Textbook: Fundamentals of production process technologies. Main directions for improving the organization of production processes

What questions will you find answers to in this article:

Why should the CEO listen to workers?
How to encourage staff to improve their work?
What practical tools are there to improve production efficiency?

You will also read:

How did the working group solve the problem with defects at the VSMPO-Avisma corporation?
Why has the total production cycle time at the Kaluga Automotive Electrical Equipment Plant decreased?
Expert advice: how to implement kaizen in five days (commentary by Michael Vader)?

Before assembling the engine, the engine armature is balanced to eliminate vibrations - pieces of paste are attached, which are broken off from the whole piece, like plasticine.

Periodic work is an activity that is not included in each cycle of manufacturing or processing a part: control, changing tools, oil, receiving parts, materials in storerooms, cleaning the workplace, etc.

For production to operate efficiently, it is not enough to purchase equipment and establish production technology. The main part of the production process is the work of personnel. If you can not only teach people to perform their daily routine work efficiently, but also interest them in constantly improving their performance results, then your production will work smoothly and efficiently. It is important to choose the right control technology.

Western management methods recommend standardizing processes, describing them in regulations and communicating them strictly “from top to bottom” to staff. But such methods almost eliminate the manager’s feedback from people. As a result, the General Director does not often visit production and does not consider it necessary to listen to the opinions of workers or technical personnel. As a result, many production processes are inefficient, and it does not occur to a worker or specialist that he has the power to change the situation. For example, the machine button is located under the worker’s right hand and in order to perform the operation, he has to turn around, spending about a minute on the whole process. On the scale of an entire enterprise, this is a significant time investment. If you move the button under your left hand, the procedure will take no more than 15 seconds. The problem is that such issues, as a rule, do not reach the level of top management.

A worker who feels like a stakeholder in the process would tell the manager how to speed up production operations. And the time savings would be obvious.

How can the General Director interest staff?

Personnel will treat the improvement of production processes at their site as everyday and necessary work if you create an atmosphere in the team of constantly looking for ways to develop. How to do it? Try to convey the following thoughts to your subordinates:

I am interested in the opinion of all company employees.
Everyone is responsible for their own workflow and can suggest improvements. Everyone will be heard.
The decision to change production processes will be discussed in working groups and made collectively.
Initiative workers will be encouraged.

When employees see that you support the changes, that the entire enterprise management system is focused on them, they will actively look for ways to improve their own work. It is equally important that employees are confident in the future. It is impossible to be responsible for and improve the work process if the threat of dismissal is in the air. For example, in our company, I promised people that while I was in charge of production, none of them would be fired. We are talking about a team of like-minded people that I formed over several years. For a company participating in the alcohol market, where personnel rotation occurs frequently, such guarantees are very relevant.

Another incentive for development is the opportunity to gain professional skills at the plant. When production opened, there were few specialists. We hired university graduates as technologists and trained them from scratch. I spent up to 70–80% of my time in the shops, talking with managers and workers, advising on how to solve systemic problems. This is what we do to this day. In addition, we support employees in their pursuit of career growth. All this allows our people to believe that increasing production efficiency (improving quality, productivity, reducing time costs) depends on each of them.

How a working group reduced production defects

At the VSMPO-Avisma corporation, there were a lot of defects in one of the workshops. To cope with the problem, we created a working group.

1. What was done:

collected and analyzed data on the causes of non-conforming products;
the main “problem” products are highlighted (forged rods
and rolling rings) and “problem” stages of production (forging and stripping of rods, making blanks for rings);
a questionnaire survey of workers associated with the production of these products was conducted;
an action plan has been created to reduce the number of defects;
amendments were made to existing technological documents to clarify some important production points;
recommendations have been written for loading furnaces, allowing for high-quality forging and obtaining quality products;
the forging procedure on the press is detailed and described;
“forging maps” have been created, which indicate the sequence of transitions and the time allotted for each transition;
instructions have been written explaining how to improve the quality of metal forging by optimizing the stripping process;
the motivation system for forging site workers has been changed: now defects are analyzed at team meetings, this information is taken into account when making decisions on bonuses;
Operators, blacksmiths, craftsmen were trained to new work standards, and certification was organized;
foremen were trained in the lean production system, which contributed to a change in views on production and a desire among employees to propose improvements.

2. Summary. During the year, the number of defective products decreased by 46%. We did not arrive at this result right away. At first, due to misunderstandings on the part of the workshop workers, difficulties arose with the implementation of the project. But then, in the process of teamwork and training, the need and possibility of change became obvious, and then the work proceeded quickly and amicably.

Based on materials provided by Antonina Sokolova, business coach at CentrOrgProm

Expert opinion

Michael Vader
President and Lead Trainer of Leadership Excellence International Inc, Colorado Springs, USA; certified expert in lean manufacturing implementation

People should not be afraid to suggest improvements; on the contrary, they should be reassured that their efforts will be rewarded. In order for employees to be interested in looking for optimization methods over a long period, it is necessary to gradually include material motivation. For example, pay bonuses at the end of the quarter (year) based on the results of savings due to transformations. It is important that all employees receive equal percentage bonuses and know about it. If a top manager receives, for example, an incentive bonus at the end of the year - 15% of the salary, then the worker should also receive at least 15%.

Leadership Excellence International was founded in 1995. Provides consulting services on optimization of production and business processes, elimination of hidden losses in production and service organizations. It has branches in India, Malaysia, Singapore, and is active in the Russian market.

How to implement lean manufacturing

The main task of the General Director is to be the initiator of the implementation of the lean production method and its active supporter. In practice, you can entrust implementation to the production director.

There are management tools that encourage staff to be interested in the work process, as well as to constantly improve their performance. All of them are aimed at introducing lean thinking into the enterprise. This means that each participant in the process should strive to do their work faster, better and with the least effort. We use five tools in our factory:

1. Creation of an autonomous working group to solve problems.

2. Visual management.

3. Rational use of the production site.

4. Change of types of personnel activities.

5. Maintenance of equipment (workplace).

1. Creation of an autonomous working group to solve problems

As a rule, information from a worker comes to the General Director through the following chain: worker - foreman - foreman - process engineer - department head - workshop manager - production director - General Director. As a result, information may be distorted or delayed.

To speed up the exchange of information, I created working groups at the enterprise. They consist of representatives from all production departments. Groups meet approximately once a week. Employees are given daily, weekly, and monthly tasks. Each group solves the issue at its own level, regulates it and then comes to me with a solution. Let me give you an example. Preparing activated carbon before loading it into carbon columns was a labor-intensive and messy process. At the initiative of the employees, an installation was developed and constructed that allows this operation to be carried out with less labor costs and with better quality. Now coal preparation technology is the know-how of our company

What gives. As a result of this practice, in recent years, our losses of raw materials and auxiliary materials have decreased several times.

General Director speaks

Alexey Baranov

In one Russian car assembly company, work is structured as follows. At a weekly meeting, the assembly team reviews suggestions from operators to improve the process. A decision is then made to implement one or more proposals. What would happen next in most companies? Multi-week approval of improvement proposals, visas in many offices. What's going on here? The team's decision is binding on management. And the workshop manager is given one month to implement it. If you don't meet the deadline, you have yourself to blame. The team will meet again in a month and demand a report.

TsentrOrgProm LLC is a Russian provider of services for the development of Lean systems (lean manufacturing, kaizen, Toyota Production System). Clients: Rusal, KamAZ, VSMPO-Avisma, AvtoVAZ, Uralmashzavod, 1 May confectionery factory, Uralsvyazinform and other companies in Russia and neighboring countries.

2. Visual management

Visual management tools may vary depending on the specifics of production. Quality department employees are usually responsible for the development and application of visual management tools in production. At our factory, bar graphs hang in front of the workshops, and all employees can familiarize themselves with the operating status of the production line by shift. Indicators below the norm are marked in red. Next comes the downtime analysis, all performers identify its causes. They can be organizational, supply-related, functional, etc. Quality department employees document the work of the bottling line per shift, the operation of the machines, and analyze the reasons for stoppages. All this is noted on the primary accounting sheets, compiled and then analyzed at meetings with the workshop manager. Another useful tool for visual management in production is the distinctive color of the work clothes of quality control department employees. At our production, the specialists of this department are dressed in bright clothes, so that each employee can quickly seek advice if a problem or question arises.

What gives. Saving time and labor costs.

General Director speaks

Alexey Baranov

General Director of TsentrOrgProm LLC, Yekaterinburg

Along with histograms, you can use the andon board system - a device for visual monitoring of the production process. It can be a board that shows what is happening at the enterprise, or several light bulbs that light up, notifying about certain processes. For example, a red light indicates that for some reason the equipment has stopped; a light of a different color is lit if the equipment requires loading, that is, it has run out of materials or requires worker intervention.

3. Rational use of the production site

Rationally organized workplaces meet the following requirements: free space around the worker, absence of obstacles (nothing should interfere with his movements), passages between machines and workshops are designed so that workers do not have to spend a lot of time moving.

What gives. Increasing equipment utilization rate, saving time and labor costs, freeing up production space, reducing losses during transportation and movement.

A practitioner tells

Marina Antyufeeva
Director for Development, Production Optimization and Quality Management System of the Automotive Components Division of Avtokom OJSC, Kaluga

In 2005, at the Kaluga Automotive Electrical Equipment Plant (KZAE), I headed the production development center. We started introducing improvements from the assembly areas, since there was equipment that was easy to move and operations were short in duration. There is now a shortage of personnel at all factories in Russia; there was a shortage of balancers in the assembly areas of this enterprise. When observing the operator’s work, it turned out that the balancer receives paste at the workshop warehouse four to five times per shift (which is 1.66 seconds per part). If the balancing paste is delivered to the workplace, this will reduce periodic work by 35 hours.

Another example. Analyzing the work of the assembly section, it was revealed that the equipment was placed not according to the technological chain, but according to the principle “where there was free space.” We made a new layout, arranged the equipment sequentially - in accordance with the technological process. Now the part moved from machine to machine and was passed from hand to hand. There is no longer a need for a large amount of containers and a supply of parts, 90 sq. m. has been freed up. m of area, the total production cycle time decreased from 420.11 sec. up to 331.86 sec. This increased the site's throughput by 20%. And most importantly, the operators, mostly women, stopped carrying heavy loads from one workplace to another.

OJSC "Avtokom"- one of the suppliers of AvtoVAZ, manages the Kaluga Auto Electronics Plant, the Avtopribor plant (Kaluga), the Kozelsky Mechanical Plant (Kaluga region), the Lyskovsky Electrical Engineering Plant (Nizhny Novgorod region), the Serpukhov Automobile Plant, owns a 50 percent share of the Kinelagroplast plant (Samara Region). The company was founded in 2000. Number of employees - 16.5 thousand. Annual turnover - 300 million US dollars.

4. Change of activities (rotation of personnel)

After you have explained to people that improvements can and should be proposed, it is necessary that this be done not from time to time, but systematically. It is important that employees understand what depends on the results of work on their production site, so that they become familiar with related processes. If a worker produces a low-quality product and it ends up in the next workshop, the workers of this workshop will have no time to think about whether to improve the process - they will have to eliminate the defects. You can solve this problem by rotating staff. Recommend that the production director move specialists from one workshop to another several times a year.

At our plant, specialists from one workshop periodically move to another and work there for some time. For example, technologists from the blending shop move to the bottling shop, where more issues are related to the organization of labor and assembly. For now, this practice is common only in production, but over time, I hope it will be applied throughout the company.

What gives. Employees become familiar with related processes, communicate, work together to solve cross-functional problems, and then standardize procedures to prevent the problems from recurring in the future. In addition, this approach disciplines the staff, makes it possible to understand what exactly is slowing down the work at the enterprise, which specialists duplicate or redo each other’s work.

5. Maintenance of equipment (workplace)

Working at an enterprise should be convenient. To do this, it is necessary that the condition of the equipment is impeccable, everything necessary (tools, workpieces) is at hand, and everything unnecessary is removed from the work table. Our company has an equipment care system that requires the participation of not only technical department employees, but also machine operators at their workplaces. It includes carrying out scheduled preventive maintenance and preventive inspections.

What gives. Changeover time is reduced, the risks of equipment emergency stops are reduced, and production safety is increased. The result of careful treatment of equipment in our company was that using domestic equipment we achieved the maximum utilization rate of bottling lines - 0.88–0.90 (while normally it is 0.80–0.85). Some companies cannot achieve this with advanced German and Italian equipment.

Boeing Visual Guidance System

The visual production management system at the Boeing Moscow Design Center is structured as follows. The designers are located in a large hall, each with their own workplace, which is separated from the others by small partitions. Each person works at his own computer and is not distracted by anything, but if he gets up, he can see the whole hall. The manager's workplace is at some elevation, and he sees the entire hall. The center has adopted the following visual system: if the designer has completed the task, he raises a green flag. The manager sees that the employee is free and can perform the next task. If the performer has problems that do not require immediate intervention, then he raises a yellow flag. And the manager knows that when he has free time, he must approach this person. If the problem is serious (the designer cannot complete even half of his task), the employee raises a red flag - this is already a signal not only for the manager, but also for the entire team of employees appointed in advance. Team members see a red flag and immediately go to the colleague in need of help, figure out what happened, and work together to fix the problem.

Based on materials provided by TsentrOrgProm LLC

General Director speaks

Alexey Baranov
General Director of TsentrOrgProm LLC, Yekaterinburg

At one of the light industry enterprises located on the Volga, a team of mechanics had the following situation: each mechanic on duty had his own box, which contained all the tools, fixtures, and components, including absolutely unnecessary ones. It took a lot of time to find the tool needed for the job - more than five minutes. When the company began to organize workplaces, the working group, together with the adjusters, analyzed the contents of their boxes. We removed everything rarely used and unnecessary and came to the conclusion that instead of boxes for each adjuster, we could have one for the whole team. So instead of twelve tool boxes there were only four. Since the number of tools and devices has been reduced, less time is now spent searching for the necessary tool - literally a few seconds.

How to implement kaizen in five days

Michael Vader
President and Lead Trainer of Leadership Excellence International Inc, Colorado Springs, USA; certified expert in lean manufacturing implementation.

You can start implementing kaizen in an enterprise with a five-day breakthrough assault. The General Director can participate in the process personally, entrust control over the process to the production director (if we are talking about a manufacturing enterprise) or involve an external consultant.

1st day. The CEO should set a specific goal for employees to achieve after the five-day period (eliminate waste by so many percent, increase productivity by so many percent, reduce cycle time, etc.). It is especially important to show that you will listen to the opinion of not only the top manager, but also the worker.

The next stage is the creation of a working group. It should include no more than six to eight people. Each member of the group has one vote, everyone has the right to express their own opinion. Approximate group composition:

two operators (performing mechanical work);
engineer or supervisor (manager responsible for a specific area where improvements are required);
quality service manager (if we are talking about processes on which quality depends) or repairman (if these are production processes);
two people from other departments (accounting, purchasing or shipping department, representative of the supplier or customer); these people, not privy to the process, will ask questions that may be stupid from the point of view of specialists, but necessary for the emergence of new, breakthrough ideas.

The team goes to the shop floor and collects data on the performance of current operations as of one day (production volume, defect rate, quality issues, hidden losses due to movement around the warehouse, machine downtime, etc.). Then the problems that arise in the process of achieving the goal set by the General Director are described. The task of the first day of the group is to understand the goal and collect data about the process.

2nd day. The person in charge (CEO, production director, external consultant) should lead the team in examining the list of problems that need to be solved on the way to the goal. All participants are involved in the discussion. Combine similar ideas and try to focus on two or three possible solutions. Proposed improvements must be measurable.

3rd day. The working group is discussing the possibility of implementing the ideas. Let the team agree that small trial improvements will be implemented in which all employees can participate. Someone on the team should start documenting the new procedures. It should be taken into account that the group submits a report on the transformations to the General Director no later than the fifth day.

4th day. The group continues to implement changes and begins work on measuring the effectiveness of the new process. To tell management how much improvement the team has made, they will need to compare performance before and after the change.

5th day. The group completes documentation of the new operating procedures and reports to the CEO (if he did not participate in the brainstorming) what improvements were made.

Improvement of technological processes is the core, the core of the entire development of modern production. Improving production technology has been and remains one of the decisive directions of a unified technical policy, the material basis for the technical reconstruction of the national economy.

Since technology is a way of transforming the original subject of labor into a finished product, the relationship between costs and results depends on it. Limited labor and fuel and raw material resources mean that technology must become more economical and help reduce costs per unit of final product. Moreover, the more limited a particular type of resource is, the faster and on a larger scale the improvement of technology should ensure their savings.

Improving production technology, its intensification also means the creation and implementation of new processes that use less scarce raw materials, secondary fuel - raw materials, reducing the stage of processing of raw materials, creating low-operation, low-waste, non-waste technological processes.

The transition of technology to a qualitatively higher level of creating fundamentally new technological processes is one of the main signs of the ongoing scientific and technological revolution. From a long-term perspective, this is the main way to implement fundamental changes in production efficiency and save resources.

The following areas are important in improving technological processes.

Typification of technological processes. The same product can often be obtained using different technological processes. The multitude of processing methods forces the use of typification of technological processes that are similar in nature. Typification consists in reducing diverse technological processes to a limited number of rational types and introducing these single-character processes in a number of industries.

When carrying out typing, first of all, products are divided into classes according to the commonality of technological problems solved during their manufacture.

The second stage of typification is the development of standard technology. If the products are very similar in design and technological characteristics, then a single technological process can be designed for them. If the degree of unification of products is less, then a technological process with less detail is developed for such products.

Standard technological processes contribute to the introduction of the most advanced technological processes into production. The use of standard processes simplifies the development of processes for specific products and reduces the time required for this, as well as speeds up the preparation of production for product release.

Standard technological processes are used in enterprises of mass, large-scale, serial, and also small-scale production with repeated production of the same products. With small batches of products and frequent reconfiguration of equipment, their use does not provide a noticeable economic effect compared to processing using individual processes. Under these conditions, group technology is the most productive and economical.

To develop group technological processes, products are also classified. They are combined into classes based on the homogeneity of the equipment used to process them, and within classes - into groups based on the geometric shape, dimensions and commonality of the surfaces to be processed. The main product of the group is taken to be the most characteristic products that have all the characteristics of the products included in this group. For each group of products, a technological process is developed (called group) and group adjustment using the same technological equipment.

Group technology ensures savings in labor and material costs at all stages of production, makes it possible to effectively use working time, equipment and funds to further improve the technological level of production. Thus, the time spent on developing technological processes is reduced by 15-20% compared to the cost of developing individual processes, and the time spent on designing and manufacturing group equipment is reduced by an average of 50%.

In some cases, technology development follows the path of combination, which is understood as the combination of several different technological processes in a single complex. Combination ensures the most complete use of raw materials and waste, reduces capital investments, and improves the economic performance of production. The basis for creating combined processes can be:

Integrated use of raw materials

Use of production waste.

A combination of successive stages of product processing.

The degree of typification and combination is the most important indicator of the technical and organizational level of technology.

Benefit

BASICS OF PRODUCTION PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

Industry, its structure and characteristics

Industry is the leading sector of the national economy, operating along with other sectors - agriculture, forestry, transport, communications, etc. Industry includes industrial enterprises (factories, factories, power plants, mines, mines, workshops, combines, etc.) and their associations, as well as research, design, engineering and technological institutes, laboratories, bureaus and other organizations.

Industry creates conditions for more efficient use of the country's material and labor resources, to achieve maximum results at optimal costs. The social division of labor has led to the emergence of a number of industries, each of which is specialized in the production of individual products and even their parts.

An industrial sector is a collection of related enterprises characterized by the unity of the economic purpose of the products produced, the uniformity of the raw materials consumed, the commonality of technological processes and technical base, a special professional composition of personnel and specific working conditions.

Industry supplies individual industries with means of production, and above all tools, extracts minerals, processes various raw materials, and produces industrial and food products.

According to the nature of the impact on the subject of labor, industry is divided into mining and manufacturing. The first is engaged in the extraction of minerals and other substances provided to humans by nature, the second - processes raw materials and materials into finished products. According to the economic purpose of the products produced, industry is divided into two divisions - A and B. Group A industry is mainly engaged in the production of means of production and includes industries that produce elements of both basic (machines, mechanisms, apparatus, structures, etc.) and circulating elements resources (raw materials, materials, fuel, energy). Group B includes the light and food industries, producing mainly consumer goods and food products.

In the production process, all sectors of the economy interact, supplying each other with raw materials, materials, tools, and providing the non-production sphere and science with everything necessary.

The technical equipment of industry in all sectors of the national economy serves as the basis for a steady increase in labor productivity and a continuous increase in the scale of production.

Industry is the basis for the restructuring of agricultural production. It processes agricultural raw materials and produces the bulk of consumer goods. Consequently, the satisfaction of the immediate needs of the people largely depends on the development of industry.

The development of industry, especially heavy industry, contributes to a more rational distribution of productive forces, the comprehensive development of all economic regions of the country, and the appropriate use of natural resources.

Production and technological processes

Each enterprise unites a team of workers, at its disposal are machines, buildings and structures, as well as raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, fuel and other means of production in the amounts necessary for the production of certain types of products in a specified quantity within a given time frame. At enterprises, a production process is carried out, during which workers, using tools, transform raw materials into finished products needed by society. Each industrial enterprise is a single production and technical organism. The production and technical unity of an enterprise is determined by the common purpose of the manufactured products or the processes of their production. Production and technical unity is the most important feature of the enterprise.

The basis of the activity of each enterprise is the production process - the process of reproduction of material goods and production relations, the production process is the basis of actions as a result of which raw materials and semi-finished products are transformed into finished products that meet their purpose.

Each production process includes main and auxiliary technological processes. Technological processes that ensure the transformation of raw materials into finished products are called basic. Auxiliary technological processes ensure the manufacture of products used to service the main production. For example, preparation of production, production of energy for own needs, production of tools, equipment, spare parts for repairing enterprise equipment.

By their nature, technological processes are synthetic, in which one type of product is made from various types of raw materials; analytical, when many types of products are made from one type of raw material; direct, when the production of one type of product is carried out from one type of raw material.

The variety of production products, types of raw materials, equipment, work methods, etc. also determines the variety of technological processes. Technological processes differ in the nature of the products manufactured, the materials used, the methods and methods of production used, organizational structure and other characteristics. But at the same time, they also have a number of characteristics that make it possible to combine various processes into groups.

It is generally accepted to divide technological processes into mechanical and physical, chemical and biological and combined.

During mechanical and physical processes, only the appearance and physical properties of the material change. Chemical and biological processes lead to deeper transformations of the material, causing a change in its original properties. Combined processes are a combination of these processes and are the most common in practice.

Depending on the type of prevailing costs, technological processes are distinguished: material-intensive, labor-intensive, energy-intensive, capital-intensive, etc.

Depending on the type of labor used, technological processes can be manual, machine-manual, automatic and hardware.

In any technological process, it is easy to identify a part of it that is repeated with each unit of the same product, called the technological process cycle. The cyclic part of the process can be carried out periodically or continuously; accordingly, periodic and continuous technological processes are distinguished. Processes are called periodic, the cyclic part of which is interrupted after the inclusion of a (new) object of labor in these processes. Continuous technological processes are those that are suspended not after the production of each unit of product, but only when the supply of processed or processed raw materials stops.

The main elements that determine the technological process are purposeful human activity or labor itself, objects of labor and means of labor.

Purposeful activity or work itself is carried out by a person who expends neuromuscular energy to perform various movements, observe and control the impact of tools on objects of labor.

The object of labor is what human labor is directed towards. The objects of labor transformed during the processing process into finished products include: raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials, semi-finished products.

The means of labor are what a person uses to influence the object of labor. Means of labor include buildings and structures, equipment, vehicles and tools. In the composition of the means of labor, the decisive role belongs to the instruments of production, i.e., equipment (especially working machines).

Types of production, their technical and economic characteristics

The type of production, as the most general organizational and technical characteristic of production, is determined mainly by the degree of specialization of workplaces, the size and constancy of the range of production objects, as well as the form of movement of products through workplaces.

The degree of specialization of workplaces is characterized by the serialization coefficient, which refers to the number of different operations performed at one workplace.

Nomenclature refers to the variety of production objects. The range of products manufactured at the workplace can be constant or variable. The permanent range includes products the production of which continues for a relatively long time - a year or more. With a constant nomenclature, the production and release of products can be continuous and periodic, repeated at certain intervals; with variable nomenclature, the production and release of products changes and may be repeated at indefinite intervals or not repeated.

There are three types of production: single, serial and mass.

Unit production is characterized by a wide range of manufactured products and a small volume of their output. Single production is characterized by the following features: the use of universal equipment, universal devices and tools, placement of equipment in groups by type, the longest cycle for manufacturing parts. Experimental, repair and other production workshops are organized according to the principle of unit production.

Serial production is characterized by a limited range of products manufactured in periodically repeating production batches (series) for a given output volume.

A production batch is a group of products of the same name and standard size, launched into processing simultaneously or continuously over a certain time interval.

Serial production is conventionally divided into small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale. Serial production is characterized by the serial coefficient (K) of assigning operations to one workplace. If one workplace is assigned from 2 to 5 operations, i.e. coefficient K = 2/5, then such production is considered large-scale, with K = 6/10 - medium-scale, with K > 10 - small-scale.

Serial production is characterized by the following features: the need to re-adjust machines from operation to operation, since several operations are assigned to one workplace, the arrangement of equipment along the flow (in large-scale production) or on a group basis (in small-scale production), the presence of interoperational storage of products, a long production cycle of products .

Mass production is characterized by a narrow range and large volume of products produced continuously over a long period of time. In mass production, one invariably repeating operation is performed at each workplace. Mass production is characterized by the following features: the arrangement of equipment in the sequence of operations, the use of high-performance equipment, special devices and tools, the widespread use of transport devices for transferring products along the production line, mechanization and automation of technical control, short cargo flows on the processing line, the shortest production cycle duration.

As the degree of specialization of workplaces increases, the continuity and direct flow of products through workplaces, i.e., during the transition from single to serial and from serial to mass production, the possibility of using special equipment and technological equipment, more productive technological processes, advanced methods of labor organization, as well as mechanization and automation of production processes. All this leads to increased labor productivity and reduced production costs.

The main factors contributing to the transition to serial and mass types of production are an increase in the level of specialization and cooperation in industry, the widespread introduction of standardization, normalization and unification of products, as well as the unification of technological processes.

Forms of organization of industrial production

Industrial production is distinguished not only by a high level of technical development, but also by very advanced and constantly developing forms of organization, which have a great influence on both its economy and location. The main forms of organization of industrial production are concentration, combination, specialization and cooperation.

Concentration is the concentration of the means of production of labor, and therefore the output of products in large enterprises.

The technical and economic advantages of large enterprises, in particular the possibility of systematic modernization of equipment, increasing its productivity, reducing specific capital investments, more economical use of labor, raw materials and fuel, better opportunities for combining and specializing production, contribute to increasing labor productivity and reducing production costs. However, it should be noted that large enterprises are not always the most efficient. The question of the optimal size of industrial enterprises is decided taking into account the nature of production and the conditions for providing them with raw materials, fuel, energy, water, labor, conditions for the discharge of wastewater and harmful gases, as well as taking into account the consumption of their products.

Combination is a form of industrial organization in which production facilities producing various products are combined into one enterprise - a plant.

The plant is characterized by the technological and territorial unity of its production facilities and constant connections between them. These production facilities are located on the same territory as close as possible to each other, they have a common energy base and fuel facilities, a common repair base and water supply system, a unified transport network and storage facilities, a unified system of administrative management, technical management, logistics and sales of products.

There are three types of combination:

A combination that has developed on the basis of successive stages of raw material processing, for example textile mills consisting of spinning, weaving and finishing shops; metallurgical plants combining the production of cast iron, steel and rolled products.

Combination based on the use of industrial waste, for example: the production of cement from blast furnace slag, the production of sulfuric acid based on sulfur dioxide gases in non-ferrous metallurgy, or the use of wood waste to produce hydrolytic alcohol.

Combination that arises on the basis of complex processing of raw materials or fuel, for example: energy-chemical use of fuel, i.e. its simultaneous use to produce chemical products and energy, simultaneous production of electrical energy and heat at thermal power plants, extraction of several metals from the same ores .

Combination is widespread in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, forestry, textile and other industries.

Combination reduces capital costs for the construction of enterprises, it promotes the comprehensive, integrated use of raw materials and fuel and the disposal of production waste, reduces transport costs for the transportation of raw materials, fuel and semi-finished products, speeds up production processes and reduces labor costs, which ultimately ensures an increase in labor productivity and reducing production costs.

Specialization is a process of social division of labor in which there is a separation and isolation of industries focused on the production of a certain product or part of it, as well as on the implementation of a separate technological operation.

There are three types of specialization:

1. Subject - specialization in the production of a specific finished product, for example, an automobile plant, a shoe factory.

2. Detailed - specialization in the production of parts of the product, individual parts, for example, a bearing plant, a plant that produces individual parts of radio receivers...

3. Stage (technological) - specialization in performing a specific production operation, for example, a foundry, an assembly plant, a spinning mill.

The higher the level of specialization, the fewer types of finished products and parts of the annual product the enterprise produces, and the fewer technological operations it performs.

The development of specialization in industry is associated with mass production and flow of production, the introduction of specialized, high-performance equipment, “the use of advanced technologies, mechanization and automation of production processes, increasing the qualifications and productivity of workers, workers and engineering personnel, which reduces the cost of production while simultaneously improving its quality All this determines the high economic efficiency of industrial specialization. Specialization in industry cannot be successfully carried out without cooperation.

Cooperation is close production ties between individual enterprises or industries that jointly participate in the production of a specific finished product.

Cooperation promotes the division of labor in industry and its specialization, which ultimately leads to better use of the production capabilities of each enterprise, increasing their productivity and reducing production costs.

The development of specialization and cooperation creates new opportunities for the rational placement of production. Isolation of individual processes for processing raw materials, semi-finished products, manufacturing parts, machine components as independent production makes it possible to place each of them in the most rational way. In this way, issues of its organization, technical progress, specialization and cooperation, assortment and quality of products are more correctly resolved, production management is simplified and cheaper .

Industrial cooperation between enterprises requires strict standardization of technological processes and certain types of supplied products. Standardization is a set of measures aimed at a limited number of varieties of different products, materials, products, processes, etc. Standardization ensures the production of products with strictly defined properties, quality and dimensions, ensures the interchangeability of parts and assemblies, as well as the possibility of mechanized assembly of machines.

Standardization is closely related to product unification. Unification means the use in the production of machines and other products of the same type of parts and assemblies, equipment, tools, homogeneous graded materials, etc.

Reducing the number of used types and sizes of parts, assemblies, mechanisms, devices, and tools significantly simplifies and reduces the cost of machine design, their production and operation.

As a result of standardization and unification of products and their components, an increase in serial production is achieved, the creation of prerequisites for improving economic indicators, an increase in labor productivity, a reduction in production costs, a reduction in the time required for technical preparation of production and a reduction in the costs of its implementation.

Process elements

The technological process of production of any product includes three main elements: the subject of labor, the means of labor and labor,

Objects of labor. Objects of labor are understood as the totality of forces, substances and objects of nature that people influence in the process of their production activities; are the natural basis of material production, one of the necessary material conditions for people’s lives.

The “Object of Labor” element combines raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, fuel, etc.

Raw materials are one of the most important elements of production, affecting the technology and quality of products. The success and economics of industry depend on the supply and quality of raw materials.

Raw materials are objects of labor that have undergone changes during the process of their extraction or production. Thus, viscose fiber obtained from wood is a raw material for the textile industry; iron ore mined from the depths of the earth is a raw material for the metallurgical industry, etc. Depending on their origin, raw materials are divided into natural and artificial.

Natural raw materials are divided into organic and mineral. Organic includes wool, flax, cotton, wood, etc. Mineral includes iron ore, chalk, asbestos, etc.

Artificial raw materials are characterized by the fact that they are obtained mainly chemically from various types of natural materials. This type of raw material includes chemical fibers, synthetic rubbers, soda, etc. Artificial raw materials are divided into organic and mineral. Organic materials include: viscose, acetate fiber, etc., mineral materials include silicate, metal fibers, and other materials.

Depending on the participation in the manufacture of products, raw materials are divided into basic and auxiliary. The main ones also include objects of labor that form the material basis of manufactured products. Thus, iron ore forms the basis for the smelting of cast iron, textile fibers for the production of fabrics, metal for the production of machines and machine tools, and wood for the production of furniture.

Auxiliary items include those items of labor that do not form the material basis of the products being manufactured, but give them quality properties, ensure the operation of the equipment and the normal course of the technological process. For example, dyes give fabrics a certain color; fuel, lubricating oils, catalysts ensure the operation of equipment, the normal course or acceleration of the technological process.

A semi-finished product is a product whose production has been completed in one production area and is at the stage of transition to another area.

Fuel and energy. In the production process, a person uses not only various substances, but also energy. Processing parts on machines, melting and heating, electrolysis and other processes are unthinkable without the use of energy and fuel. Previously, it was human muscular energy, then they began to use more advanced energy - hydraulic, thermal, mechanical, intra-atomic, etc. Electric current, fuel, water vapor, compressed air, and gases are used as energy-cooling agents. Raw materials, as one of the main elements of the production process, have an increasing impact on industrial production and its economy. The economic efficiency of social production largely depends on the range and quality of raw materials.

The economic results of industrial enterprises are largely determined by the level of costs of raw materials and fuel for the production of finished products. This is explained by the fact that in all manufacturing industries, the costs of raw materials and fuel constitute the largest part of production costs.

Preparation of mineral raw materials for processing. Any mineral extracted from the bowels of the earth, in addition to the useful mineral part, always contains a certain amount of low-value or useless, and sometimes harmful, impurities for the given production.

Therefore, at present, not a single type of raw material is processed without preliminary preparation or enrichment.

Enrichment refers to a number of technological processes for the primary processing of mineral raw materials, with the goal of separating useful minerals from impurities that are of no practical value under current conditions.

The task of enrichment is also to create conditions that allow efficient consumption of minerals in the relevant industries.

The enrichment process includes the following stages: crushing, sorting and enrichment.

Crushing is carried out in order to obtain a certain piece size. For crushing, various crushing machines are used - shear, roller, cone, hammer, drum, etc. After crushing, the raw materials are sorted to separate them into grades according to the size of the piece. Sorting devices of various designs are used for sorting.

Mineral enrichment methods are based mainly on the use of physical and physical-mechanical properties of minerals - specific gravity, size, coefficient of friction, shape, color, magnetic permeability, wettability and some other properties.

Beneficiation based on the difference in the specific gravity of valuable components and waste rock is called gravity.

The process of magnetic enrichment is based on the difference in the magnetic properties of minerals. Mineral grains with high magnetic susceptibility are easily deflected in a magnetic field or stick to a magnet, while non-magnetic grains pass freely through a magnetic field.

The flotation concentration method is based on the use of the physical and chemical properties of minerals based on the principle of their wettability by liquid.

Ways to reduce the consumption of raw materials and materials. The type of feedstock determines the nature of the technological process and its modes, affects the yield, quality and cost of the finished product and a number of other production indicators. Correctly selected raw materials (materials) should be available (non-scarce) and cheap, not require large amounts of labor, time, energy during processing, ensure the best use of equipment and the highest yield of a high-quality product. For example, replacing ethyl alcohol with petroleum gas not only changes the technology for producing synthetic rubber, but also triples its cost; One ton of plastic replaces on average about three tons of non-ferrous metals.

With the development of technology and the growth of labor productivity, the share of the cost of raw materials in the cost of industrial products is constantly increasing. Therefore, the economical and rational use of raw materials is of great importance, especially for material-intensive technological processes.

With modern scales of production, savings in raw materials and materials turn into large additional reserves.

Savings in materials usually manifest themselves in the form of a reduction in consumption rates, i.e. processing allowances are reduced, the shape of the workpieces approaches the configuration of the finished product, and therefore less time is spent on manufacturing products.

Saving materials reduces the need for them among consumers. This leads to a reduction in labor costs at enterprises producing raw materials and to a reduction in transportation costs.

Other areas for reducing the material consumption of products are:

a) improving product designs;

b) improvement of technological processes;

c) rationalization of planning and organization of production;

d) comprehensive strengthening of labor discipline;

e) liquidation of marriage;

f) reducing the weight of machines through the use of more economical materials, welded-cast and welded-stamped structures, rational rolled profiles, replacement of cast blanks with forged ones, steel with high-strength cast iron, non-ferrous metals with plastics and wood with plastics.

Tools. To carry out any technological process, a person creates and uses various means of production, among which tools (machines, machine tools, devices, etc.) play a decisive role.

The development and improvement of technological processes is associated primarily with changes in technology.

Technology is a set of artificially created tools of labor, human activity, and, above all, tools for influencing the environment in order to produce the necessary material goods.

The nature of technology has changed and is changing during the historical development of production. From simple primitive stone and wooden tools of primitive society, man came to modern machines, automatic lines, workshops and automatic factories, space rockets and ships.

Depending on their purpose and natural material characteristics, tools and means of labor are divided into groups.

Buildings belong to that part of the means of labor that is not directly involved in the production process, but contributes to its normal implementation. The group of industrial buildings includes the buildings of the main and auxiliary workshops, laboratories, as well as all premises directly serving production (offices, warehouses, garages, depots).

Structures are a variety of engineering and construction objects (mining workings, overpasses, dams, water intakes, treatment facilities, bunkers, reservoirs and other devices) necessary for production.

Power plants are energy equipment designed to produce or process (convert) energy. This group includes a variety of engines, steam engines, turbines, electric generators, compressors, electrical transformers, rectifiers, etc.

Working machines and equipment are tools of labor intended for technological purposes. These include melting and heating furnaces, various machine tools, presses, mills, filters, autoclaves, etc., as well as machines and mechanisms for moving objects of labor during the production process (transformers, conveyors, cranes, roller tables, etc.). According to the method of influencing the object of labor, machines and equipment are divided into mechanical, thermal, hydraulic, chemical, and electrical. Working machines and equipment are the most important elements of fixed assets that determine the production capacity of an industrial enterprise. Equipment can be universal or special. The first can be used for work of various types, the second can only be used to perform certain operations.

Transmission devices are designed to transfer electrical, thermal and mechanical energy from the engine machine to the working machines. These are power lines, air and steam pipelines, gas and water distribution networks, etc.

Vehicles include vehicles such as electric cars, cars, locomotives, wagons and other inter-shop and intra-shop transport vehicles.

The group of laboratory equipment represents a variety of control and testing equipment, as well as measuring, regulating, counting devices and instruments.

The last group includes a variety of tools and devices (technological equipment, production, household and other equipment).

Labor in technological processes. When performing each technological process or part of it, one or another amount of labor of a worker of appropriate qualifications is spent. All labor, considered as the expenditure of the worker’s physical strength, as the work of the brain and nerves, is the basis of all production.

Labor costs are measured by its duration - the time during which it is carried out. This time is divided into different types according to the nature of its use.

Construction Basics technological process

Organization of the technological process. The organization of a technological process is understood as a rational combination of living labor with material elements of production (means and objects of labor) in space and time, ensuring the most efficient implementation of the production plan.

The organization of the technological process is based on the division of labor (unit form) and its specialization in individual jobs. As a result of specialization, the manufacture of products and their parts occurs in designated areas of the enterprise with the sequential transfer of the subject of labor from one workplace to another. Thus, the total technological process is divided into separate parts, separated in space and time, but interconnected by the purpose of production.

The division of labor necessarily presupposes its combination, since each partial work acquires a certain meaning only in combination with other partial works. Therefore, the specialization of labor receives its complement in its cooperation. Consequently, the objective need to organize the technological process arises from the internal division of production into separate but interconnected parts.

Composition of the technological process. The technological process includes a number of stages, each of which consists of production operations. An operation is a technologically and technically homogeneous part of the process completed at a given stage, which is a complex of elementary work performed by a worker (or workers) when processing a specific object of labor at one workplace,

An operation is the main part of the technological process, the main element of production planning and accounting. The need to divide the process into operations is generated by technical and economic reasons. For example, it is technically impossible to simultaneously process all surfaces of a workpiece on one machine. And for economic reasons, it is more profitable to divide the technological process into parts.

An operation consists of a number of techniques, each of which represents a completed elementary work (or a set of completed actions). Techniques are divided into individual movements. Movement is a part of a technique characterized by a single movement of the worker’s body or limbs.

This division of the technological process into individual elements is of great importance, since it makes it possible to analyze it, identify the smallest features of labor costs, and this is especially important for standardizing work and revealing the reserve for growth in labor productivity.

Structure of the technological process. The structure of a technological process is understood as the composition and combination of elements that determine the design of the process, i.e., the types, quantity and order of production operations. The process flow diagram may be simple or complex. It depends on the type and nature of the products being manufactured, the quantity and nomenclature, the requirements for them, the type and quality of source materials, the level of technology development, cooperation conditions and many other factors.

Simple processes consist of a small number of operations, their raw materials are a homogeneous mass or include a small number of components. The products of such processes are generally homogeneous. Their technological scheme is relatively simple. These include the processes of brick, glass, spinning production, mining enterprises, etc.

Processes of the second type are distinguished by the complexity of their construction scheme, multi-operation, and a wide variety of materials used and equipment used. Complex processes have a developed form of organization and require significant space. Examples of these can be processes in mechanical engineering, metallurgy, chemical industry, etc.

Development of technological process. The basis of any industrial production, as noted, is the production process, which includes a number of technological processes.

Before starting the manufacture of a production object (machines, devices, mechanisms, etc.), it is necessary to design the technological process.

Process design is difficult work. All technical and economic indicators of the developed process depend on how carefully it is performed. Technological design consists, first of all, in choosing the most economical method for obtaining blanks and parts for given specific conditions, establishing a rational sequence of processing operations, assigning the necessary production tools and regulating their use, as well as determining the labor intensity and cost of the manufactured product.. Technological process must be planned so that equipment, tools, fixtures, raw materials, production areas are used most fully and correctly, subject to maximum ease and safety of work.

To compile a technological process, it is necessary to have a number of initial data. These include:

type and nature of production facilities;

product release program;

the requirements it must satisfy;

production capabilities of the enterprise (availability of equipment, energy capacity, etc.).

For this purpose, drawings, diagrams, technical specifications, GOSTs, volume and production plan, equipment lists and passports, tool catalogs, instructions for testing, acceptance, as well as other regulatory and reference data are used.

The main technical document of production is a working drawing, which is a graphic representation of the parts and products being manufactured, the requirements for them in terms of shape, size, types of processing, control methods, brands of materials used, weight of workpieces and parts, and, consequently, material consumption standards. In production, diagrams are also widely used to help one understand the sequence of work.

When developing a technological process, the volume of product output is also taken into account. With a large production plan, for example in large-scale and mass production, it is beneficial to use special types of tools and devices, specialized equipment and automatic lines. In conditions of single (individual) production, they focus on universal equipment and devices and a highly qualified workforce.

The formation of technology is significantly influenced by the conditions in which it should be implemented. If a technological process is developed for an existing enterprise, then when choosing its options it is necessary to focus on the available equipment, take into account the capabilities of procurement and tool shops, and the energy base. In some cases, this limits the choice of processing methods. When developing technology for a newly designed enterprise, these restrictions disappear.

The developed technological process is documented in a number of documents, technological maps, which regulate all the provisions, modes and indicators of the technology used.

The most important of these documents is the technological map, which contains all the data and information on the manufacturing technology of any part or product, a complete description of the production process by operation, indicating the equipment used, tools, devices, operating modes, time standards, qualifications and category worker.

The economist uses the specified documentation with the information it contains to standardize labor and establish the number of workers, determine the need for raw materials, materials, fuel, energy and analyze their consumption, calculate and analyze costs, plan work, etc.

Modern technology makes it possible to produce the same product or perform the same work using different methods. Therefore, during technological design there are wide possibilities for choosing technological processes.

With the existing variety of production methods and means, several technological process options are often developed and, when calculating costs, the most effective option is selected from an economic point of view.

To reduce the number of compared options, it is important to use standard solutions, recommendations of regulatory and guidance materials and not consider those options from the implementation of which it is not expected to obtain tangible positive results.

Process products. The end result of the technological process is the finished product, i.e. such products and materials, the work process on which at this enterprise is completely completed, and they are completed, packaged, accepted by the technical control department and can be sent to the consumer. Products not completed by production are called unfinished.

Products are divided into the main one, which constitutes the purpose of production, and by-products, obtained along the way. For example, in blast furnace production the main product is cast iron, and the by-products are blast furnace slag and blast furnace gas, which are used in the national economy. In addition to the main and by-products, the production process usually produces so-called waste, which is divided, depending on the possibilities of further use, into returnable and non-returnable. The former may still be useful in other industries, the latter are called waste.

Carrying out a technological process, a person sets himself two tasks:

1) get a product that meets his needs;

2) spend less labor, materials, energy, etc. on its production.

Each product can satisfy one or another human need only if it has a quality that determines its purpose. Without proper quality, a product becomes unnecessary to a person and the labor and natural objects spent on it are wasted.

Product quality should be understood as compliance of its features and properties with the requirements of technical progress and reasonable demands of the national economy, resulting from the conditions of practical use of products.

The quality of a product is not its constant property. It changes with the production process and increasing demands placed on finished products by consumers.

Improving production technologies allows us to continuously improve the quality of products. The higher its level, the more effective and productive social labor. The use of more advanced products in the national economy leads to a reduction in operating and repair costs, extends service life and therefore, as it were, increases the volume of production of products. But improving the quality characteristics of goods often introduces significant changes into the production process, increases the complexity of the technology, and lengthens the work cycle. The number of operations and equipment increases, and the complexity of processing increases. All this can lead to an increase in costs, a decrease in capital productivity, and additional capital investments. Therefore, improving product quality should pursue strictly defined, economically justified objectives. But even if improving the quality of products requires additional costs, the value of the products usually increases in a greater proportion than the costs increase. Product quality is closely linked to profitability.

Ways to improve technological processes

The following areas are important in improving technological processes.

When carrying out typing, first of all, products are divided into classes according to the commonality of technological problems solved during their manufacture.

Integrated use of raw materials

Use of production waste.

A combination of successive stages of product processing.

The degree of typification and combination is the most important indicator of the technical and organizational level of technology.

Economic efficiency and technical and economic indicators of technological processes

Using all the achievements of technological progress, old ones are improved and new, more efficient technological processes are introduced. It is very difficult to express economic efficiency with any unambiguous, generalized indicator. Technical progress usually produces a complex effect, which is expressed in saving living labor, i.e. increasing its productivity, saving materialized labor - raw materials, materials, fuel, electricity, tools, saving capital costs, improving the use of fixed assets, and improving quality products, making work easier and increasing safety.

Thus, the economic efficiency of the technology used is determined by a number of indicators that are directly related to technical improvement and economic development of production. Such technical and economic indicators represent a system of values characterizing the material and production base of an enterprise, the organization of production, the use of fixed and working capital, and labor in the manufacture of products. These indicators reflect the degree of technical equipment of the enterprise, equipment load, rational use of material and raw materials, fuel and energy resources, human labor in the production process, economic efficiency of the technology used, etc. Their use makes it possible to analyze technological processes, determine features, progressiveness the latter, identify bottlenecks, find and use production reserves. The solution to the listed problems is achieved by studying and comparing these indicators based on an analysis of the elements of the technological process in their interrelation, taking into account all interacting factors.

All technical and economic indicators are divided into quantitative and qualitative. The former determine the quantitative side of the technological process (the volume of products produced, the number of pieces of equipment, the number of employees), the latter determine its qualitative side (the efficiency of the use of labor, raw materials, materials, fixed assets, financial resources).

Technical and economic indicators can be natural and cost. Natural ones give one-sided characteristics (labor intensity, raw material consumption, process or operation time, etc.). Therefore, when addressing issues of economic efficiency of technology, cost indicators are also needed - cost, profit, capital productivity, etc.

In connection with the material objects of the production process, all technical and economic indicators can be combined into the following groups:

1. Technological indicators, i.e. indicators characterizing the properties of the subject of labor. These include, first of all, those indicators whose value affects the progress of the production process. For example, technological indicators characterizing wood pulp used in the pulp and paper industry include fiber length, moisture content, resin content, etc.; The properties of metal parts processed by cutting are determined, first of all, by the composition of the metal (alloy), its tensile strength (or hardness), and geometric dimensions. Although the total number of technological indicators is quite large, for each production process their number is quite limited.

Structural indicators, i.e. indicators characterizing tools. These include the properties of tools that influence the production process - the power of working machines, their passport data.

Labor indicators are indicators characterizing the industrial production personnel of an enterprise. These indicators include the number of workers by profession, category, as well as indicators characterizing qualifications, etc.

Production indicators characterize the progress of the production process and its results. These include the applied operating modes of the equipment (pressure, temperature, speed, etc.), the productivity of the equipment, site, workshop, consumption coefficients, indicators characterizing product quality, and many others.

Economic indicators influence the efficiency of the production process and characterize this efficiency. These include prices, tariffs, wage conditions, standard efficiency ratio of capital investments, production costs, etc.

From the entire set of indicators that make it possible to determine and compare the level of a technological process and its operations, it is necessary to highlight the following: cost, labor intensity, labor productivity, specific costs of raw materials and materials, energy and fuel costs, intensity of use of equipment and production space, capital productivity, value capital investments and their payback period. In some cases, other, private indicators are used that additionally characterize production processes: power supply, mechanization and automation ratio, amount of power consumed, etc.

The most important and general indicator is cost. It is formed from costs that differ in their purpose.

Scientific and technological progress in industry and its economic efficiency

Scientific and technological progress in content represents the progressive development of the productive forces of society in all their diversity and unity, which is reflected in the improvement of means and objects of labor, management systems and production technology, in the accumulation of knowledge, improved use of national wealth and natural resources, and increased efficiency social production.

The main task of technical progress is to save social labor in every possible way and ensure high rates of production growth. Its main directions are electrification, mechanization, automation, chemicalization, intensification, gasification.

Electrification means the maximum use of electrical energy as a motive force and for technological purposes (electrometallurgy, electric welding, electric heating, electrolysis, electric spark processing, etc.). The use of electrification speeds up production processes, increases productivity and labor standards, and creates the prerequisites for the introduction of mechanization and automation.

Mechanization is the replacement of manual labor with machine work.

Until now, manual labor still predominates in a number of production processes. Their mechanization continues to be an important direction of technical progress.

Automation is the highest form of mechanization, in which the technological process is carried out by automatic machines operating without the direct participation of workers, whose functions are reduced only to observation, control and adjustment. As a result of automation, work is made easier and productivity increases dramatically.

Chemicalization is the introduction into production of high-performance chemical processing methods and the maximum use of chemical industry products. It promotes the introduction of hardware processes that are easily automated, helping to increase labor productivity and reduce production costs.

Intensification consists of improving the use of labor tools per unit of time through the use of increased (intensive) operating modes (high speeds, high pressures, temperatures, special catalysts, oxygen, etc.); it dramatically speeds up production processes and increases their productivity.

Technical progress has not only economic but also social significance. It facilitates and radically changes people's work, helps reduce the length of the working day, and creates conditions for eliminating significant differences between mental and physical labor.

Scientific and technological progress, generating new technology, new materials, technological processes, methods of management and organization of production, making changes in the structure of production, represents the material basis for society’s constant achievement of saving living labor and embodied in the means of production. And this, in turn, serves as a source of expanded reproduction of the social product, growth of national income, accumulation of the public consumption fund, and a systematic rise in the material and cultural standard of living of the people.

The development of science causes qualitative changes in production technology. Technology is a form of influence of the means of labor on the subject of labor; the method of its transformation changes mainly as a result of changes in the means of labor. But there is a feedback when the requirements of technology necessitate the creation of new means of labor. Thus, the use of chemical materials in industry leads to the replacement of mechanical processing with shaping.

The main direction of technology improvement is expressed in the transition from discontinuous, multi-operational machining processes to progressive processes based on chemical, electrical, electrophysical and biological technology (plasma metallurgy, volumetric stamping, spindleless spinning and shuttleless weaving).

An important area of technology improvement is ensuring the most rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. Technological processes are being developed and introduced into production to ensure waste reduction and maximum recycling, as well as closed-cycle water use systems. New effective methods and systems for the development of mineral deposits, progressive technological processes for their extraction, enrichment and processing are being widely introduced, which make it possible to increase the degree of extraction of minerals from the subsoil and to sharply reduce losses as a result of the harmful effects of waste on the environment.

Turovets O.G., Rodionov V.B., Bukhalkov M.I. Chapter from the book “Organization of production and enterprise management”
Publishing House "INFRA-M", 2007

10.1. Concept of the production process

Modern production is a complex process of transforming raw materials, materials, semi-finished products and other items of labor into finished products that meet the needs of society.

The totality of all actions of people and tools carried out at an enterprise for the manufacture of specific types of products is called production process.

The main part of the production process are technological processes that contain targeted actions to change and determine the state of objects of labor. During the implementation of technological processes, changes occur in the geometric shapes, sizes and physical and chemical properties of objects of labor.

Along with technological ones, the production process also includes non-technological processes that are not intended to change the geometric shapes, sizes or physical and chemical properties of objects of labor or to check their quality. Such processes include transport, warehouse, loading and unloading, picking and some other operations and processes.

In the production process, labor processes are combined with natural ones, in which changes in objects of labor occur under the influence of natural forces without human intervention (for example, drying painted parts in air, cooling castings, aging of cast parts, etc.).

Varieties of production processes. According to their purpose and role in production, processes are divided into main, auxiliary and servicing.

Main are called production processes during which the production of the main products manufactured by the enterprise is carried out. The result of the main processes in mechanical engineering is the production of machines, apparatus and instruments that make up the production program of the enterprise and correspond to its specialization, as well as the production of spare parts for them for delivery to the consumer.

TO auxiliary include processes that ensure the uninterrupted flow of basic processes. Their result is products used in the enterprise itself. Auxiliary processes include equipment repair, production of equipment, generation of steam and compressed air, etc.

Serving processes are called, during the implementation of which services are performed that are necessary for the normal functioning of both main and auxiliary processes. These include, for example, the processes of transportation, warehousing, selection and assembly of parts, etc.

In modern conditions, especially in automated production, there is a tendency towards the integration of basic and servicing processes. Thus, in flexible automated complexes, basic, picking, warehouse and transport operations are combined into a single process.

The set of basic processes forms the main production. At mechanical engineering enterprises, the main production consists of three stages: procurement, processing and assembly. Stage production process is a complex of processes and works, the implementation of which characterizes the completion of a certain part of the production process and is associated with the transition of the subject of labor from one qualitative state to another.

TO procurement stages include the processes of obtaining workpieces - cutting of materials, casting, stamping. Processing the stage includes the processes of turning blanks into finished parts: machining, heat treatment, painting and electroplating, etc. Assembly stage - the final part of the production process. It includes the assembly of components and finished products, adjustment and debugging of machines and instruments, and their testing.

The composition and mutual connections of the main, auxiliary and servicing processes form the structure of the production process.

In organizational terms, production processes are divided into simple and complex. Simple are called production processes consisting of sequentially carried out actions on a simple object of labor. For example, the production process of making one part or a batch of identical parts. Difficult a process is a combination of simple processes carried out on many objects of labor. For example, the process of manufacturing an assembly unit or an entire product.

10.2. Scientific principles of organizing production processes

Activities related to the organization of production processes. The diverse production processes that result in the creation of industrial products must be properly organized, ensuring their effective functioning in order to produce specific types of high-quality products and in quantities that meet the needs of the national economy and the country's population.

The organization of production processes consists of uniting people, tools and objects of labor into a single process for the production of material goods, as well as ensuring a rational combination in space and time of basic, auxiliary and service processes.

The spatial combination of elements of the production process and all its varieties is implemented on the basis of the formation of the production structure of the enterprise and its divisions. In this regard, the most important activities are the selection and justification of the production structure of the enterprise, i.e. determining the composition and specialization of its constituent units and establishing rational relationships between them.

During the development of the production structure, design calculations are performed related to determining the composition of the equipment fleet, taking into account its productivity, interchangeability, and the possibility of effective use. Rational layouts of departments, placement of equipment, and workplaces are also being developed. Organizational conditions are created for the uninterrupted operation of equipment and direct participants in the production process - workers.

One of the main aspects of the formation of a production structure is to ensure the interconnected functioning of all components of the production process: preparatory operations, main production processes, and maintenance. It is necessary to comprehensively substantiate the most rational organizational forms and methods for carrying out certain processes for specific production and technical conditions.

An important element of the organization of production processes is the organization of labor of workers, which specifically implements the connection of labor with the means of production. Methods of labor organization are largely determined by the forms of the production process. In this regard, the focus should be on ensuring a rational division of labor and determining on this basis the professional and qualification composition of workers, the scientific organization and optimal maintenance of workplaces, and the comprehensive improvement and improvement of working conditions.

The organization of production processes also presupposes the combination of their elements in time, which determines a certain order of performance of individual operations, a rational combination of the time for performing various types of work, and the determination of calendar-planned standards for the movement of objects of labor. The normal flow of processes over time is also ensured by the order of launching and releasing products, the creation of the necessary stocks (reserves) and production reserves, and the uninterrupted supply of workplaces with tools, workpieces, and materials. An important area of this activity is the organization of rational movement of material flows. These tasks are solved on the basis of the development and implementation of operational production planning systems, taking into account the type of production and technical and organizational features of production processes.

Finally, during the organization of production processes at an enterprise, an important place is given to the development of a system of interaction between individual production units.

Principles of organizing the production process represent the starting points on the basis of which the construction, operation and development of production processes are carried out.

Principle differentiation involves dividing the production process into separate parts (processes, operations) and assigning them to the relevant departments of the enterprise. The principle of differentiation is opposed to the principle combining, which means the unification of all or part of diverse processes for the production of certain types of products within one site, workshop or production. Depending on the complexity of the product, production volume, and the nature of the equipment used, the production process can be concentrated in any one production unit (workshop, area) or dispersed across several units. Thus, at machine-building enterprises, with a significant production of similar products, independent mechanical and assembly production and workshops are organized, and for small batches of products, unified mechanical assembly shops can be created.

The principles of differentiation and combination also apply to individual workplaces. A production line, for example, is a differentiated set of jobs.

In practical activities in organizing production, priority in using the principles of differentiation or combination should be given to the principle that will ensure the best economic and social characteristics of the production process. Thus, flow production, characterized by a high degree of differentiation of the production process, makes it possible to simplify its organization, improve the skills of workers, and increase labor productivity. However, excessive differentiation increases worker fatigue, a large number of operations increases the need for equipment and production space, leads to unnecessary costs for moving parts, etc.

Principle concentrations means the concentration of certain production operations for the manufacture of technologically homogeneous products or the performance of functionally homogeneous work in separate workplaces, areas, workshops or production facilities of the enterprise. The feasibility of concentrating similar work in separate areas of production is determined by the following factors: the commonality of technological methods that necessitate the use of the same type of equipment; capabilities of equipment, such as machining centers; increasing production volumes of certain types of products; the economic feasibility of concentrating the production of certain types of products or performing similar work.

When choosing one direction or another of concentration, it is necessary to take into account the advantages of each of them.

By concentrating technologically homogeneous work in a department, a smaller amount of duplicating equipment is required, production flexibility increases and it becomes possible to quickly switch to the production of new products, and equipment utilization increases.

By concentrating technologically homogeneous products, the costs of transporting materials and products are reduced, the duration of the production cycle is reduced, the management of production is simplified, and the need for production space is reduced.

Principle specializations is based on limiting the variety of elements of the production process. The implementation of this principle involves assigning to each workplace and each department a strictly limited range of works, operations, parts or products. In contrast to the principle of specialization, the principle of universalization presupposes an organization of production in which each workplace or production unit is engaged in the manufacture of parts and products of a wide range or performing heterogeneous production operations.

The level of specialization of jobs is determined by a special indicator - the coefficient of consolidation of operations TO z.o, which is characterized by the number of detail operations performed at the workplace over a certain period of time. Yes, when TO z.o = 1 there is a narrow specialization of jobs, in which one detail operation is performed at the workplace during a month or quarter.

The nature of the specialization of departments and jobs is largely determined by the volume of production of parts of the same name. Specialization reaches its highest level when producing one type of product. The most typical example of highly specialized industries are factories for the production of tractors, televisions, and cars. Increasing the range of production reduces the level of specialization.

A high degree of specialization of departments and jobs contributes to the growth of labor productivity due to the development of labor skills of workers, the possibility of technical equipment of labor, and minimizing the costs of reconfiguring machines and lines. At the same time, narrow specialization reduces the required qualifications of workers, causes monotony of work and, as a result, leads to rapid fatigue of workers and limits their initiative.

In modern conditions, there is an increasing tendency towards the universalization of production, which is determined by the requirements of scientific and technological progress to expand the range of products, the emergence of multifunctional equipment, and the tasks of improving the organization of labor in the direction of expanding the labor functions of the worker.

Principle proportionality consists in a natural combination of individual elements of the production process, which is expressed in a certain quantitative relationship between them. Thus, proportionality in production capacity presupposes equality of site capacities or equipment load factors. In this case, the throughput of the procurement shops corresponds to the need for blanks in the mechanical shops, and the throughput of these shops corresponds to the needs of the assembly shop for the necessary parts. This entails the requirement to have in each workshop equipment, space, and labor in such quantities that would ensure the normal operation of all departments of the enterprise. The same throughput ratio should exist between the main production, on the one hand, and auxiliary and service units, on the other.

Violation of the principle of proportionality leads to imbalances, the emergence of bottlenecks in production, as a result of which the use of equipment and labor deteriorates, the duration of the production cycle increases, and backlogs increase.

Proportionality in labor, space, and equipment is established already during the design of the enterprise, and then is clarified when developing annual production plans by conducting so-called volumetric calculations - when determining capacity, number of employees, and the need for materials. Proportions are established on the basis of a system of standards and norms that determine the number of mutual connections between various elements of the production process.

The principle of proportionality involves the simultaneous performance of individual operations or parts of the production process. It is based on the proposition that parts of a dismembered production process must be combined in time and carried out simultaneously.

The production process of making a machine consists of a large number of operations. It is quite obvious that performing them sequentially one after another would cause an increase in the duration of the production cycle. Therefore, individual parts of the product manufacturing process must be carried out in parallel.

Parallelism is achieved: when processing one part on one machine with several tools; simultaneous processing of different parts of one batch for a given operation at several workplaces; simultaneous processing of the same parts in various operations at several workplaces; simultaneous production of different parts of the same product at different workplaces. Compliance with the principle of parallelism leads to a reduction in the duration of the production cycle and the laying time of parts, saving working time.

Under straightness understand the principle of organizing the production process, in compliance with which all stages and operations of the production process are carried out under the conditions of the shortest path of the subject of labor from the beginning of the process to its end. The principle of direct flow requires ensuring the rectilinear movement of objects of labor in the technological process, eliminating various kinds of loops and return movements.

Complete straightness can be achieved by spatially arranging operations and parts of the production process in the order of technological operations. When designing enterprises, it is also necessary to ensure that workshops and services are located in a sequence that provides for a minimum distance between adjacent departments. You should strive to ensure that parts and assembly units of different products have the same or similar sequence of stages and operations of the production process. When implementing the principle of direct flow, the problem of optimal arrangement of equipment and workplaces also arises.

The principle of direct flow is manifested to a greater extent in the conditions of continuous production, when creating subject-closed workshops and sections.

Compliance with straight-line requirements leads to streamlining of cargo flows, reduction of cargo turnover, and reduction of costs for transportation of materials, parts and finished products.

Principle rhythmicity means that all individual production processes and a single process for the production of a certain type of product are repeated after specified periods of time. Distinguish between the rhythm of production, work, and production.

The rhythm of output is the release of the same or uniformly increasing (decreasing) quantity of products at equal time intervals. Rhythmicity of work is the completion of equal volumes of work (in quantity and composition) at equal intervals of time. Rhythmic production means maintaining a rhythmic output and rhythm of work.

Rhythmic work without jerks and storming is the basis for increasing labor productivity, optimal loading of equipment, full use of personnel and a guarantee of high-quality products. The smooth operation of an enterprise depends on a number of conditions. Ensuring rhythm is a complex task that requires improvement of the entire organization of production at the enterprise. Of paramount importance are the correct organization of operational production planning, compliance with the proportionality of production capacities, improvement of the production structure, proper organization of logistics and technical maintenance of production processes.

Principle continuity is implemented in such forms of organization of the production process in which all its operations are carried out continuously, without interruptions, and all objects of labor continuously move from operation to operation.

The principle of continuity of the production process is fully implemented on automatic and continuous production lines, on which objects of labor are manufactured or assembled, having operations of the same or multiple duration to the line cycle.

In mechanical engineering, discrete technological processes predominate, and therefore production with a high degree of synchronization of the duration of operations is not predominant here.

The intermittent movement of objects of labor is associated with breaks that arise as a result of the laying of parts at each operation, between operations, sections, and workshops. That is why the implementation of the principle of continuity requires the elimination or minimization of interruptions. The solution to such a problem can be achieved on the basis of compliance with the principles of proportionality and rhythm; organizing parallel production of parts of one batch or different parts of one product; creating such forms of organization of production processes in which the start time of manufacturing parts in a given operation and the end time of the previous operation are synchronized, etc.

Violation of the principle of continuity, as a rule, causes interruptions in work (downtime of workers and equipment), leading to an increase in the duration of the production cycle and the size of work in progress.

The principles of production organization in practice do not operate in isolation; they are closely intertwined in every production process. When studying the principles of organization, you should pay attention to the paired nature of some of them, their interrelation, transition into their opposite (differentiation and combination, specialization and universalization). The principles of organization develop unevenly: at one time or another, some principle comes to the fore or acquires secondary importance. Thus, the narrow specialization of jobs is becoming a thing of the past; they are becoming more and more universal. The principle of differentiation is beginning to be increasingly replaced by the principle of combination, the use of which makes it possible to build a production process based on a single flow. At the same time, in conditions of automation, the importance of the principles of proportionality, continuity, and straightness increases.

The degree of implementation of the principles of production organization has a quantitative dimension. Therefore, in addition to current methods of production analysis, forms and methods for analyzing the state of production organization and implementing its scientific principles must be developed and applied in practice. Methods for calculating the degree of implementation of certain principles of organizing production processes will be given in Chapter. 20.

Compliance with the principles of organizing production processes is of great practical importance. The implementation of these principles is the responsibility of all levels of production management.

10.3. Spatial organization of production processes

Production structure of the enterprise. The combination of parts of the production process in space is ensured by the production structure of the enterprise. The production structure is understood as the totality of the production units of an enterprise that are part of it, as well as the forms of relationships between them. In modern conditions, the production process can be considered in two varieties:

as a process of material production with the final result - commercial products;
as a process of design production with the final result - a scientific and technical product.

The nature of the production structure of an enterprise depends on the types of its activities, the main ones of which are the following: research, production, research and production, production and technical, management and economic.

The priority of the relevant types of activity determines the structure of the enterprise, the share of scientific, technical and production departments, the ratio of the number of workers and engineers.

The composition of the divisions of an enterprise specializing in production activities is determined by the design features of the products produced and the technology of their manufacture, the scale of production, the specialization of the enterprise and the existing cooperative ties. In Fig. Figure 10.1 shows a diagram of the relationships between factors that determine the production structure of an enterprise.

Rice. 10.1. Scheme of relationships between factors that determine the production structure of an enterprise

In modern conditions, the form of ownership has a great influence on the structure of the enterprise. The transition from state to other forms of ownership - private, joint stock, lease - leads, as a rule, to a reduction in unnecessary links and structures, the number of control apparatus, and reduces duplication of work.

Currently, various forms of enterprise organization have become widespread; There are small, medium and large enterprises, the production structure of each of them has corresponding features.

The production structure of a small enterprise is simple. As a rule, it has a minimum or no internal structural production units. In small enterprises, the management apparatus is insignificant; a combination of management functions is widely used.

The structure of medium-sized enterprises involves the allocation of workshops, and in the case of a non-shop structure, sections. Here, the minimum necessary to ensure the functioning of the enterprise is already being created, its own auxiliary and service units, departments and services of the management apparatus.

Large enterprises in the manufacturing industry have a full range of production, service and management departments.

Based on the production structure, a master plan for the enterprise is developed. The master plan refers to the spatial arrangement of all workshops and services, as well as transport routes and communications on the territory of the enterprise. When developing a master plan, the direct flow of material flows is ensured. Workshops must be located according to the sequence of the production process. Interconnected services and workshops must be located in close proximity.

Development of the production structure of associations. The production structures of associations in modern conditions are undergoing significant changes. The following areas for improving production structures are typical for production associations in the manufacturing industry, in particular in mechanical engineering:

concentration of production of homogeneous products or performance of similar work in single specialized divisions of the association;
deepening the specialization of structural divisions of enterprises - production facilities, workshops, branches;
integration in unified scientific and production complexes of work on the creation of new types of products, their development in production and the organization of production in quantities necessary for the consumer;
dispersal of production based on the creation of highly specialized enterprises of various sizes within the association;
overcoming segmentation in the construction of production processes and creating unified product manufacturing flows without separating workshops and sections;
universalization of production, which consists in the production of products with different purposes, assembled from units and parts that are homogeneous in design and technology, as well as in organizing the production of related products;
wide development of horizontal cooperation between enterprises belonging to different associations in order to reduce production costs by increasing the scale of production of similar products and fully utilizing capacities.

The creation and development of large associations gave rise to a new form of production structure, characterized by the allocation within them of specialized production facilities of optimal size, built on the principle of technological and subject specialization. This structure also provides for the maximum concentration of procurement, auxiliary and service processes. The new form of production structure was called multi-production. In the 80s, it found widespread use in the automotive, electrical and other industries.

The Nizhny Novgorod automobile production association, for example, includes a parent enterprise and seven branch plants. The parent enterprise includes ten specialized production facilities: trucks, passenger cars, engines, truck axles, metallurgical, forging and spring, tool production, etc. Each of these productions unites a group of main and auxiliary workshops, has a certain independence, and maintains close ties with other divisions of the enterprise and enjoys the rights established for the structural units of the association. A typical production structure is shown in Fig. 10.2.

A multi-production structure was implemented at the Volzhsky Automobile Plant at a higher quality level. Car production here is concentrated in four main industries: metallurgical, pressing, mechanical assembly and assembly and forging. In addition, auxiliary production facilities have been allocated. Each of them is an independent plant with a closed production cycle. The production includes workshops. But the workshops at VAZ have undergone significant changes. They are freed from worries about ensuring production, repairing and maintaining equipment, maintaining and cleaning premises, etc. The VAZ production workshop is left with the only task - to produce the products assigned to it with high quality and on time. The workshop management structure is simplified as much as possible. This is the shop manager, his two shift deputies, section heads, foremen, and foremen. All tasks of supply, production preparation and maintenance are solved centrally by the production management apparatus.

Rice. 10.2. Typical production structure

In each production departments have been created: design and technology, design, tools and equipment, analysis and planning of equipment repairs. Unified services for operational scheduling and dispatching, logistics, labor organization and wages have also been established here.

The production includes large specialized workshops: repair, production and repair of equipment, transport and storage operations, cleaning of premises and others. The creation of powerful engineering services and production divisions in production, each of which fully solves the tasks assigned to them in its own area, made it possible to create normal conditions for the effective operation of the main production departments on a fundamentally new basis.

The organization of workshops and sections is based on the principles of concentration and specialization. Specialization of workshops and production areas can be carried out by type of work - technological specialization or by type of manufactured product - subject specialization. Examples of production units of technological specialization at a machine-building enterprise are foundry, thermal or galvanic shops, turning and grinding sections in a mechanical shop; subject specialization - body parts workshop, shaft section, gearbox manufacturing workshop, etc.

If a complete cycle of manufacturing a product or part is carried out within a workshop or site, this division is called subject-closed.

When organizing workshops and sections, it is necessary to carefully analyze the advantages and disadvantages of all types of specialization. With technological specialization, high equipment utilization is ensured, high production flexibility is achieved when developing new products and changing production facilities. At the same time, operational production planning becomes more difficult, the production cycle is lengthened, and responsibility for product quality is reduced.

The use of subject specialization, allowing the concentration of all work on the production of a part or product within one workshop or area, increases the responsibility of performers for the quality of products and the completion of tasks. Subject specialization creates the prerequisites for organizing continuous and automated production, ensures the implementation of the principle of direct flow, and simplifies planning and accounting. However, it is not always possible to achieve full equipment utilization; restructuring of production to produce new products requires large expenses.

Subject-contained workshops and areas also have significant economic advantages, the organization of which makes it possible to reduce the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of products as a result of the complete or partial elimination of counter or age movements, and to simplify the planning system and operational management of production progress. The practical experience of domestic and foreign enterprises allows us to give the following grouping of rules that should be followed when deciding on the application of the subject or technological principle of constructing workshops and sections.

Subject the principle is recommended to be applied in the following cases: when producing one or two standard products, with a large volume and a high degree of stability in the production of products, with the possibility of a good balance of equipment and labor, with a minimum of control operations and a small number of changeovers; technological- when producing a large range of products, with their relatively low serial quantity, with the impossibility of balancing equipment and labor, with a large number of control operations and a significant number of changeovers.

Organization of production sites. The organization of sites is determined by the type of their specialization. It involves solving a large number of problems, including the selection of production facilities; calculation of the necessary equipment and its layout; determining the size of batches (series) of parts and the frequency of their launch and production; assigning work and operations to each workplace, drawing up schedules; calculation of personnel requirements; design of a workplace service system. Recently, research and production complexes have begun to be formed in associations, integrating all stages of the “Research – Development – Production” cycle.

In the St. Petersburg association “Svetlana”, for the first time in the country, four research and production complexes were created. The complex is a single division specializing in the development and production of products of a certain profile. It is created on the basis of the design bureaus of the head plant. In addition to the design bureau, it includes main production workshops and specialized branches. The scientific and production activities of the complexes are carried out on the basis of on-farm calculations.

Research and production complexes carry out design and technological preparation of production, attracting the relevant divisions of the association to carry out work related to the development of new products. The head of the design bureau is given the rights to end-to-end planning of all stages of production preparation - from research to the organization of serial production. He is responsible not only for the quality and timing of development, but also for the development of serial production of new products and the production activities of workshops and branches included in the complex.

In the context of the transition of enterprises to a market economy, further development of the production structure of associations is taking place on the basis of increasing the economic independence of their constituent units.

As an example of the creation and implementation of a new organizational form in the context of the transition to a market, one can cite the creation of a joint-stock company - a research and production concern in the Energia association (Voronezh). On the basis of the concern's divisions, more than 100 independent research and production complexes, first-level associations and enterprises with full legal independence and current accounts in a commercial bank have been created. When creating independent associations and enterprises, the following were used: a variety of forms of ownership (state, rental, mixed, joint-stock, cooperative); variety of organizational structures of independent enterprises and associations, the number of which varies from 3 to 2350 people; variety of activities (research and production, organizational and economic, production and technical).

The concern has 20 subject-specific and functional research and production complexes, combining research, design, technological departments and production facilities, specializing in the development and production of certain types of products or performing technologically homogeneous work. These complexes were created through the reform of pilot and serial plants and on the basis of a research institute. Depending on the number and volume of work, they function as first-level associations, enterprises or small enterprises.

Research and production complexes fully demonstrated their advantages during the conversion period in the conditions of a sharp change in the product range. After gaining independence, enterprises voluntarily organized first-level associations - research and production complexes or firms - and established a concern, centralizing 10 main functions according to the Charter. The highest management body of the concern is the meeting of shareholders. Coordination of work to perform centralized functions is carried out by the board of directors and functional divisions of the concern, operating on conditions of complete self-sufficiency. Divisions performing service and support functions also work on a contractual basis and have full legal and economic independence.

Shown in Fig. 10.3 and the “circular” management structure of the concern meets the requirements of the legislation of the Russian Federation. The Board of Directors coordinates the centralized functions of the concern within the framework of the Charter in accordance with the idea of the round table.

The circular (as opposed to the existing vertical) system of organization and production management is based on the following principles:

Rice. 10.3. Circular management structure of the Energia concern

on the voluntary association of enterprise-shareholders for joint activities in order to obtain maximum and stable profits through the sale of products and services in a competitive market to satisfy the social and economic interests of shareholders;
voluntary centralization of part of the functions of enterprises in organizing and managing production, enshrined in the Charter of the joint-stock company;
combining the advantages of a large company, due to specialization, cooperation and scale of production, with the advantages of small business forms and motivating employees through property ownership;
a system of subject and functional scientific and production complexes interconnected on a technological basis, taking into account the advantages of specialization and cooperation;
a system of contractual relations between research and production complexes and firms, supported by a system for satisfying self-supporting claims, including regulation of the wage fund;
transferring the center of current work on organizing and managing production from the highest level vertically to the level of scientific and production complexes and independent enterprises horizontally on a contractual basis with the concentration of the efforts of senior management on promising issues;
implementation of economic relations between enterprises through a commercial bank and a center for internal settlements in relevant areas;
increasing guarantees for resolving social issues and protecting both independent enterprises and all shareholders;
combination and development of various forms of ownership at the level of the concern and independent associations and enterprises;
refusal of the dominant role of the highest management bodies with the transformation of the functions of management and coordination of production into one of the types of activities of shareholders;
developing a mechanism for combining the mutual interests of independent enterprises and the concern as a whole and preventing the danger of a rupture due to the centrifugal forces of the technological principle of constructing the organization of production.

The circular structure provides for a fundamental change in the activities of subject-specific research and production complexes, which take the leading role in planning and ensuring horizontal interconnection of the activities of functional research and production complexes and firms on a contractual basis according to their nomenclature, taking into account changes in the market.

The planning and dispatch department within the Pribyl company has been transformed, and a significant part of its functions and staff has been transferred to subject-specific research and production complexes. The attention of this service is focused on strategic tasks and coordination of the work of complexes and companies.

Concern Energia went through the privatization process through leasing and corporatization and received a certificate of ownership of property; it was given the status of a Federal Research and Production Center.

10.4. Organization of production processes over time

To ensure rational interaction of all elements of the production process and streamline the work performed in time and space, it is necessary to form a production cycle of the product.

The production cycle is a complex of basic, auxiliary and service processes organized in a certain way in time, necessary for the manufacture of a certain type of product. The most important characteristic of the production cycle is its duration.

Production cycle time- this is a calendar period of time during which a material, workpiece or other processed item goes through all the operations of the production process or a certain part of it and is transformed into finished products. The duration of the cycle is expressed in calendar days or hours. Production cycle structure includes working time and break time. During the working period, the actual technological operations and preparatory and final work are carried out. The working period also includes the duration of control and transport operations and the time of natural processes. The time of breaks is determined by the labor regime, interoperational tracking of parts and shortcomings in the organization of labor and production.

Interoperational waiting time is determined by breaks in batching, waiting and staffing. Batch breaks occur when products are manufactured in batches and are due to the fact that the processed products lie until the entire batch has gone through this operation. In this case, it is assumed that a production batch is a group of products of the same name and standard size, launched into production within a certain time with the same preparatory and final period. Waiting breaks are caused by inconsistent durations of two adjacent operations of the technological process, and picking breaks are caused by the need to wait until all the blanks, parts or assembly units included in one set of products are manufactured. Picking interruptions occur during the transition from one stage of the production process to another.

In its most general form, the duration of the production cycle T q is expressed by the formula

T ts = T t + Tn –3 + T e + T k + T tr + T mo + T pr, (10.1)

Where T t is the time of technological operations; Tn–3 — time of preparatory and final work; T e is the time of natural processes; T k is the time of control operations; T tr — time of transportation of objects of labor; T mo — time of interoperative bedtime (intra-shift breaks); T pr - time of breaks due to work schedule.

The duration of technological operations and preparatory and final work together forms the operating cycle T c.op.

Operating cycle- this is the duration of the completed part of the technological process performed at one workplace.

Methods for calculating the duration of the production cycle. It is necessary to distinguish between the production cycle of individual parts and the production cycle of an assembly unit or product as a whole. The production cycle of a part is usually called simple, and the production cycle of a product or assembly unit is called complex. The cycle can be single-operational or multi-operational. The cycle time of a multi-operation process depends on the method of transferring parts from operation to operation. There are three types of movement of objects of labor in the process of their manufacture: sequential, parallel and parallel-sequential.

At sequential type of movement the entire batch of parts is transferred to the subsequent operation after finishing processing of all parts in the previous operation. The advantages of this method are the absence of interruptions in the operation of equipment and workers at each operation, the possibility of their high load during the shift. But the production cycle with such an organization of work is the largest, which negatively affects the technical and economic indicators of the workshop or enterprise.

At parallel type of movement parts are transferred to the next operation by transport batch immediately after completion of its processing at the previous operation. In this case, the shortest cycle is ensured. But the possibilities of using a parallel type of movement are limited, since a prerequisite for its implementation is equality or a multiple of the duration of operations. Otherwise, interruptions in the operation of equipment and workers are inevitable.

At parallel-sequential type of movement parts are transferred from operation to operation in transport batches or individually. In this case, there is a partial overlap of the execution time of adjacent operations, and the entire batch is processed at each operation without interruptions. Workers and equipment work without breaks. The production cycle is longer compared to a parallel one, but shorter than with the sequential movement of objects of labor.

Cycle calculation for a simple production process. The operational production cycle of a batch of parts with a sequential type of movement is calculated as follows:

(10.2)

Where n— number of parts in the production batch, pcs.; r op is the number of technological process operations; t PC i— standard time for performing each operation, min; WITH r.m. i— the number of jobs occupied by the production of a batch of parts at each operation.

The diagram of the sequential type of movement is shown in Fig. 10.4, A. According to the data given in the diagram, the operating cycle of a batch consisting of three parts processed at four workstations is calculated:

T c.seq = 3 (t pcs 1 + t pcs 2 + t pcs 3 + t pcs 4) = 3 (2 + 1 + 4 + 1.5) = 25.5 min.

Formula for calculating the duration of the operating cycle with a parallel type of movement:

(10.3)

where is the execution time of the longest operation in the technological process, min.

Rice. 10.4, a. Production cycle schedule for sequential movement of batches of parts

The movement schedule of a batch of parts with parallel movement is shown in Fig. 10.4, b. Using the graph, you can determine the duration of the operating cycle with parallel movement:

T c.pair = ( t pcs 1 + t pcs 2 + t pcs 3 + t pcs 4)+ (3 – 1) t pcs 3 = 8.5 + (3 – 1) 4 = 16.5 min.

Rice. 10.4, b. Production cycle schedule for parallel-sequential movement of batches of parts

With a parallel-sequential type of movement, there is a partial overlap in the execution time of adjacent operations. There are two types of combination of adjacent operations in time. If the execution time of the subsequent operation is longer than the execution time of the previous operation, then a parallel type of movement of parts can be used. If the execution time of the subsequent operation is less than the execution time of the previous one, then a parallel-sequential type of movement with the maximum possible combination of both operations in time is acceptable. The maximum combined operations differ from each other at the time of production of the last part (or the last transport batch) at the subsequent operation.

A diagram of the parallel-sequential type of motion is shown in Fig. 10.4, V. In this case, the operating cycle will be less than with a sequential type of movement, by the amount of combining each adjacent pair of operations: the first and second operations - AB - (3 - l) t pcs2 ; second and third operations - VG = А¢Б¢ – (3 –1) t pcs3 ; third and fourth operations – DE – (3 – 1) t pcs4 (where t pcs3 and t pcs4 have a shorter time t pcs. box from each pair of operations).

Formulas for calculation

(10.4)

When performing operations at parallel workstations:

Rice. 10.4, c. Schedule of production cycles with parallel movement of batches of parts

When transferring products in transport batches:

(10.5)

where is the time to complete the shortest operation.

An example of calculating cycle duration using formula (10.5):

T c.p.p = 25.5 – 2 (1 + 1 + 1.5) = 18.5 min.

The production cycle for manufacturing a batch of parts includes not only the operational cycle, but also natural processes and breaks associated with the operating mode, and other components. In this case, the cycle duration for the considered types of movement is determined by the formulas:

Where r op is the number of technological operations; WITH r.m - the number of parallel jobs occupied by the production of a batch of parts at each operation; t mo—interoperative waiting time between two operations, h; T cm is the duration of one work shift, h; d cm - number of shifts; TO v.n - planned coefficient of compliance with standards in operations; TO ln is the coefficient for converting working time into calendar time; T e is the duration of natural processes.

Calculating the cycle time of a complex process

The production cycle of a product includes cycles of manufacturing parts, assembling components and finished products, and testing operations. In this case, it is generally accepted that various parts are manufactured simultaneously. Therefore, the production cycle of the product includes the cycle of the most labor-intensive (leading) part from among those that are supplied to the first operations of the assembly shop. The duration of the product production cycle can be calculated using the formula

T c.p = T c.d + T c.b, (10.9)

Where T c.d - duration of the production cycle for manufacturing the leading part, calendar days. days; T c.b - duration of the production cycle of assembly and testing work, calendar days. days

Rice. 10.5. Cycle of a complex process

A graphical method can be used to determine the cycle time of a complex manufacturing process. For this purpose, a cyclic schedule is drawn up. The production cycles of simple processes included in complex ones are pre-established. According to the cyclic schedule, the period of advance of some processes by others is analyzed and the total duration of the cycle of a complex process for the production of a product or batch of products is determined as the largest sum of cycles of interconnected simple processes and interoperational breaks. In Fig. Figure 10.5 shows a cyclic graph of a complex process. On the graph from right to left on a time scale, cycles of partial processes are plotted, starting from testing and ending with the manufacture of parts.

Ways and importance of ensuring continuity of the production process and reducing cycle times

A high degree of continuity of production processes and a reduction in the duration of the production cycle are of great economic importance: the size of work in progress is reduced and the turnover of working capital is accelerated, the use of equipment and production space is improved, and the cost of production is reduced. Research carried out at a number of enterprises in Kharkov showed that where the average production cycle time does not exceed 18 days, each ruble spent provides 12% more products than in factories where the cycle time is 19–36 days, and 61% more than at a factory, where products have a cycle of more than 36 days.

Increasing the level of continuity of the production process and reducing cycle time are achieved, firstly, by increasing the technical level of production, and secondly, by organizational measures. Both paths are interconnected and complement each other.

Technical improvement of production is moving towards the introduction of new technology, advanced equipment and new vehicles. This leads to a reduction in the production cycle by reducing the labor intensity of the technological and control operations themselves, and reducing the time for moving objects of labor.

Organizational measures should include:

minimizing interruptions caused by interoperational tracking and batching interruptions through the use of parallel and parallel-sequential methods of movement of objects of labor and improving the planning system;
constructing schedules for combining various production processes, ensuring partial overlap in time of performing related work and operations;
reduction of waiting breaks based on the construction of optimized product manufacturing plans and rational launch of parts into production;
the introduction of subject-closed and detail-specialized workshops and sections, the creation of which reduces the length of intra-shop and inter-shop routes and reduces the time spent on transportation.