FRANCESCO PETRARCA(1304-1374) - ancestor Italian Renaissance, great poet and thinker, political figure. Coming from a Popolan family in Florence, he spent many years in Avignon under the papal curia, and the rest of his life in Italy. Petrarch traveled a lot around Europe, was close to popes and sovereigns. His political goals: reform of the church, ending wars, unity of Italy. Petrarch was an expert ancient philosophy, he is credited with collecting manuscripts of ancient authors and processing them textologically.

Humanistic ideas Petrarch developed not only in his brilliant, innovative poetry, but also in Latin prose works - treatises, numerous letters, including in his main epistolary “The Book of Everyday Affairs”.

It is customary to say about Francesco Petrarca that he is more focused on himself than anyone else - at least in his time. That he was not only the first “individualist” of the New Age, but much more than that - an amazingly complete egocentric.

In the works of the thinker, the theocentric systems of the Middle Ages were replaced by the anthropocentrism of Renaissance humanism. Petrarch's “discovery of man” provided an opportunity for a deeper knowledge of man in science, literature, and art.

LEONARDO DA VINCI ( 1454-1519) - brilliant Italian artist, sculptor, scientist, engineer. Born in Anchiano, near the village of Vinci; his father was a notary who moved to Florence in 1469. Leonardo's first teacher was Andrea Verrocchio.

Leonardo's interest in man and nature speaks of his close connection with humanistic culture. He considered man's creative abilities to be limitless. Leonardo was one of the first to substantiate the idea of ​​the cognizability of the world through reason and sensations, which firmly entered the ideas of thinkers of the 16th century. He himself said about himself: “I would comprehend all the secrets by getting to the essence!”

Leonardo's research concerned wide range problems of mathematics, physics, astronomy, botany, and other sciences. His numerous inventions were based on a deep study of nature and the laws of its development. He was an innovator in the theory of painting. The highest manifestation Leonardo saw creativity in the activity of an artist who scientifically comprehends the world and reproduces it on canvas. The thinker’s contribution to Renaissance aesthetics can be judged by his “Book on Painting.” He was the embodiment of the “universal man” created by the Renaissance.

NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI(1469-1527) - Italian thinker, diplomat, historian. After the restoration of the Medici government in Florence, he was removed from government activities. In 1513-1520 he was in exile. This period includes the creation of Machiavelli’s most significant works - “The Prince”, “Discourses on the First Decade of Titus Livy”, “History of Florence”, which earned him European fame. Machiavelli's political ideal was the Roman Republic, in which he saw the embodiment of the idea of ​​a strong state, the people of which “are far superior to the sovereigns in both virtue and glory.” (“Discourses on the first decade of Titus Livy”). The ideas of N. Machiavelli had a very significant influence on the development of political doctrines.

THOMAS MOP(1478-1535) - English humanist, writer, statesman.

Born into the family of a London lawyer, he was educated at Oxford University, where he joined the circle of Oxford humanists. At Henry VIII held a number of high government positions. Very important For the formation and development of More as a humanist, his meeting and friendship with Erasmus of Rotterdam was important. He was accused of treason and executed on July 6, 1535.

The most famous work Thomas More - “Utopia”, which reflected the author’s passion ancient Greek literature and philosophy, and the influence of Christian thought, in particular Augustine’s treatise “On the City of God,” and there is also an ideological connection with Erasmus of Rotterdam, whose humanistic ideal was in many ways close to More. His ideas had a strong impact on public thought.

ERASMUS OF ROTTERDAM(1469-1536) - one of the most outstanding representatives of European humanism and the most versatile of the then scientists.

Erasmus, the illegitimate son of a poor parish priest, his early years spent in the Augustinian monastery, which he managed to leave in 1493. He studied with great enthusiasm the works of Italian humanists and scientific literature, became the greatest expert in Greek and Latin.

Erasmus's most famous work is the satire “Praise of Folly” (1509), modeled on Lucian, which was written in just one week in the house of Thomas More. Erasmus of Rotterdam tried to synthesize the cultural traditions of antiquity and early Christianity. He believed in the natural goodness of man and wanted people to be guided by the demands of reason; among the spiritual values ​​of Erasmus are freedom of spirit, temperance, education, simplicity.

THOMAS MUNZER(c. 1490-1525) - German theologian and ideologist of the early Reformation and the Peasants' War of 1524-1526 in Germany.

The son of a craftsman, Münzer was educated at the universities of Leipzig and Frankfurt an der Oder, from where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in theology, and became a preacher. He was influenced by mystics, Anabaptists and Hussites. In the early years of the Reformation, Münzer was an adherent and supporter of Luther. He then developed his doctrine of the popular Reformation.

In Münzer's understanding, the main tasks of the Reformation were not to establish a new church dogma or a new form of religiosity, but to proclaim an imminent socio-political revolution, which should be carried out by the mass of peasants and the urban poor. Thomas Munzer strove for a republic of equal citizens, in which people would ensure that justice and law prevailed.

For Münzer, Holy Scripture was subject to free interpretation in the context of contemporary events, an interpretation that directly addressed the spiritual experience of the reader.

Thomas Münzer was captured after the defeat of the rebels in an unequal battle on May 15, 1525 and, after severe torture, was executed.

Conclusion
Concluding the consideration of the philosophical quests of the Renaissance, it is necessary to note the ambiguity of assessments of its heritage. Despite the general recognition of the uniqueness of Renaissance culture as a whole, this period for a long time was not considered original in the development of philosophy and, therefore, worthy of being singled out as an independent stage of philosophical thought. However, the duality and inconsistency of philosophical thinking of this time should not detract from its significance for the subsequent development of philosophy, nor call into question the merits of Renaissance thinkers in overcoming medieval scholasticism and creating the foundations of modern philosophy.

The most important discovery of the Renaissance is the discovery of man. In antiquity, the sense of gender was not conducive to the development of individuality. Stoicism, by promoting the idea of ​​personality and responsibility, and Christianity, by insisting on the real existence of the soul lying outside the sphere and jurisdiction of worldly power, created a new concept of personality. But social system The Middle Ages, built on status and custom, discouraged the individual, emphasizing the importance of class and group.

The Renaissance went beyond the moral principles of stoicism and the spiritual uniqueness of Christianity and saw man in the flesh - man in his relationship to himself, to society, to the world. Man became the center of the Universe instead of God. Many countries participated in the Renaissance, but from beginning to end Italy had the largest share. Italy never broke with antiquity; the dead weight of uniformity did not oppress it as in other countries. Public life was in full swing here, despite wars and invasions, and the city-states of Italy were islands of republicanism among a sea of ​​European monarchies. Primacy in international trade and finance made Italian cities rich and created conditions for the flourishing of sciences and arts.

Renaissance figures formulated new views on social life. Biblical stories about the heavenly life of Adam and Eve, about the life of Jews in the Promised Land, and the teachings of Augustine (Aurelius) about the church as the kingdom of God on earth no longer suited anyone. Renaissance figures tried to portray what a person needs society without any mention of the Bible or the teachings of the Holy Fathers. For them, the leaders of the Renaissance, society is a necessary environment for human life. It is not in heaven, not a gift from God, but on earth and the result of human efforts. In their opinion, society, firstly, should be built taking into account human nature; secondly - for all people; thirdly, this is a society of the distant future. The greatest influence on the history of philosophical thought and on historical destinies European peoples influence of the teachings of the Renaissance figures on government system. This is their teaching about the monarchy and the communist system. The first of them was the ideological basis for the later established Absolutism, and the second contributed to the creation of various kinds of communist theories, including Marxist communism.

This concludes our review of the vast history of philosophical thought of the Renaissance. On the foundation of this thought, over the course of one and a half to two centuries, a whole galaxy of unique and great philosophers grew up, including John Locke and Niccolo Machiavelli.

Table No. 1. Philosophy of the Renaissance.

The infinite universe as a whole is God—he is in everything and everywhere, not “outside” or “above,” but as “most present.” The universe is driven by internal forces, it is an eternal and unchanging substance, the only existing and living thing. Individual things are changeable and are involved in the movement of the eternal spirit and life in accordance with their organization.

Identification of God with nature.

“The world is animated, together with all its members,” and the soul can be considered as “the closest formative cause, the internal force inherent in every thing.” For Europeans, the period of the dark Middle Ages ended, giving way to the Renaissance. It made it possible to revive the almost extinct heritage of Antiquity and create great works of art. Scientists of the Renaissance also played an important role in the development of mankind. Paradigm

The crisis and destruction of Byzantium led to the appearance of thousands of Christian emigrants in Europe, who brought books with them. These manuscripts contained knowledge of the ancient period, half-forgotten in the west of the continent. They became the basis of humanism, which placed man, his ideas and the desire for freedom at the forefront. Over time, in cities where the role of bankers, artisans, traders and craftsmen increased, secular centers of science and education began to emerge, which not only were not under the control of

Artists in the Middle Ages created works of predominantly religious content. In particular, for a long time the main genre of painting was icon painting. The first who decided to depict ordinary people on his canvases, and also to abandon the canonical style of painting inherent in the Byzantine school, was Giotto di Bondone, who is considered a pioneer of the Proto-Renaissance. On the frescoes of the Church of San Francesco, located in the city of Assisi, he used the play of chiaroscuro and departed from the generally accepted compositional structure. However, Giotto's main masterpiece was the painting of the Arena Chapel in Padua. It is interesting that immediately after this order the artist was called to decorate the city hall. While working on one of the paintings, in order to achieve the greatest authenticity in the depiction of the “celestial sign,” Giotto consulted with the astronomer Pietro d’Abano. Thus, thanks to this artist, painting stopped depicting people, objects and natural phenomena according to certain canons and became more realistic.

Leonardo da Vinci

Many figures of the Renaissance had versatile talent. However, none of them can compare with Leonardo da Vinci in his versatility. He distinguished himself as an outstanding painter, architect, sculptor, anatomist, natural scientist and engineer.

In 1466, Leonardo da Vinci went to study in Florence, where, in addition to painting, he studied chemistry and drawing, and also acquired skills in working with metal, leather and plaster.

Already the artist’s first paintings distinguished him among his fellow workers. During his long, at that time, 68-year life, Leonardo da Vinci created such masterpieces as “Mona Lisa”, “John the Baptist”, “Lady with an Ermine”, “The Last Supper”, etc.

Like other prominent figures of the Renaissance, the artist was interested in science and engineering. In particular, it is known that the wheel pistol lock he invented was used until the 19th century. In addition, Leonardo da Vinci created drawings of a parachute, a flying machine, a searchlight, a telescope with two lenses, etc.

Michelangelo

When the question of what the Renaissance figures gave to the world is discussed, the list of their achievements necessarily contains the works of this outstanding architect, artist and sculptor.

Among the most famous creations Michelangelo Buonarroti includes the frescoes of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the statue of David, the sculpture of Bacchus, the marble statue of the Madonna of Bruges, the painting “The Torment of St. Anthony” and many other masterpieces of world art.

Rafael Santi

The artist was born in 1483 and lived only 37 years. However, the great legacy of Raphael Santi puts him at the top of any symbolic rating of “Outstanding Figures of the Renaissance.”

The artist’s masterpieces include “The Coronation of Mary” for the Oddi altar, “Portrait of Pietro Bembo”, “Lady with a Unicorn”, numerous frescoes commissioned for the Stanza della Segnatura, etc.

The pinnacle of Raphael's work is considered to be the "Sistine Madonna", created for the altar of the church of the monastery of St. Sixta in Piacenza. This picture makes an unforgettable impression on anyone who sees it, since the Mary depicted on it in an incomprehensible way combines the earthly and heavenly essences of the Mother of God.

Albrecht Durer

Famous figures of the Renaissance were not only Italian. These include the German painter and engraver Albrecht Dürer, who was born in Nuremberg in 1471. His most significant works are the “Landauer Altar”, a self-portrait (1500), the painting “Feast of Rose Wreaths”, and three “Workshop Engravings”. The latter are considered masterpieces of graphic art of all times and peoples.

Titian

The great figures of the Renaissance in the field of painting left us images of their most famous contemporaries. One of the outstanding portrait painters of this period of European art was Titian, who came from the famous Vecellio family. He immortalized on canvas Federico Gonzaga, Charles V, Clarissa Strozzi, Pietro Aretino, the architect Giulio Romano and many others. In addition, his brushes include canvases on subjects from ancient mythology. How highly the artist was valued by his contemporaries is evidenced by the fact that one day Emperor Charles V hastened to pick up a brush that had fallen from Titian’s hands. The monarch explained his action by saying that serving such a master is an honor for anyone.

Sandro Botticelli

The artist was born in 1445. Initially, he was going to become a jeweler, but then he ended up in the workshop of Andrea Verrocchio, who once studied with Leonardo da Vinci. Along with works of religious themes, the artist created several paintings of secular content. Botticelli's masterpieces include the paintings "The Birth of Venus", "Spring", "Pallas and the Centaur" and many others.

Dante Alighieri

The great figures of the Renaissance left their indelible mark on world literature. One of the most prominent poets of this period is Dante Alighieri, born in 1265 in Florence. At the age of 37 he was expelled from hometown because of their political views and wandered until recent years own life.

Even as a child, Dante fell in love with his peer Beatrice Portinari. Having matured, the girl married another man and died at the age of 24. Beatrice became the poet’s muse, and it was to her that he dedicated his works, including the story “New Life.” In 1306, Dante began creating his " Divine Comedy", which he has been working on for almost 15 years. In it, he exposes the vices of Italian society, the crimes of the popes and cardinals, and places his Beatrice in “paradise.”

William Shakespeare

Although the ideas of the Renaissance reached the British Isles with some delay, they were also created there outstanding works art.

In particular, one of the most famous playwrights in human history, William Shakespeare, worked in England. His plays have been performed on theater stages in all corners of the planet for more than 500 years. His pen includes the tragedies “Othello”, “Romeo and Juliet”, “Hamlet”, “Macbeth”, as well as the comedies “Twelfth Night”, “Much Ado About Nothing” and many others. In addition, Shakespeare is famous for his sonnets dedicated to the mysterious Dark Lady.

Leon Battista Alberti

The Renaissance also contributed to changing the appearance of European cities. Great architectural masterpieces were created during this period, including the Roman Cathedral of St. Peter's, the Laurentian staircase, the Florence Cathedral, etc. Along with Michelangelo, the famous scientist Leon Battista Alberti is one of the famous architects of the Renaissance. He contributed huge contribution in architecture, art theory and literature. His areas of interest also included problems of pedagogy and ethics, mathematics and cartography. He created one of the first scientific works on architecture, entitled “Ten Books on Architecture.” This work had a huge influence on subsequent generations of his colleagues.

Now you know the most famous cultural figures of the Renaissance, thanks to whom human civilization has entered a new stage of its development.

The Renaissance arose in Italy - its first signs appeared in the 13th-14th centuries. But it was firmly established in the 20s of the 15th century, and by the end of the 15th century. reached its peak.

In other countries, the Renaissance began much later. In the 16th century a crisis of Renaissance ideas begins, a consequence of this crisis is the emergence of mannerism and baroque.

Renaissance periods

Periods in the history of Italian culture are usually designated by the names of centuries:

• Proto-Renaissance (Ducento)  - 2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century.
• Early Renaissance (Trecento) —  beginning of the 15th - end of the 15th century.
• High Renaissance (Quattrocento) —  end of the 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century.
• Late Renaissance (cinquecento) —  mid-16th-90s of the 16th century.

For the history of the Italian Renaissance, the deepest change in consciousness, views on the world and man, which dates back to the era of communal revolutions of the 2nd half of the 13th century, was of decisive importance.

It is this turning point that opens a new stage in the history of Western European culture. The fundamentally new trends associated with it found their most radical expression in the Italian culture and art of the so-called "the era of Dante and Giotto"   - the last third of the 13th century and the first two decades of the 14th.

The fall of the Byzantine Empire played a role in the formation of the Renaissance. The Byzantines who moved to Europe brought with them their libraries and works of art, unknown to medieval Europe. Byzantium never broke with ancient culture.

The growth of city-republics led to an increase in the influence of classes that did not participate in feudal relations: artisans and craftsmen, merchants, bankers. The hierarchical system of values ​​created by the medieval, largely church culture, and its ascetic, humble spirit were alien to all of them. This led to the emergence of humanism, a socio-philosophical movement that considered man, his personality, his freedom, his active, creative activity as the highest value and criterion for evaluating public institutions.

Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, the activities of which were outside the control of the church. In the middle of the 15th century. Printing was invented, which played an important role in the spread of new views throughout Europe.

Renaissance Man

Renaissance man differs sharply from medieval man. He is characterized by faith in the power and strength of the mind, admiration for the inexplicable gift of creativity.

Humanism puts the focus on human wisdom and its achievements as the highest good for a rational being. Actually, this leads to the rapid flourishing of science.

Humanists consider it their duty to actively disseminate the literature of ancient times, because it is in knowledge that they see true happiness.

In a word, the Renaissance man tries to develop and improve the “quality” of the individual through the study of the ancient heritage as the only basis.

And intelligence in this transformation takes key place. Hence the emergence of various anti-clerical ideas, which are often unreasonably hostile to religion and the church.

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance is the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is also closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions.

It is divided into two subperiods: before the death of Giotto di Bondone and after (1337). The most important discoveries, the brightest masters live and work in the first period. The second segment is associated with the plague epidemic that struck Italy.

Proto-Renaissance art is characterized by the emergence of tendencies towards a sensual, visual reflection of reality, secularism (in contrast to the art of the Middle Ages), and the emergence of interest in the ancient heritage (characteristic of the art of the Renaissance).

At the origins of the Italian Proto-Renaissance is the master Niccolo, who worked in the second half of the 13th century in Pisa. He became the founder of a school of sculpture that lasted until the mid-14th century and spread its attention throughout Italy.

Of course, much of the sculpture of the Pisan school still gravitates towards the past. It preserves old allegories and symbols. There is no space in the reliefs; the figures closely fill the background surface. Still, Niccolo's reforms are significant.

Usage classical tradition, the emphasis on volume, materiality and weight of figures and objects, the desire to introduce elements of a real earthly event into the image of a religious scene created the basis for a broad renewal of art.

In the years 1260–1270, Niccolo Pisano's workshop carried out numerous orders in the cities of central Italy.
New trends are also penetrating Italian painting.

Just as Niccolò Pisano reformed Italian sculpture, Cavallini laid the foundation for a new direction in painting. In his work he relied on late antique and early Christian monuments, with which Rome was still rich in his time.

Cavallini's merit lies in the fact that he strove to overcome the flatness of forms and compositional structure that were inherent in the “Byzantine” or “Greek” manner that was dominant in Italian painting at his time.

He introduced chiaroscuro modeling borrowed from ancient artists, achieving roundness and plasticity of forms.

However, from the second decade of the 14th century, artistic life in Rome froze. The leading role in Italian painting passed to the Florentine school.

Florence for two centuries it was something like the capital of the artistic life of Italy and determined the main direction of the development of its art.

But the most radical reformer of painting was Giotto di Bondone (1266/67–1337).

In his works, Giotto sometimes achieves such strength in the clash of contrasts and the transfer of human feelings that allows us to see in him a predecessor greatest masters Renaissance.

Treating Gospel episodes as events human life, Giotto places it in a real setting, while refusing to combine moments from different times in one composition. Giotto's compositions are always spatial, although the stage on which the action takes place is usually not deep. Architecture and landscape in Giotto's frescoes are always subordinate to action. Every detail in his compositions directs the viewer’s attention to the semantic center.

Another important center of art in Italy at the end of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century was Siena.

Art of Siena marked by features of refined sophistication and decorativeism. In Siena, French illuminated manuscripts and works of artistic crafts were valued.

In the XIII-XIV centuries, one of the most elegant cathedrals of Italian Gothic was erected here, on the facade of which Giovanni Pisano worked in 1284-1297.

For architecture Proto-Renaissance is characterized by balance and calm.

Representative: Arnolfo di Cambio.

For sculpture This period is characterized by plastic power and the influence of late antique art.

Representative: Niccolo Pisano, Giovanni Pisano, Arnolfo di Cambio.

For painting The appearance of tactility and material persuasiveness of forms is characteristic.

Representatives: Giotto, Pietro Cavallini, Pietro Lorenzetti, Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Cimabue.

Early Renaissance

In the first decades of the 15th century, a decisive turning point occurred in the art of Italy. The emergence of a powerful center of the Renaissance in Florence entailed a renewal of the entire Italian artistic culture.

The work of Donatello, Masaccio and their associates marks the victory of Renaissance realism, which was significantly different from the “realism of detail” that was characteristic of the Gothic art of the late Trecento.

The works of these masters are imbued with the ideals of humanism. They heroize and exalt a person, raising him above the level of everyday life.

In their struggle with the Gothic tradition, artists of the early Renaissance sought support in antiquity and the art of the Proto-Renaissance.

What the masters of the Proto-Renaissance sought only intuitively, by touch, is now based on precise knowledge.

Italian art of the 15th century is distinguished by great diversity. The difference in conditions in which local schools are formed gives rise to a variety of artistic movements.

The new art, which triumphed in advanced Florence at the beginning of the 15th century, did not immediately gain recognition and spread in other regions of the country. While Bruneleschi, Masaccio, and Donatello worked in Florence, the traditions of Byzantine and Gothic art were still alive in northern Italy, only gradually supplanted by the Renaissance.

The main center of the early Renaissance was Florence. Florentine culture of the first half and mid-15th century is diverse and rich.

For architecture The early Renaissance is characterized by the logic of proportions, the form and sequence of parts are subordinated to geometry, and not to intuition, which was a characteristic feature of medieval buildings

Representative: Palazzo Rucellai, Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti.

For sculpture This period is characterized by the development of free-standing statues, pictorial reliefs, portrait busts, and equestrian monuments.

Representative: L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, della Robbia family, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, B. da Maiano, A. Verrocchio.

For painting Characterized by a feeling of harmonious order in the world, an appeal to the ethical and civil ideals of humanism, a joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.

Representatives: Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, A. del Castagno, P. Uccello, Fra Angelico, D. Ghirlandaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocchio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, P. Perugino.

High Renaissance

The culmination of art (the end of the 15th and the first decades of the 16th century), which presented the world with such great masters as Raphael, Titian, Giorgione and Leonardo da Vinci, is called the stage of the High Renaissance.

The focus of artistic life in Italy at the beginning of the 16th century moved to Rome.

The popes sought to unite all of Italy under the rule of Rome, making attempts to turn it into a cultural and leading political center. But, without ever becoming a political reference point, Rome was transformed for some time into the citadel of spiritual culture and art of Italy. The reason for this was also the philanthropic tactics of the popes, who attracted best artists to Rome

The Florentine school and many others (old local ones) were losing their former significance.

The only exception was the rich and independent Venice, which demonstrated a vibrant cultural originality throughout the 16th century.

Due to the constant connection with the great works of the archaic, art was freed from verbosity, often so characteristic of the work of Quattrocento virtuosos.

High Renaissance artists gained the ability to omit small details that did not affect general meaning and strive to achieve harmony and combination in their creations best sides reality.

Creativity is characterized by faith in the unlimited possibilities of man, in his individuality and in the rational world apparatus.

The main motif of the art of the High Renaissance is the image of a harmoniously developed and strong person in both body and spirit, who is above everyday routine.

Since sculpture and painting get rid of the unquestioning slavery of architecture, which gives life to the formation of new genres of art such as: landscape, history painting, portrait.

During this period, High Renaissance architecture gained its greatest momentum. Now, without exception, customers did not want to see even a drop of the Middle Ages in their homes. The streets of Italy began to be full of not just luxurious mansions, but palaces with extensive plantings. It should be noted that the Renaissance gardens known in history appeared precisely during this period.

Religious and public buildings also no longer smack of the spirit of the past. The temples of the new buildings seem to have risen from the times of Roman paganism. Among the architectural monuments of this period one can find monumental buildings with the obligatory presence of a dome.

Grandiosity of this art was also revered by his contemporaries, — so Vasari spoke of him as: “the highest stage of perfection which the most valued and most celebrated creations of the new art have now reached.”

For architecture The high Renaissance is characterized by monumentality, representative grandeur, grandeur of plans (coming from Ancient Rome), intensively manifested in Bramant's projects of St. Peter's Cathedral and the reconstruction of the Vatican.

Representative: Donato Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo, Jacopo Sansovino

For sculpture This period is characterized by heroic pathos and, at the same time, a tragic feeling of the crisis of humanism. The strength and power of a person, the beauty of his body are glorified, while at the same time emphasizing his loneliness in the world.

Representative: Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Luca della Robbia, Michelozzo, Agostino di Duccio, Pisanello.

For painting The transfer of facial expressions of a person’s face and body is characteristic; new ways of conveying space and constructing a composition appear. At the same time, the works create a harmonious image of a person that meets humanistic ideals.

Representatives: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi, Michelangelo Buonarotti, Titian, Jacopo Sansovino.

Late Renaissance

At this time, an eclipse occurs and a new artistic culture emerges. It is also not surprising that the work of this period is extremely complex and is characterized by the predominance of confrontation between different directions. Although if you don’t consider the most end XVI century — the time of the entry into the arena of the Carracci and Caravaggio brothers, then we can narrow the entire diversity of art to two main trends.

The feudal-Catholic reaction caused death blow High Renaissance, but could not kill the powerful artistic tradition, which was formed over two and a half centuries in Italy.

Only the rich Venetian Republic, free both from the power of the Pope and from the domination of interventionists, ensured the development of art in this region. The Renaissance in Venice had its own characteristics.

Speaking of creations famous artists the second half of the 16th century, then they still have a Renaissance foundation, but with some changes.

The fate of man was no longer portrayed as so selfless, although echoes of the theme of a heroic personality who is ready to fight evil and a sense of reality are still present.

The foundations of the art of the 17th century were laid in the creative searches of these masters, thanks to which new means of expression.

Few artists belong to this movement, but eminent masters of the older generation, caught in a crisis at the culmination of their creativity, such as Titian and Michelangelo. In Venice, which occupied a unique position in the artistic culture of Italy in the 16th century, this orientation was also inherent in the artists of the younger generation — Tintoretto, Bassano, Veronese.

Representatives of the second direction are completely different masters. They are united only by subjectivity in the perception of the world.

This trend spread in the second half of the 16th century and, not limited to Italy, flows into most European countries. In the art history literature of the end of the last century, called “ mannerism».

A passion for luxury, decorativeness and a dislike for scientific research delayed the penetration of artistic ideas and practices of the Florentine Renaissance into Venice.

Characteristics of the Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance is one of the most striking phenomena in the history of European culture. Disputes about its character, historical roots, stages of three centuries of development do not subside to this day. In Soviet historical science, the Renaissance is considered as an advanced culture, characteristic of the era of transition from feudal to capitalist relations, when the medieval church-scholastic system of thinking was replaced by the establishment of secular-rationalistic principles of the worldview History of Europe. T. 3. From the Middle Ages to modern times (end of the 15th - first half of the 17th century) - p. 455.

The entire Renaissance was divided into several periods: the Proto-Renaissance in Italy lasted about a century and a half, the Early Renaissance - about a century, the High Renaissance - only fifty years and last period, Late Renaissance, - until the 80s of the 16th century Concise encyclopedia arts - p. 257.

In this work I would like to consider only the period of the High Renaissance.

The art of the High Renaissance developed in the first three decades of the 16th century. This period is called the "Golden Age" of Italian art. Chronologically it was brief, and only in Venice did it last longer, until the middle of the century.

The highest rise in culture took place during the most difficult historical period in the life of Italy, in conditions of a sharp economic and political weakening of the Italian states caused by the opening of America and new trade routes to India and, as a consequence, the loss of the role of the most important shopping centers. Other reasons include the disunity and constant internecine hostility of the Italian states, which made them easy prey for the growing centralized northwestern states.

The invasion of French troops in 1494, the devastating wars of the first decades of the 16th century, and the defeat of Rome weakened Italy. There is a movement within the country of capital from trade and industry to agriculture, a gradual transformation of the bourgeoisie into the class of landowners interested in preserving the feudal order. All this contributed to the spread of feudal reaction. However, it was precisely during this period, when the threat of complete enslavement by foreigners loomed over the country, that national self-awareness grew.

In these difficult conditions of the first decades of the 16th century, the principles of culture and art of a new style were formed.

Features of High Renaissance art

A distinctive feature of the culture of the High Renaissance was the extraordinary expansion of the social horizons of its creators, the scale of their ideas about the world and space. The view of a person and his attitude to the world changes. The very type of artist, his worldview, and position in society are decidedly different from that occupied by the masters of the 15th century, who were still largely associated with the class of artisans. The artists of the High Renaissance are not only people of great culture, but creative personalities, free from the framework of the guild foundation, forcing representatives of the ruling classes to reckon with their plans.

At the center of this art, summarized by artistic language, - the image of an ideally beautiful person, perfect physically and spiritually, the image of a heroic person who managed to rise above the level of everyday life. In the name of this generalized image, in the name of the desire for a harmonious synthesis of the beautiful aspects of life, the art of the High Renaissance abandons particulars and insignificant details. The basis of such art is an all-consuming faith in the limitless possibilities of man for self-improvement, self-affirmation, faith in the rational structure of the world, in the triumph of progress. The problems of civic duty, high moral qualities, and heroism came to the fore.

The creators of this deeply humanistic art were people not only of great culture and broad outlook, but also creative individuals, free from the framework of the medieval guild foundation. The era gave rise to creative individuals in whom there is a synthesis of science and art. The great creators of the High Renaissance were later called titans. In their creativity they reached such heights that no other era could achieve before or after them. Each of them - the whole world, complete, perfect, having absorbed all the knowledge, all the achievements of previous centuries and raised them to the pinnacle of art.

Even before their discovery and clear identification, some features of the High Renaissance style are, as it were, latently contained in the art of the Early Renaissance. Sometimes certain trends, anticipating the art of the High Renaissance, make their way to the surface, affecting themselves in the aspirations of one or another painter and sculptor of the 15th century. to an increased degree of artistic generalization, to liberation from the power of details, then in the affirmation of a collective image instead of an empirical following of nature, and finally, in a commitment to images of a monumental nature. In this sense, such masters as Masaccio, Castagno, Piero della Francesca, Mantegna are, as it were, successive milestones of art Early Renaissance on the way to a new style.

And yet the art of the High Renaissance itself does not arise in the process of smooth evolution, but as a result of a sharp qualitative leap that separates it from the previous stage. The transitional forms between the art of these two periods are expressed in the work of only a very few masters. With a few exceptions, the artists of the Early Renaissance seemed to have already been born as such, just like those of the 15th century painters who continued to work in the first decades of the 16th century. (including Botticelli, Mantegna, Luca Signorelli, Piero di Cosimo, Perugino) still remained artists of the Early Renaissance in their art.

Essentially, one master, Leonardo da Vinci, acted as the founder of the art of the High Renaissance, and it is deeply symptomatic that he, like no one else, was fully armed with the highest achievements of the material and spiritual culture of his time in all its areas. Leonardo's contribution to the art of the High Renaissance can be compared with the role of Giotto and Masaccio, the founders of the previous stages of Renaissance art, with the difference that, according to the conditions of the new era and the greater scope of Leonardo's talent, the meaning of his art became incomparably broader.

The Renaissance is a time of cultural flourishing, the heyday of all arts, but the one that most fully expressed the spirit of its time was fine art.

Renaissance, or Renaissance(French “new” + “born”) had global significance in the cultural history of Europe. The Renaissance replaced the Middle Ages and preceded the Age of Enlightenment.
Main features of the Renaissance– the secular nature of culture, humanism and anthropocentrism (interest in man and his activities). During the Renaissance, interest in ancient culture and it is as if its “rebirth” is taking place.
The Renaissance arose in Italy - its first signs appeared in the 13th-14th centuries. (Tony Paramoni, Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna, etc.). But it was firmly established in the 20s of the 15th century, and by the end of the 15th century. reached its peak.
In other countries, the Renaissance began much later. In the 16th century a crisis of Renaissance ideas begins, a consequence of this crisis is the emergence of mannerism and baroque.

Renaissance periods

The Renaissance is divided into 4 periods:

1. Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)
2. Early Renaissance (beginning of the 15th - end of the 15th century)
3. High Renaissance (end of the 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)
4. Late Renaissance (mid-16th-90s of the 16th century)

The fall of the Byzantine Empire played a role in the formation of the Renaissance. The Byzantines who moved to Europe brought with them their libraries and works of art, unknown to medieval Europe. Byzantium never broke with ancient culture.
Appearance humanism(a socio-philosophical movement that considered man as the highest value) was associated with the absence of feudal relations in the Italian city-republics.
Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, which were not controlled by the church. whose activities were outside the control of the church. In the middle of the 15th century. Printing was invented, which played an important role in the spread of new views throughout Europe.

Brief characteristics of the Renaissance periods

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance is the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is also closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions. He is associated with the names of Giotto, Arnolfo di Cambio, the Pisano brothers, Andrea Pisano.

Andrea Pisano. Bas-relief "Creation of Adam". Opera del Duomo (Florence)

Proto-Renaissance painting is represented by two art schools: Florence (Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena (Duccio, Simone Martini). The central figure of painting was Giotto. He was considered a reformer of painting: he filled religious forms with secular content, made a gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional and relief ones, turned to realism, introduced plastic volume of figures into painting, and depicted interiors in painting.

Early Renaissance

This is the period from 1420 to 1500. Artists of the Early Renaissance of Italy drew motifs from life and filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content. In sculpture these were L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the della Robbia family, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, B. da Maiano, A. Verrocchio. In their work, a free-standing statue, a picturesque relief, a portrait bust, and an equestrian monument began to develop.
In Italian painting of the 15th century. (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, A. del Castagno, P. Uccello, Fra Angelico, D. Ghirlandaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocchio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, P. Perugino, etc.) are characterized by a sense of harmonious order of the world, appeal to the ethical and civic ideals of humanism, a joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.
The founder of Renaissance architecture in Italy was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), an architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective.

A special place in the history of Italian architecture occupies Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). This Italian scientist, architect, writer and musician of the Early Renaissance was educated in Padua, studied law in Bologna, and later lived in Florence and Rome. He created theoretical treatises “On the Statue” (1435), “On Painting” (1435–1436), “On Architecture” (published in 1485). He defended the “folk” (Italian) language as a literary language, and in his ethical treatise “On the Family” (1737-1441) he developed the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. In his architectural work, Alberti gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. He was one of the founders of new European architecture.

Palazzo Rucellai

Leon Battista Alberti developed a new type of palazzo with a facade, rusticated to its entire height and divided by three tiers of pilasters, which look like the structural basis of the building (Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, built by B. Rossellino according to Alberti's plans).
Opposite the Palazzo is the Loggia Rucellai, where receptions and banquets for trading partners were held, and weddings were celebrated.

Loggia Rucellai

High Renaissance

This is the time of the most magnificent development of the Renaissance style. In Italy it lasted from approximately 1500 to 1527. Now the center of Italian art from Florence moves to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne Julia II, an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man who attracted the best artists of Italy to his court.

Rafael Santi "Portrait of Pope Julius II"

In Rome, many monumental buildings are built, magnificent sculptures are created, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered masterpieces of painting. Antiquity is still highly valued and carefully studied. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out the independence of artists.
The pinnacle of the Renaissance is the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael Santi (1483-1520).

Late Renaissance

In Italy this is the period from the 1530s to the 1590s-1620s. The art and culture of this time are very diverse. Some believe (for example, British scholars) that "The Renaissance as an integral historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527." Art late Renaissance presents a very complex picture of the struggle between various currents. Many artists did not strive to study nature and its laws, but only outwardly tried to assimilate the “manner” of the great masters: Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo. On this occasion, the elderly Michelangelo once said, watching how artists copied his “Last Judgment”: “This art of mine will make fools of many.”
In Southern Europe, the Counter-Reformation triumphed, which did not welcome any free thought, including the glorification of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
Famous artists of this period were Giorgione (1477/1478-1510), Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Caravaggio (1571-1610) and others. Caravaggio considered the founder of the Baroque style.