100 RUR bonus for first order

Select the type of work Diploma work Course work Abstract Master's thesis Report on practice Article Report Review Test work Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions Creative work Essay Drawing Essays Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Master's thesis Laboratory work On-line help

Find out the price

The type of GNI is a set of individual properties of the nervous system, determined by the hereditary characteristics of the individual and his life experience.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about the types of GNI, the main ones are three properties of nervous processes: the strength of nervous processes, balance and mobility.

1. The power of nervous processes(the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition) is associated with the level of performance of nerve cells. Weak nervous processes are characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand strong or prolonged loads, therefore, these cells have a low level of performance. Strong nervous processes are associated, accordingly, with a high level of efficiency of nerve cells.

2. Balance of nervous processes is determined by their ratio. It is possible that one of the nervous processes predominates (for example, excitation over inhibition) or their balance.

3. Mobility of nervous processes- the speed with which excitation can replace inhibition or vice versa. Consequently, nervous processes can be highly mobile or inert.

Different people are characterized by different ratios of all of these properties, which ultimately determine the type of their nervous system and higher nervous activity.

1. Strong unbalanced (“uncontrolled”) type characterized by a strong nervous system and a predominance of excitation processes over inhibition (their imbalance).

2. Strong balanced mobile (labile) type characterized by high mobility of nervous processes, their strength and balance.

3. Strong balanced inert type (calm, sedentary) Despite the significant strength of the nervous processes, it has low mobility.

4. Weak type characterized by low performance of cortical cells and weakness of nervous processes.

Plasticity of types of higher nervous activity. The innate properties of the nervous system are not immutable. They can change to one degree or another under the influence of upbringing due to the plasticity of the nervous system. The type of higher nervous activity consists of the interaction of the inherited properties of the nervous system and the influences that an individual experiences during life.

IP Pavlov called the plasticity of the nervous system the most important pedagogical factor. The strength and mobility of nervous processes can be trained, and children of the unbalanced type, under the influence of upbringing, can acquire traits that bring them closer to representatives of the balanced type. Prolonged overexertion of the inhibitory process in children of a weak type can lead to a “breakdown” of higher nervous activity and the emergence of neuroses. Such children have difficulty getting used to the new work schedule and need special attention.

In experiments with animals, I.P. Pavlov established that in some animals positive conditioned reflexes are formed quickly, and inhibitory reflexes are formed slowly. In other animals, on the contrary, positive conditioned reflexes are developed slowly, and inhibitory ones faster. In the third group of animals, both reflexes are easily developed and firmly established. Thus, it was found that the effect of certain stimuli depends not only on their quality, but also on the typological characteristics of higher nervous activity.

By typological features of higher nervous activity we mean the dynamics of the course of nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) in individual individuals.

It is characterized by the following three typological properties:

1) the strength of nervous processes - the performance of nerve cells during excitation and inhibition;

2) balance of nervous processes - the relationship between the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance or the predominance of one process over the other;

3) mobility of nervous processes - the speed of change in the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Depending on the combination of the above properties I.P. Pavlov highlighted four types of higher nervous activity(Fig. 9).

First type (living type) characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, their balance and high mobility. Animals are easily excitable and active. The transformation of inhibitory conditioned reflexes into positive ones and vice versa occurs quickly in them. In such animals, delayed conditioned reflexes are easily developed and the dynamic stereotype is remade (corresponds to the sanguine type of temperament according to Hippocrates).

Second type (uncontrolled type) characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, but they are not balanced, the excitatory process predominates over the inhibitory process, these processes are mobile. Imbalance in strong dogs usually occurs in one form: there is a strong excitatory process and an inhibition that lags behind it in strength. In animals of this type, positive conditioned reflexes are quickly formed, but inhibitory reflexes are developed slowly and with difficulty. Since the excitatory process is not balanced by the inhibitory process, when the nervous load is very high, these animals often experience a breakdown in nervous activity. For the most part, these are fighting animals, aggressive, overly excited, unrestrained (in the words of I.P. Pavlov) (corresponds to the choleric type of temperament according to Hippocrates).

Third type (calm type) characterized by increased strength of nervous processes, their balance, but low mobility. Animals are little mobile, difficult to excite, and slow. Remaking the signal meaning of a conditioned stimulus occurs with great difficulty for them. Animals with this type of higher nervous activity are characterized by excellent performance of cortical neurons and easily tolerate strong external influences, responding adequately to them. They are difficult to unbalance; they have difficulty changing their reactions, despite a change in the value of the conditioned signal (corresponds to the phlegmatic type of temperament according to Hippocrates).

Fourth type (weak type) characterized by reduced strength of nervous processes and reduced mobility. In representatives of this type, both nervous processes are weak (the inhibitory process is often especially weak). Such dogs are fussy, constantly looking around or, conversely, constantly stopping, as if frozen in some position. This is explained by the fact that external influences, even very minor ones, have a strong influence on them. Conditioned reflexes are difficult for them to develop, and prolonged or too strong stimuli cause rapid exhaustion and neuroses. Animals of the weak type differ from each other in other characteristics (except for the strength of nervous processes), but against the background of the general weakness of the nervous system, these differences are not significant (corresponds to the melancholic type of temperament according to Hippocrates).

Rice. 9. Types of higher nervous activity in animals according to I.P. Pavlov

A - lively type (sanguine), B - unrestrained type (choleric), C - calm type (phlegmatic), D - greenhouse type (weak type, melancholic)

Thus, the type of higher nervous activity is a certain combination of stable properties of excitation and inhibition, characteristic of the highest first activity of a particular individual.

The type of higher nervous activity gives a certain appearance to the entire behavior of the animal, including in the experiment. The type of nervous activity refers to the natural characteristics of the body, but is not something immutable. It develops, trains and changes under the influence of environmental conditions. Laboratory experiments have established, for example, that in a strong type with a predominance of excitation, it is possible through training to develop a lagging inhibitory process.

It is known that under the influence of living conditions that require one or another behavior, the body’s responses are often fixed for life. At the same time, conditioned connections arising as a result of external influences can mask the properties of the nervous system. Therefore, cases of discrepancy and inconsistency between the external behavior of the animal and its type of nervous activity are possible.

Various types of higher nervous activity underlie four temperaments: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic.

In 1935 I.P. Pavlov in his article “General types of higher nervous activity of animals and humans” established the final classification of types of higher nervous activity:

1) strong, unbalanced, unrestrained (choleric);

2) strong, balanced, agile (sanguine);

3) strong, balanced, inert (phlegmatic);

4) weak (melancholic).

I. P. Pavlov and his collaborators knew that these four types of higher nervous activity in their pure form are not often found. Therefore, so-called intermediate types began to be distinguished. For example, when dogs, based on the characteristics of one property of nervous processes, can be classified as a strong type, and based on the characteristics of another - as a weak type, they began to talk about a “weak variation of a strong type” or a “strong variation of a weak type.” It should be said here that Pavlov did not extend the understanding of these types to the higher nervous activity of man. He is known to have said on one of the “Wednesdays” that “dog” types are not suitable for humans.

In the 20s I.P. Pavlov studied the higher nervous activity of humans, comparing his observations with previously obtained data on the GNI of animals. As a result of these observations, the idea of ​​two signaling systems was formulated.

The first signaling system is the body system that ensures the formation direct ideas about the surrounding reality using conditional connections, using the senses. The signals for the first signaling system are color, smell, shape, etc. That is, this system is inherent in both animals and humans.

The second signaling system is the body system that ensures the formation generalized ideas about the surrounding reality through speech. The signal for the second signaling system is a word. That is, this system is inherent only to humans. The second signaling system depends on the functioning of the first signaling system, but at the same time can control its operation.

Thanks to the presence of the second signaling system, you and I have not only figurative, but also abstract thinking.

I.P. Pavlov identified purely human types of higher nervous activity (Fig. 10):

1) artistic type - persons in whom the first signaling system predominates. Such people are distinguished by figurative and emotional thinking, they have a developed imagination. There are many such people among artists, painters, and musicians.

2) thinking type - persons in whom the second signaling system predominates. Such people are characterized by the ability to analyze, systematize, and abstract thinking predominates in them.

3) average type - persons in whom both the first and second signaling systems are equally developed. To this type, according to I.P. Pavlova, belongs to the majority of people.

4) genius type - this type was presented in the latest works of I.P. Pavlova. And he proposed to include people in this type who have very highly developed first and second signaling systems. As Ivan Petrovich himself noted, there are very few such people, these are real geniuses.

Rice. 10. Types of human GNI (according to I.P. Pavlov):

1 – first signaling system, 2 – second signaling system, A – artistic type, B – thinking type, C – average type, D – genius type.

What features does a weak nervous system have? This question interests many. With each generation, the number of people with a weak nervous system increases significantly.

However, both strong and weak systems have their own certain undeniable advantages.

Nervous System Strength

By definition, the strength of each person's nervous system is an innate indicator. We must agree that this is simply necessary to indicate the endurance and performance of all nerve cells in the human body. The strength of the nervous system allows its cells to withstand any excitation without turning into inhibition.

The latter is a vital component of the nervous system. It is able to coordinate all its activities. The distinctive ability of a strong system is that people who possess it are able to survive and withstand even extremely strong stimuli. People with a weak system, on the contrary, do not keep the signal well and react poorly to stimuli.

A person with a weak nervous system is not distinguished by patience, with great difficulty retains information received by him and, at the first opportunity, shares it with almost the first person he meets.

From all of the above, we can already conclude that people with a weak system are simply not able to tolerate strong stimuli.

In such situations, the system either slows down or completely “disappears” without any brakes. However, it also has advantages, for example, the ability to increase sensitivity. It can also easily distinguish ultra-weak signals.

Main signs of a weak nervous system

A weak nervous system in a person has the following signs:

1. Indifference. Such a signal can force a person to accept all kinds of blows of fate without any protest. A weak nervous system makes people lazy both mentally and physically. At the same time, people, even living in poverty, will not make any attempts to correct the situation and change their position in society.
2. Indecisiveness. A person who is highly sensitive is able to obey everyone. The worst thing is that this person can be possessed to such an extent that he simply turns into a living robot.
3. Doubts. Sensitive people are capable of doubting not only themselves, but also people who are trying to help them in every possible way. Such people very often make excuses in order to disguise their own failures. Very often this is expressed in envy of those people who are better and more successful than them.
4. Anxiety. This signal is central to significantly reduced nerve strength. Anxiety can lead a person to a nervous breakdown and even a breakdown. Often, anxious people are almost the most pitiful creatures on the entire planet. They live in constant fear. It is worth noting that anxiety can take away vitality and prematurely age a person. Such people, as an excuse, are accustomed to saying a long-learned phrase: “If you had my worries and worries, you would worry no less.”
5. Each person has their own specific concerns, and often they face great difficulties in life. But a person with a healthy system faces such difficulties quite calmly and tries to find a solution to the current situation. Excessive worrying will not help solve the problem, but it can significantly undermine your health and bring you closer to old age. In other words, worry is a weapon against yourself.
6. Overcautiousness. A person is constantly waiting for the right moment to implement his own ideas and plans. And such an expectation can turn into a habit. These people's pessimism increases greatly; they can be confused by just one bad thought that failure may happen and everything will collapse. People who are overly cautious risk indigestion, rather weak blood circulation, nervousness and many other negative factors and diseases.

Features of education with a weak nervous system in children

Basically, everyone is used to seeing cheerful, cheerful and active children, but among them there are also quite passive ones, very withdrawn into themselves and very poorly withstand even the most insignificant stress. They are very impressionable and overly sensitive to the slightest irritants.

Parents need to remember that highly impressionable children require a special approach. In this case, mistakes in upbringing can lead not only to fearfulness and irritability of the child, but also to various kinds of illnesses and even nervous breakdown.

First of all, you need to think through the daily routine necessary for the child’s life, both at home and outside its walls. The most important factor for energy expenditure is this regime, which is directly related to stability and rhythm, which children with a weak nervous system really need.

The schedule according to which they will live is very important for such children. The regime, of course, is capable, but is it necessary to limit the child and put him in new living conditions? Definitely, but just don’t forget to take into account your baby’s inclinations and his condition. Changing the routine for a child is only appropriate if nothing particularly tires him. For example, such changes in his life can be done during the summer holidays.

The fact is that during the rest time, students’ usual routine is disrupted. It is very important for such children to see and learn something new and interesting every day. For example, hiking can give a child vigor, vitality and strength.

What are the features of a weak type nervous system?

Currently, in the laboratory for the study of types of higher nervous activity in humans at the Research Institute of Psychology, which was headed by Professor B.M. Teplov, material has been accumulated that elucidates the characteristics of the weak type nervous system. In the light of the data obtained, a weak type nervous system is not a bad nervous system, but a system with high reactivity (sensitivity). Due to increased reactivity in nerve cells, the supply of functional substances is quickly consumed. However, with a properly organized regime of work and rest, the supply of reactive substance is continuously restored, due to which high productivity of the nervous system of a weak type can be ensured. Research by Soviet psychologists V.D. Nebylitsyna, N.S. Leites and others confirm this point of view, first expressed by B.M. Thermal in the form of a hypothesis.

What are the functional advantages of a weak type nervous system?

It is very significant that type weakness, as special studies have established, expresses not only a lack of strength in the excitatory and inhibitory processes, but also the associated high sensitivity and reactivity. This means that a weak type of nervous system has its own special advantages.

According to Teplov and Nebylitsyn, a weak nervous system is also characterized by the sensitivity of the analyzers: a weaker nervous system is also more sensitive, i.e. it is able to respond to stimuli of lower intensity than strong ones. This is the advantage of a weak nervous system over a strong one. The value of this approach is that it removes the previously existing evaluative attitude towards the properties of the nervous system. At each pole, the presence of both positive and negative (from a biological point of view) sides is recognized.

What is the balance of nervous processes?

In the research of the school of Teplov and Nebylitsyn, the balance of nervous processes began to be considered as a set of secondary (derived) properties of the nervous system, determining the ratio of excitation and inhibition indicators for each of its primary properties (strength, mobility, lability, dynamism of the nervous system). Along with a new interpretation of the balance of the nervous system, a new term was proposed - the balance of nervous processes.

Is it possible to talk about the independent value of psychological characteristics of temperament?

In the history of the science of temperament, the question of the value of psychological types of temperament has been repeatedly raised. Aristotle, for example, considered the most valuable melancholic temperament, which predisposes to in-depth thinking. The German philosopher Kant preferred a phlegmatic temperament. A phlegmatic person, in his opinion, flares up slowly, but burns brightly and for a long time, is capable of showing great will and endurance, can achieve a lot without offending the essence of other people. It is possible that the personal temperament of these thinkers, of whom the first was melancholic, and the second was phlegmatic.

In some of his statements, I.P. Pavlov attached too much importance to the type of nervous system, and, consequently, to temperament. This is, for example, his assessment of the sanguine temperament as the most perfect, since the underlying one is strong; a balanced and mobile type of higher nervous activity ensures precise balancing of all environmental possibilities; Pavlov spoke of the weak type as a “disabled life type,” which can normally exist only in especially favorable conditions, in a greenhouse environment. It should not be forgotten that Pavlov's views relate mainly to animals, and not to humans. In addition, it should be borne in mind that his views on the value of types of higher nervous activity changed significantly as the relevant material accumulated in his laboratories.

What is the two-aspect nature of the psyche, its subject-content and formal-dynamic sides?

Another important issue in the study of temperament is the question of the relationship between the biological properties of a person, his organic basis, and the psychological “filling” of temperament. In the works of Teplov, Nebylitsyn, V.S. Merlin, the concept of two-aspect nature of the psyche was developed, the essence of which is to distinguish two aspects in the human psyche: subject-substantive and formal-dynamic.

Formal-dynamic characteristics of the psyche constitute the features and properties of the human psyche that underlie his activity, regardless of its specific motives, goals, methods, relationships and are manifested in the “external picture of behavior” (I.P. Pavlov). The dynamic features of the psyche are determined by the neurophysical properties of the human body.
The formal-dynamic features of the human psyche constitute what we call temperament.

Is the evaluative approach to temperament types valid?

From the understanding of temperament as a formal-dynamic characteristic of the psyche, it follows that the axiological (“evaluative”) approach to it is illegal. There are no “good” and “bad” temperaments; each temperament in specific types of activity has both its advantages and disadvantages. Often a weak type of nervous system is assessed negatively. However, Teplov's research showed an important advantage of a weak type of nervous system - high sensitivity, which is absolutely necessary in activity situations that require fine differentiation of stimuli. V.S. Merlin specifically noted the equivalence of the “properties of the general type of the nervous system” and the widest possibilities for compensating a person with different types of GNI for various types of professional activity.

How is temperament type related to personality productivity?

In reality, each temperament has its own strengths and weaknesses.

Thus, the liveliness, mobility, and emotionality of a sanguine person allow him to quickly navigate the environment, easily establish contacts with people, and do several things at the same time; but these same qualities often become the reason for his rash decisions, hasty conclusions, lack of patience, and habit of leaving things unfinished.

If a choleric person is able to develop great energy, work hard and hard, then he often lacks endurance and composure in a responsible situation.

The excessive calm and slowness of a phlegmatic person is good in circumstances where restraint and composure are required, but in other cases the phlegmatic person surprises others with his equanimity, which is similar to indifference.

The deep impressionability of a melancholic person serves as the basis for the development of such character traits as responsiveness, sensitivity, constancy in friendship; but the slight sluggishness of a melancholic person can be the cause of timidity and lack of self-confidence.

The initial properties of temperament do not predetermine what they will develop into - advantages or disadvantages. Therefore, the teacher’s task should not be to try to transform one type of temperament into another (and this is not possible), but to, through systematic work, promote the development of the positive aspects of each temperament and at the same time help to get rid of those negative aspects that can be associated with a given temperament.

In what psychological properties of an individual does temperament manifest itself?

Temperament manifests itself in different areas of mental activity. It appears especially clearly in 1) the emotional sphere, in the speed and strength of emotional excitability. There are people who are emotionally responsive and impressionable. Even minor events find an emotional response in them. They respond warmly to events in public and personal life, and work with enthusiasm and passion. On the other hand, there are people with low excitability and unimpressive people. Only particularly important events cause them joy, anger, fear, etc. They approach everyday events without worry, work energetically and calmly.
Temperament also appears in 2) the speed and strength of mental processes - perception, thinking, memory, etc. There are people who quickly establish their attention, quickly think, speak, and remember. Others have a slow, calm course of mental processes. They are sometimes called slow-witted. They think slowly, speak slowly. Their speech is monotonous and unexpressive. Slowness is found in them in other mental processes, as well as in attention.

Temperamental differences also manifest themselves in 3) motor skills: body movements, gestures, facial expressions. Some people have fast, energetic movements, abundant and sharp gestures, and expressive facial expressions. Others have slow, smooth movements, sparing gestures, and inexpressive facial expressions. The first is characterized by liveliness and mobility, the second by motor restraint. 4) Finally, temperament affects the characteristics of moods and the nature of their changes. Some people are most often cheerful and cheerful; Their moods change often and easily, while others are prone to lyrical moods, their moods are stable, their changes are smooth. There are people whose moods change abruptly and unexpectedly.

How to diagnose temperament by its external manifestations?

To classify a student as a certain type of temperament, you should make sure that he has one or another expression, first of all, of the following traits:

1. Activity. It is judged by the degree of pressure (energy) with which the child reaches out for something new, strives to influence the environment and change it, and overcome obstacles.

2. Emotionality. She is judged by her sensitivity to emotional influences and her disposition to find reasons for an emotional reaction. The ease with which emotion becomes the motivating force of actions is indicative, as well as the speed with which one emotional state changes to another.

3. Features of motor skills. They appear in speed, sharpness, rhythm, amplitude and a number of other signs of muscle movement (some of them characterize muscle motility). This side of the manifestations of temperament is easier to observe and evaluate than others.

On what basis is a psychological characteristic of temperament given?

The psychological characteristics of the main types of temperament follow from its psychological essence and are closely related to its definition. They reveal the features of emotional excitability, features of motor skills, the nature of the prevailing moods and the features of their change. The characteristics reveal the unique dynamics of a person’s mental activity, determined by the corresponding type of higher nervous activity.

Pavlov's teaching about the types of nervous activity is essential for understanding the physiological basis of temperament. Its correct use involves taking into account the fact that the type of nervous system is a strictly physiological concept, and temperament is a psychophysiological concept, and it is expressed not only in motor skills, in the nature of reactions, their strength, speed, etc., but also in impressionability , in emotional excitability, etc.

Each type of temperament has its own correlation of mental properties, first of all, different degrees of activity and emotionality, as well as certain features of motor skills. A certain structure of dynamic manifestations characterizes the type of temperament.

In accordance with this approach, criteria are identified for attributing one or another psychological property to temperament. Thus, V.M. Rusalov identifies seven such criteria.

The psychological property under consideration:

1. does not depend on the content of activity and behavior (is independent of meaning, motive, goal, etc.);

2. characterizes the measure of dynamic (energetic) tension and a person’s relationship to the world, people, himself, and activity;

3. universal and manifests itself in all spheres of activity and life;

4. manifests itself early in childhood;

5. sustainable over a long period of human life;

6. highly correlates with the properties of the nervous system and the properties of other biological subsystems (humoral, bodily, etc.);

7. is being investigated.

The psychological characteristics of temperament types are determined by the following basic properties: sensitivity, reactivity, activity, the ratio of reactivity and activity, rate of reactions, plasticity - rigidity, extraversion - introversion, emotional excitability.

How does temperament manifest itself in the emotional sphere?

Temperament is reflected in emotional excitability - the strength of emotional arousal, the speed with which it covers the personality - and the stability with which it is maintained. It depends on a person’s temperament how quickly and strongly he lights up and how quickly he then fades away. Emotional excitability manifests itself, in particular, in a mood that is elevated to the point of exaltation or decreased to the point of depression, and especially in more or less rapid changes in mood, directly related to impressionability. Each of these temperaments can be determined by the ratio of impressionability and impulsiveness as the main psychological properties of temperament. Choleric temperament is characterized by strong impressionability and great impulsiveness; sanguine – weak impressionability and great impulsiveness; melancholic – strong impressionability and low impulsiveness; phlegmatic - weak impressionability and low impulsiveness. Thus, this classical traditional scheme naturally follows from the relationship of the basic characteristics with which we endow temperament, while acquiring the corresponding psychological content. The differentiation of both impressionability and impulsiveness in terms of strength, speed and stability, outlined above, opens up opportunities for further differentiation of temperaments.

A person’s impressionability and impulsiveness are especially important for temperament.

A person’s temperament is manifested, first of all, in his impressionability, characterized by the strength and stability of the impact that impressions have on a person. Depending on the characteristics of temperament, impressionability in some people is more, in others less significant; For some, according to Gorky, it’s as if someone “torn all the skin off their heart,” they are so sensitive to every impression; others - “insensitive”, “thick-skinned” - react very weakly to their surroundings. For some, the influence is strong or weak - the effect that makes an impression on them spreads with great speed, and for others with very low speed, into the deeper layers of the psyche. Finally, depending on the characteristics of their temperament, the stability of the impression varies among different people: for some, the impression - even a strong one - turns out to be very unstable, while others cannot get rid of it for a long time. Impressiveness is always an individually different affective sensitivity among people of different temperaments. It is significantly connected with the emotional sphere and is expressed in the strength, speed and stability of the emotional reaction to impressions.

Another central expression of temperament is impulsiveness, which is characterized by the strength of excitations, the speed with which they master the motor sphere and turn into action, and the stability with which they retain their effective force. Impulsivity includes the impressionability and emotional excitability that determines it in relation to the dynamic characteristics of those intellectual processes that mediate and control them. Impulsivity is that side of temperament by which it is connected with desire, with the origins of will, with the dynamic power of needs as incentives for activity, with the speed of transition of impulses into action.

The idea of ​​the typological features of the nervous system of humans and animals is one of the determining factors in the doctrine of higher nervous activity. VND type is a complex of individual characteristics of GNI, determined by hereditary factors and environmental influences, characterized by strength, mobility and balance of nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) and a certain ratio of the first and second signaling systems.

The most important property of GNI is the strength of nervous processes. The strength of nervous processes is understood as the ability of neurons to withstand prolonged excitation without transition to extreme inhibition under the influence of a strong stimulus. According to the strength of nervous processes, all people can be divided into two types: strong and weak.

The second property that forms the basis for the classification of types of intravenous activity is the balance between the processes of excitation and inhibition. They can be balanced, but they can also dominate one over the other. Persons with a weak nervous system easily develop protective over-the-top inhibition. Therefore, it is impossible to consider the property of balanced processes in them. The strong type can be divided on this basis into balanced and unbalanced.

The third property of the nervous system is mobility, which is characterized by the speed of mutual transitions of the processes of excitation and inhibition. In accordance with this I.P. Pavlov identified four types of GNI in animals and humans (Fig. 13.4), which made it possible to give a scientific explanation for the existence of four types of Hippocratic temperament - sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic.

1. Strong balanced mobile (living) type– the processes of excitation and inhibition are well expressed, balanced and easily transform into one another. People easily overcome difficulties (strength), are able to quickly navigate new environments (mobility), and with great self-control (balance).

2. Strong balanced inert (calm) type– a person is endowed with good strength of nervous processes and balance, but low mobility, inertia of nervous processes. People are efficient (strength), but slow, do not like to change their habits (inertia).

3. Strong unbalanced (uncontrolled) type– characterized by a strong process of excitation, which prevails over inhibition. People are very enthusiastic people who can do a lot (strength), but are very hot-tempered and unpredictable (imbalance).

4. Weak type– characterized by weak excitation processes and easily occurring inhibitory reactions. People are weak-willed, afraid of difficulties, easily subject to other people's influence, and subject to a melancholy mood.

Rice. 13.4. Scheme of types of higher nervous activity (according to I.P. Pavlov)

Belonging to one or another type of GNI does not at all mean an assessment of the biological fitness of an animal or the social usefulness of a person. This is evidenced by the fact that all four general types of animal nervous systems have withstood the merciless test of time in evolution. There is no reason to consider people of different types of nervous systems as “different kinds” of people. Everyone is needed and can find their place in life.

Observing various forms of behavior, the peculiarities of thinking and emotional activity of people, I.P. Pavlov proposed another classification of VND types, based on the interaction of signaling systems I and II. According to Pavlov, there are three types of people: thinking, artistic and mixed.

1. For people artistic type characterized by the predominance of concrete-figurative thinking, based on the activity of the more developed first signaling system of reality. These people are most prone to synthesis. Representatives of people with a pronounced artistic type I.P. Pavlov believed L.N. Tolstoy and I.E. Repina.

2. For people thinking type characterized by the predominance of the second signaling system of reality. They are more prone to analytical, abstract, abstract thinking. To this type of VND I.P. Pavlov attributed the famous German philosopher Hegel, the creator of the theory of the origin of species to the English scientist Charles Darwin.

3. There are categories of people who have equally developed first and second signaling systems. People with this type are prone to both abstract and sensory-figurative thinking. Their I.P. Pavlov attributed to mixed type. Among the outstanding figures of science and art, Pavlov included the multi-talented Leonardo da Vinci, a brilliant artist and mathematician, anatomist and physiologist, in this category. The mixed type of GNI, according to the scientist, was possessed by the German poet and philosopher Goethe, the creator of the periodic system of elements D.I. Mendeleev, outstanding chemist, talented Russian composer A.P. Borodin.

Brain asymmetry

For the vast majority of people, the motor activity of the arms, legs, left and right half of the body, and faces are not the same. The perception of objects located to the left or right of the middle plane of the body is also ambiguous. In other words, a person has inherent motor and sensory asymmetry. To perform labor operations in everyday life, most people use their right hand, i.e. are right-handed. At the same time, the right hand is superior to the left in dexterity, strength, reaction speed, and the ability to clearly perform complex coordinated actions. A significantly smaller part of humanity (left-handers) uses their left hand for the same purposes. In addition, there are people who use both hands equally - the so-called ambidextrous people. A stable preference for one of the hands is characteristic only of a person who stands out from other groups of living beings on this basis. The proportion of left-handers, according to various authors, ranges from 1 to 30%. Motor and sensory asymmetries, i.e. the dominance of the hands (legs) and sensory organs (vision, hearing, touch) may not coincide for each individual.

In newborn children, both hands are equal. If preferences in their use arise in the first years of life, they do not last long and can change many times. Only in the fifth year of life does the right hand of future right-handers gradually begin to take on all complex activities. It is assumed that in old age the opposite process occurs, and the inequality of hands is gradually smoothed out.

In girls and women, the asymmetry of the hands is less pronounced, and among them there are 1.5 - 2 times fewer left-handers than among representatives of the “stronger” sex. Improving the brain functions of girls stretches over a longer period and occurs slowly. In boys, already at the age of six, many functions are performed separately by the right and left hemispheres of the brain, while in girls twice as old, the specialization of the brain is often just emerging.

It is especially interesting that among twins, left-handers are found much more often than among those born alone, and both twins are rarely left-handed. Usually one of the twins always becomes right-handed. If the twins are of different sexes, then the boy is more likely to be left-handed. Among Siamese twins, as a rule, one is right-handed and the other is left-handed.

In right-handed people, Broca's speech center is located in the left hemisphere of the brain. On the right side of the cerebral hemisphere there is a structurally identical area of ​​the brain, damage to which, however, does not lead to any consequences for them. On the contrary, if the left motor area of ​​speech fails, motor aphasia occurs in right-handers. In any case, in approximately 3% of the population the speech area exhibits full functional capacity in both hemispheres of the brain. It is noteworthy that the dominant speech center in left-handed people is not always the right region - in most cases, their dominant speech center is also located in the left temporal lobe of the brain. With prolonged disruption of Broca's speech center, the right hemisphere can gradually take over its functions. If in a child the process of redistribution of the functions of the cerebral hemispheres occurs relatively quickly (about a year), then with age the reserve function increasingly remains with the right hemisphere. The localization of Broca's speech area in the left hemisphere of the brain is, apparently, the most characteristic example of specialization of both hemispheres. All other functions of the brain do not have such a pronounced dominance.

As you know, between both hemispheres of the brain there is a corpus callosum, in which millions of nerve endings create an intense cross-connection. A more pronounced corpus callosum in women is one of the reasons for the less asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres in them. If this corpus callosum is dissected, then each hemisphere of the brain will be isolated, left to its own devices. The right hemisphere can still control the movements of the left arm and left leg (in the spinal cord, nerve fibers cross so that neurons in the right hemisphere travel along nerve pathways to the left side of the body). For example, when feeling a nail with the left hand, the impressions received freely reach the brain and consciousness, but the patient is not able to name this object, since the Broca speech center located in the left hemisphere is responsible for verbal designation, the connection with which is interrupted as a result of the dismemberment of the corpus callosum. When feeling objects with the right hand, such problems do not arise. The speech center receives the necessary information. The same thing happens if an object is viewed only with the left field of vision or sound is perceived only with the left ear.

The above examples indicate that the left hemisphere of the brain plays a leading role in the implementation of speech function. But this does not mean that the right hemisphere is unnecessary or secondary. For example, in areas such as spatial orientation, shape recognition and understanding of music and voice intonation, it is superior to the left hemisphere.

The specialization of both hemispheres of the brain allows us to conclude that the human brain, to a certain extent, has the ability to “self-repair” when the functions of one or another hemisphere are impaired. When one hemisphere fails, the second may turn on without achieving the full effectiveness of the dominant hemisphere. This fact is of fundamental importance, for example, in case of damage (death) of brain tissue after a stroke; Intense long-term exercises can lead to a significant restoration of hemispheric functions and, to a certain extent, restore lost skills. Of course, this process occurs slowly and does not always lead to complete functional restoration, but in most cases it is possible.

It has been established that the right hemisphere is responsible for homeostasis, and therefore ensures biological adaptation, and the left hemisphere ensures social adaptation. It is no coincidence that women whose interhemispheric asymmetry is less pronounced tend to have a more advanced adaptation strategy to various conditions.

The differences between the functions of the right and left hemispheres are shown in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1.

Interhemispheric asymmetry

Our educational system, as well as our science, generally tends to ignore the non-verbal form of intelligence. Thus, modern society discriminates against the right hemisphere. In 1981, the American neurologist R. Sperry received the Nobel Prize for the discovery of functional asymmetry of the brain.

Physiology of sleep

Sleep is a periodic functional state of a person, characterized by the absence of purposeful activity and active connections with the environment. During sleep, brain activity does not decrease, but is rebuilt. A person spends a third of his life sleeping: he sleeps 25 out of 75 years.

An analysis of a number of facts led I.P. Pavlov to the conclusion that sleep and conditioned inhibition by their nature are a single process. The only difference between them is that conditioned inhibition during wakefulness covers only certain groups of neurons, while during the development of sleep, inhibition radiates through the cerebral cortex, spreading to the underlying parts of the brain.

Sleep developing in humans and animals under the influence of conditioned inhibitory stimuli, I.P. Pavlov called it active, contrasting it with passive sleep, which occurs in cases of cessation or sharp restriction of the influx of afferent signals to the cerebral cortex.

The importance of afferent signaling in maintaining a state of wakefulness was shown by I.M. Sechenov, who cites cases of the onset of prolonged sleep known from clinical practice in patients suffering from common sensory organ disorders.

The clinic observed a patient who, of all his sense organs, retained the functions of only one eye and one ear. As long as the eye could see and the ear could hear, the person was awake, but as soon as the doctors closed these only ways of communication with the outside world for the patient, the patient immediately fell asleep. HELL. Speransky and V.S. Galkin cut the dog’s visual and olfactory nerves and destroyed both cochleae of the inner ear. After such an operation, the dog fell into a sleepy state, which lasted over 23 hours a day. She woke up only briefly from hunger or when her rectum and bladder were full.

All these facts received a new explanation after the functional significance of the reticular formation was established and the interaction between it and the cerebral cortex was clarified.

Afferent signals passing through the reticular formation of the midbrain and nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex have an activating effect on it and maintain an active state. Elimination of these influences (with damage to several receptor systems or as a result of destruction of the reticular formation or shutdown of its functions under the influence of certain drugs, for example, barbiturates) leads to the onset of deep sleep. In turn, the reticular formation of the brain stem is under the continuous tonic influence of the cerebral cortex.

Rice. 13.6. Scheme of interaction between “sleep centers” and “awakening” structures during wakefulness and the onset of sleep (according to P.K. Anokhin). A. Wakefulness. Cortical influences (I) inhibit the “sleep centers” (II) and the ascending activating influences of reticular structures (III) and excitations traveling along the lemniscal pathways (IV) freely reach the cortex. B. Dream. Inhibited sections of the cortex (I) cease to have a restraining influence on the “sleep centers” (II), they block ascending activating influences (III), without affecting excitations along the lemniscal pathways (IV).

The existence of a two-way connection between the cerebral cortex and the reticular formation plays an important role in the mechanism of sleep. Indeed, the development of inhibition in areas of the cortex reduces the tone of the reticular formation, and this weakens its ascending activating influence, which entails a decrease in the activity of the entire cerebral cortex. Thus, inhibition that initially occurs in a limited area of ​​the cortex can cause inhibition of neurons throughout the cerebral cortex.

One of the attempts to create a unified theory of sleep was made by P.K. Anokhin (Fig. 13.6). In his hypothesis, he proceeded from the fact that the hypothalamic “sleep centers” are under tonic inhibitory influence from the cerebral cortex. When this influence weakens due to a decrease in the working tone of the cortical cells (“active sleep” according to I.P. Pavlov), the hypothalamic structures seem to be “released” and determine the entire complex picture of the redistribution of vegetative components that is characteristic of the sleep state. At the same time, the hypothalamic centers have a depressing effect on the ascending activating system, stopping access to the cortex of the entire complex of activating influences (“passive sleep” according to I.P. Pavlov). These interactions appear to be cyclical, so the sleep state can be induced artificially (or through a pathological process) by affecting any part of the cycle.

Stages of sleep

During a night's sleep, a person experiences 3-5 periodic changes of slow and fast sleep.

Based on the electroencephalographic picture, the phase of “slow sleep” is in turn divided into several stages.

Stage I – drowsiness, the process of falling into sleep. On the EEG, α- and θ-rhythms predominate; at the end of the stage, K-complexes appear (a series of high-amplitude slow potentials lasting 3-5 s).

Stage II – superficial sleep (sleep spindle stage). The EEG shows K-complexes and sleep spindles appear (frequency approximately 15 Hz, a variant of the α rhythm). Their appearance coincides with the blackout of consciousness; The stage occupies about 50% of sleep time and increases in duration from the first to the last cycle.

Stage III – deep sleep (delta sleep), is characterized by the presence of a ∆-rhythm with a frequency of 3.0-3.5 Hz, which occupies up to 30% of the EEG.

Stage IV – the stage of “rapid” or “paradoxical sleep”, is characterized by the presence of a δ rhythm with a frequency of approximately 1 Hz, which occupies up to 30% of the EEG. Stages III and IV are present in the first sleep cycles and absent in the last (before awakening).

Night sleep usually consists of 4-5 cycles, each of which begins with the first stages of “slow” sleep and ends with “rapid” sleep. The duration of the cycle in a healthy adult is relatively stable and amounts to 90-100 minutes. In the first two cycles, “slow” sleep predominates, in the last two cycles, “fast” sleep predominates, and “delta” sleep is sharply reduced and may even be absent.

The duration of “slow” sleep is 75-85%, and “paradoxical” sleep is 15-25% of the total duration of night sleep.

Physiological role of sleep.

· Restorative function– predominance of anabolic processes.

· Anti-stress function– sleep serves as one of the mechanisms of mental protection of the individual.

· Adaptive function– synchronization with the cycle of day and night ensures optimal interaction of the body with the environment, preparing the body for activity during wakefulness.

· Role in information processing– implementation of the process of memory consolidation: transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory.

Types of sleep.

1. periodic daily sleep;

2. periodic seasonal sleep (winter or summer hibernation of animals);

3. narcotic sleep caused by various chemical or physical agents;

4. hypnotic sleep;

5. pathological sleep.

The first two types are varieties of physiological sleep, the last three types are a consequence of special non-physiological effects on the body.

Sleep disturbance. Sleep disorders are very common among the population of civilized countries. Insomnia is a chronic disease associated with disruption of the synchronization of the biological clock with circadian rhythms. Sleep disorders are noted in 45% of the urban population. Insomnia is much less common among rural residents.

Sleep disorders are divided into three main forms:

1. Difficulty falling asleep. It occurs most often. A person suffering from this type of insomnia cannot fall asleep for a long time: sleep is disturbed by disturbing memories and thoughts that constantly pile on top of each other. All efforts and painful attempts to fall asleep lead to nothing. The very anxiety about sleep, the tense anticipation of it, the fear of the upcoming sleepless night, the worry about a hard day after a sleepless night further aggravates insomnia. A person suffering from insomnia cannot stay in one position for a long time, constantly turns in bed in search of the most comfortable position and cannot fall asleep for a long time.

2. Superficial, restless sleep with frequent awakenings. Such people usually wake up 1-2 hours after falling asleep. The duration of falling asleep after waking up in the middle of the night ranges from several minutes to several hours. However, it also happens that having woken up once, a person does not fall asleep until the morning, and only then does superficial sleep occur. Typically, people who wake up frequently complain of shallow sleep that does not bring satisfaction and vigor.

3. Early final awakening. This sleep disorder is less common. After it there are no signs of drowsiness, and the person is awake. Early awakening is similar to waking up in the middle of the night, but differs only in that it is not followed by falling asleep and that it occurs from a drowsy state and light sleep (the first awakening occurs after deep sleep). People who have increased excitability of the nervous system awaken prematurely.

A reduction in sleep duration, one of the constant signs of insomnia, is relatively rarely pronounced. In partial insomnia, periods of wakefulness occur at the beginning, middle, and end of the night. With total insomnia, wakefulness predominates, only occasionally interrupted by drowsiness. This type of insomnia is much less common.

Sleep disorders include increased sleepiness, the so-called hypersomnia. Drowsiness can be observed in people with a weak nervous system: in this case, it can be considered as a protective reaction that protects nerve cells from overstrain.

In contrast to insomnia, increased pathological sleepiness leads to prolonged sleep, which is often a consequence of inflammatory diseases of the brain, for example, viral encephalitis. In these cases, sleep can last for weeks or months, and even, in rare cases, years. Such sleep is called lethargic.

Pathological drowsiness most often occurs in people who have suffered severe infectious diseases - typhus, meningitis, influenza. Drowsiness occurs with anemia and functional disorders of the nervous system.

Unlike insomnia, excessive sleepiness is less common.

Recent studies on the required duration of sleep have shown that the average sleep requirement among young people is 8.5 hours per night. A night's sleep duration of 7.2-7.4 hours is not enough, and sleeping less than 6.5 hours for a long time can undermine your health.

The effect of “accumulation of sleep deprivation” completely disappears after the first 10 hours of “restorative” sleep. Therefore, chronic lack of sleep on weekdays and oversleeping on weekend mornings are interrelated phenomena.

Artificially depriving a person of sleep is a difficult ordeal. Experiments with sleep deprivation have shown that volunteers experience emotional imbalance, increased fatigue, delusions, sleep disturbances, vestibular dysfunction, after 90 hours of sleep deprivation hallucinations appear, by 170 hours - depersonalization, by the 200th hour the subject shows mental and psychomotor disorders . During these experiments, it was found that the body especially needs slow-wave (delta) sleep and REM sleep. After prolonged sleep deprivation, the main effect is an increase in delta sleep. Thus, after 200 hours of continuous wakefulness, the percentage of delta sleep in the first 9 hours of recording restorative sleep doubles compared to the norm, and the duration of REM sleep increases by 57%.

In order to study the role of individual sleep phases, methods have been developed to selectively prevent their occurrence. When delta sleep is suppressed, subjects develop a feeling of weakness, fatigue, memory deteriorates and attention decreases. The feeling of weakness and increased fatigue, especially increasing in the second half of the day, in patients with neurosis is due to a chronic deficit of delta sleep (V.S. Rotenberg, 1984).

REM sleep deprivation changes mood, impairs performance, and affects memory.

Sleep hygiene. Adequate sleep can be ensured by following certain rules. Before going to bed, it is necessary to exclude stimulating games and mental work. The time after dinner should pass in a calm environment, excluding strong excitement. It is recommended to take a 20-30 minute walk before bed in calm weather. Dinner should be light 1.5-2 hours before bedtime. Chocolate, coffee and strong tea at night are not recommended.