification of all forces to fight against the enemies. The most significant literary monuments of this period are “The Prayer of Daniel the Prisoner”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, “Zadonshchina”, “Walking across the Three Seas”, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”.
3. Literature of the period of the centralized Russian state (XVI-XVII centuries)
During this period, the literature of the emerging Russian nation was created. The church worldview is giving way to a secular one, and a more widespread democratic readership is appearing. Literary genres are becoming more democratic in both form and content. Artistic fiction emerges, which until the 17th century. was not in the literature. Literature of the 17th century was mainly of a journalistic nature, reflecting the ideological positions of the warring parties (Correspondence between Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky). The literature of this period is characterized by the development of the story, presented in its various genre exploits: hagiographical (“The Tale of Juliania Lazarevskaya”), historical (“The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks”), everyday (“The Tale of Woe and Misfortune”), satirical (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, “The Tale of Hawkmoth”).
An outstanding writer of the 17th century. was Archpriest Avvakum, author of the Life.
In addition to democratic literature in the 17th century. High literature continues to develop, and a special style emerges, called “Baroque.” Baroque was an aristocratic phenomenon, opposed to Russian democratic and satirical literature. This trend embraced court poetry and drama.
6. Main themes and genres of Old Russian literature
So, the literature of Ancient Rus' had very special circumstances of its origin, a special place and functions in the life of society. It was they who were ahead of the system of original genres. In fact, it was “one theme and one plot. This plot is world history, and this theme is the meaning of human life,” as D.S. Likhachev noted
The genres of ancient Russian literature were as follows: chronicles and chronographs - about the history of the world, chronicles - about the history of Rus'; further - countless biblical books and paleys (from the Greek palaios - ancient) - the same description of biblical events, but with reasoning and interpretation. The lives of saints were popular - a large collection of biographies of Christian ascetics, famous for their piety and asceticism, or who died for their religious beliefs at the hands of pagans or infidels, and patericons - collections of short, often action-packed stories from the lives of monks. Teachings and "words" represented the genre of solemn eloquence : the first denounced vices, welcomed virtues and in every possible way instructed believers in Christian morality; and secondly, pronounced in the church during the service, the religious symbols and meanings of church holidays were revealed. . Unfortunately, we cannot completely reconstruct ancient folklore, but its later examples that have come down to us and its mentions in the literature of older times give us undoubted evidence of the presence of an extensive system of genres of ancient Russian folklore. The system of literary genres was not specific to only one ancient Russian literature: in Byzantium in the 9th-10th centuries. we will find almost the same genres in the same proportions. Secular genres - the love story and lyric poetry - appeared in Byzantine literature somewhat later, in the 11th-12th centuries, but under the conditions of strict selection of literature for translation, books of this kind were practically not represented in Ancient Rus', with rare exceptions: for example, epic poems about Digenis Akrites. Pay attention to one more important circumstance: until the 17th century. Literary fiction was not allowed in literature. By fiction we should understand the fiction of the author himself: the scribe always only wrote down the witnesses of events will appear in Russian literature no earlier than the 15th century, although he will still be masquerading as a hero of a distant country or an ancient time.
Only one genre allowed outright fiction, but only to illustrate an idea - this is the apologist, or parable.
Is it possible today to imagine a life in which there are no books, newspapers, magazines, or notebooks? Modern people are so accustomed to the fact that everything important and requiring organization should be written down, that without this knowledge would be unsystematized and fragmentary. But this was preceded by a very difficult period that lasted for millennia. Literature consisted of chronicles, chronicles and lives of saints. Works of fiction began to be written much later.
When did ancient Russian literature emerge? The prerequisite for the emergence of Old Russian literature was various forms of oral folklore and pagan legends. Slavic writing
originated only in the 9th century AD. Until this time, knowledge and epics were passed on from mouth to mouth. But the baptism of Rus' and the creation of the alphabet by Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius in 863 opened the way for books from Byzantium, Greece, and Bulgaria. Christian teaching was transmitted through the first books. Since there were few written sources in ancient times, the need arose to rewrite books. ABC contributed Eastern Slavs. Since the Old Russian language is similar to the Old Bulgarian, the Slavic alphabet, which was used in Bulgaria and Serbia, could be used in Rus'. The Eastern Slavs gradually adopted a new writing system. In ancient Bulgaria, by the 10th century, culture had reached its peak of development. Works by writers John the Exarch of Bulgaria, Clement, and Tsar Simeon began to appear. Their works also influenced ancient Russian culture.
Christianization ancient Russian state made writing a necessity, because without it state life, social life, and international relations are impossible. The Christian religion is not able to exist without teachings, solemn words, lives, and the life of the prince and his court, relations with neighbors and enemies were reflected in the chronicles. Translators and copyists appeared. They were all church people: priests, deacons, monks. Rewriting took a lot of time, and there were still few books.
Old Russian books were written mainly on parchment, which was obtained after special processing of pork, calf, and lamb skin. In the ancient Russian state, handwritten books were called “harateynye”, “harati” or “veal books”. The durable but expensive material also made books expensive, which is why it was so important to find a replacement for pet leather. Foreign paper, called “overseas”, appeared only in the 14th century. But until the 17th century, parchment was used to write valuable state documents.
Ink was made by combining old iron (nails) and tannin (growths on oak leaves called “ink nuts”). To make the ink thick and shiny, cherry and molasses glue was poured into it. Ferrous ink having brown tint, were distinguished by increased durability. To add originality and decorativeness, colored ink, gold or silver sheets were used. For writing, they used goose feathers, the tip of which was cut off, and a cut was made in the middle of the point.
What century does ancient Russian literature belong to?
The first ancient Russian written sources date back to the 9th century. The ancient Russian state of Kievan Rus occupied an honorable place among other European states. Written sources contributed to the strengthening of the state and its development. Ends Old Russian period in the 17th century.
Periodization of Old Russian literature.
- Written sources of Kievan Rus: the period covers the 11th century and the beginning of the 13th century. At this time, the main written source was the chronicle.
- Literature of the second third of the 13th century and the end of the 14th century. The Old Russian state is going through a period of fragmentation. Dependence on the Golden Horde set back the development of culture many centuries ago.
- The end of the 14th century, which is characterized by the unification of the principalities of the northeast into one Moscow principality, the emergence of appanage principalities, and the beginning of the 15th century.
- XV - XVI centuries: this is the period of centralization of the Russian state and the emergence of journalistic literature.
- The 16th - end of the 17th century is the New Age, which marks the emergence of poetry. Now works are released with an indication of the author.
The oldest of famous works Russian literature is the Ostromir Gospel. It received its name from the name of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, who ordered the scribe Deacon Gregory to translate it. During 1056 - 1057 the translation has been completed. This was the mayor's contribution to the St. Sophia Cathedral, erected in Novgorod.
The second Gospel is the Arkhangelsk Gospel, which was written in 1092. From the literature of this period there is a lot of hidden and philosophical meaning hidden in the Izbornik of Grand Duke Svyatoslav in 1073. The Izbornik reveals the meaning and idea of mercy, the principles of morality. The philosophical thought of Kievan Rus was based on the gospels and apostolic epistles. They described the earthly life of Jesus and also described his miraculous resurrection.
Books have always been the source of philosophical thought. Translations from Syriac, Greek, and Georgian penetrated into Rus'. There were also translations from European countries: England, France, Norway, Denmark, Sweden. Their works were revised and rewritten by ancient Russian scribes. Old Russian philosophical culture is a reflection of mythology and has Christian roots. Among the monuments of ancient Russian writing, the “Messages of Vladimir Monomakh” and “Prayers of Daniil the Zatochnik” stand out.
The first ancient Russian literature is characterized by high expressiveness and richness of language. To enrich the Old Church Slavonic language, they used the language of folklore and the performances of orators. Two literary styles arose, one of which was “High,” which was solemn, and the other, “Low,” which was used in everyday life.
Genres of literature
- lives of saints, include biographies of bishops, patriarchs, founders of monasteries, saints (created in compliance with special rules and required a special style of presentation) - patericon (life of the first saints Boris and Gleb, Abbess Feodosia),
- lives of saints, which are presented from a different point of view - apocrypha,
- historical works or chronicles (chronographs) - brief records of the history of ancient Rus', Russian chronograph of the second half of the 15th century,
- works about fictional travels and adventures - walking.
Genres of Old Russian literature table
The central place among the genres of ancient Russian literature is occupied by chronicle writing, which developed over the centuries. These are weather records of the history and events of Ancient Rus'. The chronicle is a preserved written chronicle (from the word - summer, records begin “in the summer”) monument from one or several lists. The names of the chronicles are random. This may be the name of the scribe or the name of the area where the chronicle was written. For example, Lavrentyevskaya - on behalf of the scribe Lavrenty, Ipatyevskaya - after the name of the monastery where the chronicle was found. Often chronicles are collections that combine several chronicles at once. The source for such vaults were protographs.
The chronicle that served as the basis for the vast majority of ancient Russian written sources is the Tale of Bygone Years of 1068. A common feature chronicles of the XII - XV centuries is that the chroniclers no longer consider political events in their chronicles, but focus on the needs and interests of “their principality” (Chronicle of Veliky Novgorod, Pskov chronicle, chronicle of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, Moscow chronicle), and not events of the Russian land as a whole, as it was before
What work do we call a monument of ancient Russian literature?
“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” of 1185-1188 is considered the main monument of ancient Russian literature, describing not so much an episode from the Russian-Polovtsian wars, but rather reflecting events on an all-Russian scale. The author connects Igor’s failed campaign in 1185 with strife and calls for unification for the sake of saving his people.
Sources of personal origin are heterogeneous verbal sources that are united by a common origin: private correspondence, autobiographies, travel descriptions. They reflect the author’s direct perception of historical events. Such sources first appeared in the princely period. These are the memoirs of Nestor the chronicler, for example.
In the 15th century, the heyday of chronicle writing began, when voluminous chronicles and short chroniclers coexisted, telling about the activities of one princely family. Two parallel directions emerge: the official and oppositional point of view (the church and princely descriptions).
Here we should talk about the problem of falsification historical sources or the creation of documents that have never existed before, amendments to original documents. For this purpose, entire systems of methods were developed. In the 18th century, interest in historical science was universal. This resulted in the appearance of a large number of counterfeits, presented in an epic form and passed off as the original. A whole industry is emerging in Russia for falsifying ancient sources. We study burned or lost chronicles, for example the Lay, from surviving copies. This is how copies were made by Musin-Pushkin, A. Bardin, A. Surakadzev. Among the most mysterious sources is the “Book of Veles,” found on the Zadonsky estate in the form of wooden tablets with text scratched on them.
Old Russian literature of the 11th – 14th centuries is not only teachings, but also rewriting from Bulgarian originals or translation from Greek of a huge amount of literature. Done large-scale work allowed ancient Russian scribes to become acquainted with the main genres and literary monuments of Byzantium over two centuries.
1.The emergence of DRL, its specifics. DRL arose in the 11th-17th centuries. Folklore: fairy tales, proverbs, ritual poetry, sayings; Mythology: topological legends, war songs, epics, legends. 988- Baptism of Rus'. Greco-Byzantine culture. Socio-historical prerequisites of the DRL: 1) formation of the state (decomposition of the communal-tribal system, formation of feudalism); 2) Formation of a nation; 3) the existence of highly developed forms of CNTs; 4) the emergence of writing (863 Cyril and Methodius created the word alphabet - the cultural dawn of the eastern and southern Slavs). Books came to Rus' through Bulgaria from Byzantium: religious books (bible); apocrypha - religious banned publications; hagiography - lives of saints; historiographic books - chronicles, stories; natural-scientific-descriptive plant, animal world; patristics - works of the church fathers (John Chrysostom, Gregory the Low, Basil the Great). Specifics: 1) DRL is handwritten. 2) Anonymity (personality) the author does not recognize himself as an author, he is a “guide”, he only records facts, does not strive to stick out, fiction is not allowed, fiction is a lie); 3) Historicism . 4) Texts exist in collections . Variability and instability. The scribe could change the text . 5) Retrospective. Constant feeling of connection between times . 6) Monumentalism. The desire of the DR writer to fit and comprehend the life of a private person or an individual people into universal human history. 7 )DRL was not singled out as a type of creative literature, because literature was inextricably linked with religion, science, and philosophy. 8 )DRL was created in the Church Slavonic language. Pagan legends in Ancient Rus' were not written down, but were transmitted orally. Christian teaching was presented in books, therefore, with the adoption of Christianity, books appeared in Rus'. The need for books in Rus' at the time of the adoption of Christianity was great, but there were few books. The process of copying books was long and difficult. The first books were written by statute, or rather, they were not written, but drawn. Each letter was drawn separately. Continuous writing appeared only in the 15th century. First books. The oldest Russian book that has reached us is the so-called Ostromir Gospel. The parchment on which the first books were written was very expensive. Therefore, the customers are rich people or the church. The oldest Russian chronicle, The Tale of Bygone Years, dated 1037, reports that Prince Yaroslav the Wise had a passion for books; he ordered the gathering of scribes who translated and copied many books. In the first half of the 11th century. In Rus', many monuments of Byzantine and Bulgarian literature are indeed becoming famous. Among the books, liturgical texts or monuments predominated, containing the foundations of the Christian worldview and Christian morality. However, scribes brought from Bulgaria, translated or rewrote works of other genres: chronicles, historical and historical stories, natural science works, collections of sayings.
2. Genres of DRL, periodization of DRL. Genre name a historically established type of literary work, an abstract sample, on the basis of which specific texts are created literary works. Old Russian literature developed largely under the influence Byzantine literature and borrowed the system of genres from her. The specificity of the genres of Old Russian literature lies in their connection with traditional Russian folk art. The genres of ancient Russian literature are usually divided into primary and unifying. Primary genres. These genres are called primary because they served as building material for unifying genres. Primary genres: life, word, teaching, story. Primary genres also include weather recording, chronicle story, chronicle legend and church legend. Life . The genre of hagiography was borrowed from Byzantium. This is the most common and favorite genre of DRL. Life was an indispensable attribute when a person was canonized, i.e. were canonized. Life was always created after the death of a person. It performed a huge educational function. In addition, life deprived a person of the fear of death, preaching the idea of the immortality of the human soul. Life was built according to certain canons. Canons of Life: 1) The pious origin of the hero of the life, whose parents must have been righteous. A saint was born a saint, not made one; 2) The saint was distinguished by an ascetic lifestyle, spending time in solitude and prayer; 3) Description of the miracles that occurred during the life of the saint and after his death; 3) The saint was not afraid of death; 4) The life ended with the glorification of the saint (the life of the holy princes Boris and Gleb).
Old Russian eloquence. This genre was borrowed by ancient Russian literature from Byzantium, where eloquence was a form of oratory. In ancient Russian literature, eloquence appeared in three varieties: Didactic (instructive); Political; Solemn. Teaching. Teaching is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. Teaching is a genre in which ancient Russian chroniclers tried to present a model of behavior for any ancient Russian person: both for the prince and for the commoner. The most striking example of this genre is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” included in the Tale of Bygone Years. Word. The word is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. An example of the political variety of ancient Russian eloquence is"The Tale of Igor's Campaign." An example of political eloquence is “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land.” The author glorifies the bright past and mourns the present. Sample ceremonial variety Old Russian eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, which was created in the first third of the 11th century. The main idea of the “Sermon on Law and Grace” is that Rus' is as good as Byzantium. Tale. A story is a text of an epic nature, telling about princes, military exploits, and princely crimes. Examples are “The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River”, “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu Khan”, “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”.
Uniting genres Primary genres acted as part of unifying genres, such as the chronicle, chronograph, cheti-menaion, and patericon. Chronicle - this is a story about historical events. This is the most ancient genre of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', the chronicle reported on historical events of the past, but was also a political and legal document. The oldest chronicle is “The Tale of Bygone Years. The chronicle tells about the origin of the Russians, the genealogy of the Kyiv princes and the emergence of the ancient Russian state. Chronograph - these are texts containing a description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries.
Chetyi-Minei (literally “reading by month”) - a collection of works about holy people. Patericon - a description of the life of the holy fathers. Special mention should be made about the genre apocrypha . Apocrypha – from the ancient Greek language as “intimate, secret.” These are works of a religious and legendary nature. Apocrypha became especially popular in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the church did not recognize this genre and does not recognize it to this day. Likhachev identifies the periods: 1) period 11th-early 12th century in literature, the monumental-historical style dominates, the relative unity of literature: a single Kyiv literature. Literature develops in two centers - Kyiv and Novgorod. The time of the appearance of the first Russian Lives. (“The Life of Boris and Gleb” is the first Russian life). The origin of the original Russian genre - chronicle writing - “The Tale of Bygone Years” (PVL). 2) period mid 12th century - first third of the 13th century. New literary centers are emerging: Suzdal, Rostov, Smolensk, Galich, etc. Local literary features - local themes. The time began for feudal fragmentation. Periods 1 and 2 are the literature of Kievan Rus, because The style of monumental historicism (MSM) dominates. 3) period late 13th - early 14th century. The period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Literature is dying out for a while - one theme dominates in literature - the theme of the fight against invaders, hence tragedy, patriotism, citizenship - these are the leading features of the time. 4) period end of the 14th - first half of the 15th century. The age of pre-renaissance, Rus' is economically and culturally revived, an expressive-emotional style (characteristic of hagiographies) dominates. 5) period second half of the 15th century. Translated works penetrate into the DRL: “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of Basarga”. In 1453 Constantinople (the capital of Byzantium) fell, and literature was democratized. Byzantium does not influence the life of Rus', the development of culture, important; becomes an independent, unfinished state. A single entity begins to form central state(Moscow and Novgorod), a heretical shutdown occurs. 6) period Mid 16th century. The main feature is the dominance of the journalistic style: the time of struggle between the nobility and the boyars. 7) period 17th century Transition to new literature. The development of the individual principle in the work of writers is increasing (authorship, theater, poetry appear).
6.PVL: types of chronicle narrative. 1)Weather records. They are short. The simplest element in the chronicle text, only reporting an event, but not describing it. 2) Chronicle legend. They are based on oral political traditions, but the chronicler takes from them only the factual side, and not the moral assessment. 3) Chronicle story- This is an expanded form of weather recording. Containing a business story about important events. 4)Chronicle story. It presents the ideal image of the prince. 5) Documentation, cat. taken from book archives, contracts, “Russian Truth” - the first set of laws. 6) Included Tales of Bygone Years also included legends. For example, a story about the origin of the name of the city of Kyiv on behalf of Prince Kiy; tales of the Prophetic Oleg, who defeated the Greeks and died from the bite of a snake hidden in the skull of a deceased princely horse; about Princess Olga, cunningly and cruelly taking revenge on the Drevlyan tribe for the murder of her husband. The chronicler is invariably interested in news about the past of the Russian land, about the founding of cities, hills, rivers and the reasons why they received these names. Legends also report this. IN Tales of Bygone Years the share of legends is very large, since the initial events of ancient Russian history described in it are separated from the time of work of the first chroniclers by many decades and even centuries. 7) A significant part of the text in Tales of Bygone Years occupy battle narratives, written in the so-called military style, and princely obituaries. 8) Included Tales of Bygone Years turn on and stories of saints, written in a special hagiographic style. This is the story of the brother-princes Boris and Gleb under 1015, who, imitating the humility and non-resistance of Christ, meekly accepted death at the hands of their half-brother Svyatopolk, (According to academician Shakhmatov, it was written at the beginning unknown author the legend of Boris and Gleb, which was included in the "Ancient Chronicle Code", on the basis of which the "Tale of Bygone Years" was subsequently compiled), and the story of the holy Pechersk monks under 1074.
