The structure of consumer properties of consumer goods, their significance. We describe the various properties of objects"

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

We continue to get acquainted with the properties of objects.”

We hide the toy. We describe it to the child ( appearance, properties of the hidden object). The child must name what kind of object (toy) it is.

Who flies?

Goal: to highlight the essential features of objects. Assignment: if the presenter names someone or something that can fly, the children spread their arms to the side; if not, they do not raise their arms.

Edible – inedible” (with a ball).

“I will name objects, for example: “apple, orange, cheese, ball, window, doll, chalk, onion, book, etc.” If the named object is edible, then you must catch the thrown ball, if it is inedible, then we do not catch the ball.

We get to know the characteristics of objects using riddles.

“Shaggy, mustachioed, drinks milk, sings songs.”
“There is a snout in the front, a hook in the back, a back in the middle, and a bristle on the back.”
“No legs, but I walk, no mouth, but I jump, when to sleep, when to get up, when to start work.”

“A blue scarf, a scarlet bun, rolling around on the scarf, smiling at people.” "A little ball of fluff, long ear, jumps deftly, loves carrots.”
“They fly without wings, they run without legs, they sail without sails.”

Familiarity with the ways of applying or using objects.

Goal: List as many uses of the item as possible.
Example: "A newspaper is used for reading. Can you think of other ways to use it?" (task options: book, notebook, canned food, jar, bucket, shovel, stool).

We are looking for the same properties of objects.”

Tasks:
-Put a few small things in the bag. Determine by touch what these things are. Are any of the proposed items the same?
-Among several toys or things, find the same ones.

Are looking for various properties items."

It is necessary to find an object, a figure that is different from others. Determine how an object or figure differs.

Comparison of objects."

1). Compare objects with each other, look for four similarities and differences. Material: geometric shapes: triangle, square, circle, rectangle; 4 colors and 2 sizes. (16 geometric shapes large 4 types and 4 colors; 16 small geometric shapes of 4 types and 4 colors).
- select figures that differ in one feature;
-figures that differ in two characteristics;
-three signs (choose the most dissimilar ones).

2). "Comparison of words."
For comparison, here are a couple of words:
fly and butterfly;
house and hut;
table and chairs;
a book and a notebook;
water and milk;
ax and hammer;
piano and violin.
Questions: Did you see the fly? And the butterfly? Are a fly and a butterfly similar or not? How are they similar? How are they different from each other?

3). Comparison of objects.
Game "Who do you look like?" (verbal) What animal does a rabbit look like? (hare). What are their similarities and differences? What tree is similar to spruce? (pine). What are their similarities and differences?
By what signs can you distinguish a deer from other animals? etc.

Classification"

1). Arrange subject pictures into groups.
2). Arrange subject pictures with images of animals into groups: those who live in water; who lives in the forest,
those who live in hot countries.
3). Choose from a set of cards
a) what you can eat (edible);
b) what is made by man;
c) those that depict 6 (9,7,5) objects, etc.
4). Place all the pine cones in one box and all the shells in another.
5). Place small shells (buttons) in one box and large shells in another.
6). Place long sticks in one pile and short ones in another.
7). Of all the buttons, choose only round ones.
8). Sort buttons by color. Red ones in one pile, green ones in another, etc. (similar to tapes).

11. Classification according to known characteristics:

those that are not directly visible, but appear when objects interact with each other.
a) choose objects that sink;
b) choose objects that do not sink;
c) select objects that can break, etc.

A game.

Prepare 15 different items.
For example: cup, plate, bag, bread, sugar, towel, fork, spoon, handkerchief, kitchen board, rolling pin, nail, hook, key, pencil.
Select:
metal objects,
edible,
heavy,
soft,
white,
round,
long,
wooden,
small,
rectangular,
which can be hung by a thread.

13. Homework by classification:

sort out purchases (sort):
What should you put in the refrigerator?
what should you put in the freezer?
what to put on the bathroom shelf?
where to put washing powder?
where do the cereals go?
washing: sort laundry into white and colored;

Word on the palm"

“I will find words everywhere, in the sky, in the water, on the floor, on the ceiling, on the nose and on the hand. Haven't you heard this? No problem! Let's play with words! Let's look for words in.....water (fish, algae, shells, pebbles..).

15. “Classification of geometric shapes” (color, shape, size).

Big small".

Small and large doll. The clothes of both dolls lie nearby. Children sort clothes and place them near the corresponding doll.

Form".

Pictures with images of a rectangle, triangle, circle, square are distributed. Children look for objects of a certain shape.

Generalization-exception."

1). Finding an extra picture
2). Sequence of work:
“3 extra” (with pictures);
“4 extra” (with pictures);
“3 extra” (on verbal material);
“4 is extra” (based on verbal material). Question: “Why extra?” “How can you name the remaining items in one word?”

SET OF WORDS:

1. Table, chair, bed, kettle.
2. Horse, dog, cat, pike.
3. Christmas tree, birch, oak, strawberry.
4. Cucumber, turnip, carrot, hare,
5. Notepad, newspaper, notebook, briefcase
6. Cucumber, watermelon, apple, ball.
7. Wolf, fox, bear, cat.
8. Violet, chamomile, carrots, cornflower.
9. Doll, car, jump rope, book.
10. Train, plane, scooter, steamship.
11. Sparrow, eagle, wasp, swallow.
12.Skis, skates, boat, sled.
13.Chair, hammer, plane, saw.
14. Snow, frost, heat, ice.
15.Cherry, grapes, potatoes, plums.
16. Bus, tram, plane, trolleybus.
17. River, forest, asphalt, field.
18.Firefighter, astronaut, ballerina, policeman.
19. Desk, board, textbook, hedgehog.
20. Snake, snail, butterfly, turtle.
21.Paints, brushes, teapot, canvas.
22.Hat, roof, door, window.
23.Milk, tea, lemonade, bread.
24. Leg, arm, head, shoe.
25. Brave, angry, daring, daring.

Necessary - not necessary"

“I want to plant a vegetable garden. Do you need cabbage? Needed! Do you need a pear? - "No". Having planted a vegetable garden, they plant a garden.

Vegetables fruits"

Pictures of vegetables and fruits are distributed. On command you need to quickly connect in accordance with the concept.

Give it one word."

We list several items, ask you to say what unites them, how they can be called in one word:
1. soup, porridge, goulash, jelly;
2. horse, cow, sheep, pig;
3. chicken, goose, duck, turkey;
4. wolf, fox, bear, hare;
5. cabbage, potatoes, onions, beets;
6. coat, scarf, jacket, suit;
7. shoes, boots, sneakers, sandals;
8. hat, cap, skullcap, beret;
9. linden, birch, spruce, pine;
10.green, blue, red, yellow;
11.ball, cube, rhombus, square;
12.TV, iron, vacuum cleaner, refrigerator;
13.car, tractor, tram, bus;

Living - non-living"

Game with a ball: if the leader calls “living”, everyone claps, “non-living” - they don’t clap. (Similarly: fruits and vegetables, wild and domestic animals, etc.).

Answer in one word."

Apple tree, oak, chestnut (trees) Perch, pike, crucian carp (fish, etc.)

Name three things."

1) I will name one word, for example “furniture”, and the person to whom I throw the ball will name three objects that can be combined with this word (table, chair, sofa...).
2) On the contrary: I will say three words, and you will say how these words can be combined into one word. For example, “currants, strawberries, gooseberries - “berries”

Analysis-synthesis

1.. Work according to the model: drawing, modeling, appliqué, design. Learn to analyze a sample, correlate its elements with what the child has already done, find and correct mistakes..
2. “Well, guess it.”
Material: cards with images of various objects.
1). The driver makes a wish for one of them. Children must guess what object he wished for by asking any questions except a direct question about the name.
Questions:
Can you drink from this item? No.
Does it have arms or legs? No.
Can it sail on the sea? No.
Can you ride it? Yes.
Does he ride on rails? Yes.
Is this a steam locomotive? Yes.
The number of questions is 8-10. If you haven't guessed right, change it.
2). The same thing, only two subgroups of children, some guess, others guess. Answer only “Yes” or “No”.
3). Describe the object in the picture without showing it. Children must guess. For example: “It’s hanging on the street. He has three eyes of different colors. Both people and machines obey him.”
4). The same as in the third option, only the children have 2-4 cards in their hands. You need to find the desired picture according to the description. “Yellow, round body, round head, sharp beak.”
3. “Find objects.”
The presenter names 1-2 common characteristics, 2-3 objects and asks to show them.
“Grows on a tree, you can eat” - “apples and cherries.”
4. “Find general signs at objects."
"The fish and the boat are swimming."
5. “Find out from the description what it is?”
“Wheels, cabin, body, steering wheel. What's this?" (car)
6. “Riddles.”
“The sun is shining, the linden tree is blooming, the rye is ripening. When does this happen? (listing the signs is the answer). The description is “analysis”, the answer is “synthesis”.
7. “Description of the item.”
Describe the tree, its size, color, shape of leaves, presence of seeds, fruits.
Guess what kind of tree this is.

28. Difficult situations. (Decision making and planning).

1. Misha spilled jam on the floor. What should he do now? What's the best thing to do?
2. In line, Sasha squeezed in front of Tanya. What should she do?
3. Tanya went for a walk and got lost. What should she do? List all options. What's the best thing to do? What do you need to know to never get lost again?

Selecting words by analogy

1) cow-calf
hen-(chicken)
cat-(kitten)
2) night - moon
day-(sun)
3) snow skiing
ice (skates)
4) beginning - end
day Night)
5) carrot garden
apple-(orchard)
6) football - ball
hockey – (puck)
7) hare-rabbit
lynx-(cat)
8) steamship - sea
airplane - (sky)
9) winter - cold
summer-(warm, hot)
10) horse – galloping
hare- jumping

Seriation.

1). Vova is taller than Petya. Vasya is taller than Vova. Who is taller than everyone. (Vasya).
2). Vova’s hair is lighter than Petya’s. And Kolya’s is lighter than Vova’s. Who
lightest hair? (Kolya)
3).Masha is taller than Nina. Nina is taller than Lisa. Who is tallest? (Masha).
4). Galya is more fun than Olya, and Olya is more fun than Lisa. Who's the funniest? (Galya)
If this type of problem causes difficulty, then at the beginning we give more simple tasks:
1). Misha is stronger than Kolya. Who is weaker?
2). Marina is more fun than Katya. Who is sadder?
3). Kostya is taller than Petya. Who's lower?
4). Petya is darker than Nina. Who is lighter?
5). Katya is more attentive than Sveta. Sveta is more attentive than Zina. Who is the most attentive? (Kate).
6). Polkan barks more often than Zhuchki. The bug barks more often than Barbosa. Who barks the least (less often) than everyone else? (Barbos)
7). Murka meows more quietly than Barsik. Barsik meows more quietly than Pushka. Who meows the loudest? (Fluff).

Conceptual thinking.

"Finish the sentence"
1. Lemons are sour, and sugar...
2. The dog barks, and the cat...
3. It’s dark at night, but during the day....
4. The grass is green and the sky...
5. It’s cold in winter, and in summer....
6. You eat with your mouth and listen...
7. In the morning we have breakfast, and in the afternoon...
8. The bird flies, but the snake...
9. The boat is sailing, but the car...
10.You look with your eyes, but you breathe...
11. A man has two legs, and a dog...
12.Birds live in nests, and people...
13. It snows in winter, and in autumn...
14. They knit from wool, and from fabric...
15.The ballerina is dancing, and the pianist...

Sequence of events.

1). “Who will be who (what)?”
Who (what) will be: egg, boy, seed, caterpillar, chicken, acorn, egg, flour, iron, brick, fabric, student, big, girl, kidney, puppy, wool, leather, calf, board, chick, kid, lamb.
2). “Who (what) was he?”
who (what) was before:
chicken - egg;
horse - a foal;
cow-calf;
oak - acorn;
fish - eggs;
apple tree - seed;
frog - tadpole;
butterfly - caterpillar;
bread - flour;
bird - chick;
sheep - lamb, etc.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

We describe the various properties of objects.”

Describe any object or toy.
Questions: what color? What is it made of? What is it intended for? etc.
Complication: tell a fairy tale or story about this subject.
For example: "apple". What is it like? In what fairy tales do you know, we're talking about about the magic apple? Tell these tales.
"Try to come up with some a new fairy tale or a story where it is about an apple or apples.

Let us ask ourselves the question: is a thing different in any way from another thing or is it no different? If this thing for us is no different from any other, then it is impossible to talk about our knowledge of this thing. If we know what a given thing is, then, therefore, it is something for us, and if it is something, then it is something definite, and if it is something definite, then it means a certain set certain properties. A vase is something made of glass. She is a device for flowers. And, as such, it has some color, shape, and also the texture of the material from which it is made. The totality of all these properties of a vase in their integrity is its quality. It is clear that if we do not perceive this thing as something whole, then we are not able to distinguish a vase, for example, from a rose, or a table from a chair. But we fully understand what a vase is, what its structure and purpose are. Therefore, if we really know something as a vase, then we, therefore, have knowledge of its quality, that is, its definiteness, its isolation from the surrounding background. The quality of a thing is an indication of the totality of its properties, its composition and structure, as well as its functional purpose both in interaction with other things and with the cognizing subject. In other words, the quality of a thing is something essential for its cognition, for its practical application and manufacturing. It is what makes it possible to distinguish one thing from another, and therefore to identify, contrast, compare, unite and separate, and generally construct things not only in existence, in practice, but also in consciousness. By operating with the category of quality, we produce, as it were, the superposition of one object on another, which acts as a means of identifying an object with itself and makes it possible to find out that a given object is exactly this, and not something else. And here a previously unknown object appears as known: for example, in a flying object we recognize a bird, and not just a bird, but a pigeon, and not just a pigeon, but a pigeon of a particular breed.

The quality of an object is thus revealed in the totality of its properties, which are somehow structurally ordered: it is, as it were, a “bundle” of properties. From epistemological

from the point of view, a property is a primary and further indecomposable formation, correlated with an equally elementary cognitive phenomenon - sensation, and in complex cases - with a concept, if it is inaccessible to the sensory ability of the subject. Properties can be both perceptible by the senses or physically accessible to instrument display, and also sensory, relating to the sphere of socio-spiritual reality, characterizing, for example, positive or negative qualities person when we say: sensitive conscience, kind soul. Properties are known through the interaction of objects with each other and with the subject. Property, therefore, there is a way of manifesting a certain side of an object in relation to other objects with which it interacts. It is precisely that through which something manifests its specific being for another. Among the totality of properties, both essential (necessary) 1 and non-essential (random) for a given object are distinguished, as well as internal and external, general and specific, natural and artificial. In general, a set, or system, of properties forms the qualitative certainty of an object, characterizing it in terms of its integrity and relative stability. Quality is a certainty, an expression of the stable unity of the elements and structure of an object. It gives a holistic characteristic of an object in some of its relationships and states.

Properties appear with varying degrees of intensity, which characterizes the state of the system. State refers to the stable manifestation of a given property in its dynamics. We are talking about the physical, mental, moral state of a person and people, about the state of the economy of a given state, as well as about its political or military state. By its properties, an object is turned outward, and by its state, it is primarily turned inward. Properties, states, functions and connections form the qualitative characteristics of an object.

Now, based on identifying what a property and a state are, we can approach more full definition quality of the item. Quality represents a holistic description of the functional unity of the essential properties of an object, its internal and external certainty, relative stability.

The way the quality of a given object manifests itself when it influences another object significantly depends on the quality

1 The concept of quality is sometimes used to mean an essential property.

the vital state of the latter. Thus, a spark falling on a powder warehouse is immeasurably more dangerous than the same spark falling on damp ground; plant organs, having different properties, under the influence of the same factor external environment, let's say light, accept various provisions: the tops of the shoots bend towards the light, and the leaves are located perpendicular to the direction of the rays. But the way in which the quality of an object manifests itself also depends on the conditions of interaction with another object. Take, for example, the interaction of water with the earth: at a certain temperature, it penetrates the earth in the form of rain, and as the temperature rises, the water evaporates from the surface of the earth. Under the influence of conditions, the interacting objects themselves change their qualitative state. Properties not only appear, but can also be modified and even formed in these relationships.

Any property or quality of an object that interacts with other objects appears as relative: in relation to wood, steel is hard, and in relation to diamond it is soft. Any qualitative state of an object is relative. Under influence various conditions one qualitative state may disappear, but it disappears only by turning into another. An object, possessing a set of properties that make up its quality, depending on the context, glows as if different shades his. For example, a person appears in his various qualitative facets for a doctor, lawyer, writer, sociologist, anatomist, psychologist. Just as matter is not reduced to the totality of its properties, so no object is dissolved in its properties, but it is their carrier, the substrate. Than more high level organization of matter there is an object, the a large number qualities and properties it possesses.

Concept of quantity

Each collection of homogeneous objects is a set. If it is finite, then it can be counted. Let us have, for example, a herd of 100 cows. In order to consider each cow as “one”, it is necessary to abstract from all the qualitative characteristics of each animal. The same number “100” is a quantitative characteristic of any set of 100 objects, whether they are cows, books or diamonds. Both qualitatively homogeneous things, and qualitatively different in some respects, but similar in other respects: say, by weight, hardness, and also by dividing an object into parts, can be compared quantitatively. Consequently, this or that quantity is a set if it can be counted.

tat, and quantity, if it can be measured. Quantity expresses external, formal relationship of objects, their parts, properties, connections: number, size, volume, set, class, degree of manifestation of a particular property. The concepts of number, magnitude, figure, etc. are the sides or moments of the category of quantity.

In order to establish the quantitative certainty of an object, we compare its constituent elements - spatial dimensions, rate of change, degree of development - with a certain standard as a unit of counting and measurement. The more complex a phenomenon is, the more difficult it is to study it using quantitative methods. It is not so easy to count and measure, for example, phenomena in the sphere of morality, politics, aesthetic perception world, etc. It is no coincidence that the process of cognition real world both historically and logically it is accomplished in such a way that the knowledge of quality precedes the knowledge of quantitative relations. Knowledge of the quantitative side of the system is a step towards deepening knowledge of the entire system. Before counting, a person must know what he is counting. Science moves from the general qualitative assessments and descriptions of phenomena to the establishment of precise quantitative patterns.

The basis of quantitative thinking is objective discreteness, dismemberment of things and processes. Quantity is expressed by a number that contains two main meanings: the measure of generality, the same order of discrete elements when juxtaposed with each other and the separation (real or mental) of an object, its properties and relationships into homogeneous elements, relatively independent of its quality. The number “5,” expressing, for example, the number of 5 people, is not something unitedly inseparable, not just one thing, but a specifically separate unity of qualitatively homogeneous five units. Every number is a relatively independent, integral collection of a certain set, or a separate unity of quantity. Moreover, quantity is not identical to number; the same quantity as a quantity (for example, length when measuring length) can be expressed in different scales of measurement (meters, centimeters), and therefore in different numbers. Number is a mental form of mastering the quantitative definition of an object.

Measure

Any quality is expressed in a system of quantitative characteristics specific to it. It is known that quantity and quality appear as something separate only in abstraction, but in reality they are different characteristics certain realities exist

and gravitate towards each other, being in an indissoluble unity that forms their measure.

Augustine already argued that measure is the quantitative limit of a given quality; it is something that cannot be greater than or less than. The category of measure was one of the main ones for ancient philosophers, no matter what they talked about - about the cosmos, about existence, about man, about knowledge. Hesiod taught: observe moderation in everything and do your work on time. According to Democritus, if you go too far, the most pleasant things will become the most unpleasant. In the same spirit, Plato said: measure is the mean between excess and deficiency. Thales also believed that measure is the best. The idea of ​​measure has permeated the entire history of philosophy since antiquity.

The measure acts as a “third member” that connects quality and quantity into a single whole. For example, labor productivity as a measure has two sides: the quality of labor and its productivity (the amount of product produced). If we compare labor productivity during the period of industrial development before the scientific and technological revolution and after, then the degree of dependence of the quantitative characteristics of labor on the improvement of its quality will become clear. On the other hand, it is known from physics that atoms of different chemical elements they differ from each other only in that their nuclei contain different quantities protons. It is enough to change the number of protons in the nucleus, and one element will turn into another.

But it is not enough to say that measure is the unity of quality and quantity, and also that it is the limit within which quality manifests itself in its definiteness: Measure is deeply connected with essence, with law, regularity 1 . Let us pay attention to the fact that the meaning-forming root element of the word “regularity” is precisely measure. Measure- This the zone within which a given quality is modified varies due to changes in quantity and individual non-essential properties, while maintaining its essential characteristics.

Numerous properties of things (consumables) that have certain qualitative and quantitative structures in the process of consumption manifest themselves in many ways. These manifestations realize quality through the multilateral relationship of objects and specific consumers in the appropriate social and climatic environment.

To establish the actual structure of the properties of consumer goods, it is necessary to know not only the function of things (materials), but also specific features conditions of their functioning at the stages of consumption.

For example, synthetic floor coverings can be used both in premises of the first, second, third floors, residential buildings, and in halls and classrooms of schools, in corridors, in workshops, etc. The intensity of traffic, direction of movement, operational loads are significantly degrees will determine not only the values, but also the general structure of consumer properties.

In commodity science, as a rule, the functioning of clothing and footwear products is considered without highlighting the functional properties in independent group, although in reality their functional properties are outlined quite clearly.

When consuming materials and various consumer goods, their exploitation takes place, during which the utilitarian or operational properties of the product are revealed, as well as its appearance (aesthetic properties). The accepted division of properties is explained by the peculiarity of objects and their manifestation in the surrounding physical and social environment. Therefore, the consumer properties of products can be divided into operational and aesthetic. Performance properties combine functional and ergonomic properties, safety and durability of consumer goods.

In turn, the structure of functional properties is determined for a specific consumer item, based on the specifics of its function. So, for a vacuum cleaner, the main functional property will be dust collection ability, and for a household refrigerator - the ability to store food products. For a number of products and materials, the functional properties will be determined by their resistance to external factors (acid resistance, abrasion resistance, water resistance, etc.), as well as impermeability to heat, water, etc. Due to the significant specificity of the functioning of many consumer items, it is necessary to take into account this feature for specific research objects.

In Fig. 1.2 shows a structural diagram of the distribution of groups of consumer properties of polymer (synthetic) floor coverings (PVC - linoleum, tufted roll materials). The figure shows that the selected groups of safety and durability properties, functional and ergonomic properties are classified as operational properties, and the appearance property is manifested through the pattern and relief of materials.

As research results show, the functional properties of polymer synthetic flooring materials are manifested through their resistance properties external factors and impermeability (Fig. 1.3). The property of resistance of flooring materials combines three main groups of properties that manifest themselves through external influences, namely: abrasion, deformability and destructibility. Abrasion is assessed through the resistance (durability) of the coating to abrasion by reducing the weight of the sample

Rice. 1.2.

polymer coatings for the floor or the thickness of its outer layer. Deformability is determined by the elasticity, elasticity, recoverability and hardness of the material, and its destructibility is determined by the strength and stability of linear-volume dimensions.

The chemical resistance of flooring materials is manifested as acid resistance, alkali resistance, grease resistance, water resistance, and fuel resistance (Fig. 1.3). Determination of exposure chemical substances recorded as a change in the resistance of samples to abrasion before and after exposure to the test substance.

The biological resistance of polymer flooring materials is determined by their resistance to mold (fungi), other microorganisms, and moths. It is very important to establish the degree of moth resistance of fibrous substrates that are made using fiber mixtures. Their resistance to moth action will determine the stability of the functional property of biological resistance.

Thermal and sound insulating properties of flooring materials will be determined by their thermal and sound conductivity and thermal and sound absorption, which depend on the presence and type of substrate (base), the porosity of the polymer layers and their quantity, on the density, elasticity and elasticity of the material and some other factors (see Fig. 1.3) . These properties are assessed by corresponding coefficients or absolute parameters.

The ergonomic properties (Fig. 1.4) of flooring materials combine hygiene and ease of use.

The hygiene of flooring materials is determined by the presence and duration of odor, as well as electrification. Determining the presence and duration of odor is most realistically controlled by the organoleptic method, using experts for this purpose, and electrification using a number of instruments. Ease of use is determined by the cleanability and spreadability of the material being tested. The cleanability of materials depends on many operating factors, the type of cleaning and is characterized by the non-contamination and porosity of the material, and

Rice. 1.3. The structural diagram of the functional properties; its layability is determined by the ease of cutting, fit and ease of joining of the coating sheets (with adhesives, HF currents, welding or thermal soldering).

Rice. 1.4.

The safety of polymeric (synthetic) materials is characterized by their potential impact on humans and environment and manifests itself through environmental, biological, mechanical and fire safety (Fig. 1.5).

The biological safety of materials is determined by exuding and volatile substances released from the polymer layer, which are characterized by toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity and embryogenicity. Extent of exposure to materials released volatile substances on the human body and the environment will depend on the quantitative and qualitative composition of the released components (method of gas chromatography, gas-liquid chromatography or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry).

Rice. 1.5.

The mechanical and fire safety of flooring materials combines the properties of non-flammability and non-slip properties. The incombustibility of materials is associated with their flammability and self-extinguishing properties and is characterized by the corresponding temperature. The slipperiness of materials is assessed by the slip coefficient of the pair: floor material - shoe sole material.

Environmental safety is assessed by the possibility reuse both technological production waste and polyvinyl chloride materials that are out of service. Waste-free production polymer floor coverings and their disposal after completion of the service process ensure recyclability.

The property of durability is characterized by the wear resistance of materials and their resistance to aggressive environments during operation, as well as the safety of materials (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6.

The wear resistance of the material will depend on the composition of the polymer layer and the type of wear (abrasive and fatigue), the specifics of moisture (with SMS), and other factors that appear during operation. The durability of polymer flooring materials is assessed by the stability of functional and ergonomic properties (see Fig. 1.6). An indicator of persistence is the aging coefficient of a material, which characterizes the degree of decrease in specific values ​​of the most important functional properties over a certain period of time.

The structure of consumer properties of most consumer goods combines 14 groups of third-level properties. Therefore, for an experimental study of quality, it is necessary to identify the most significant properties of consumer goods. Determining significant properties will allow for rational research into the quality of consumer goods.

We studied the structure of consumer properties using the example of PVC linoleum through a survey of the opinions of commodity experts, hygienists and technologists working in the field of production and consumption of these materials. The questionnaires included the following properties of PVC linoleums that manifest themselves during operation (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3

List of consumer properties and their codes

The list of consumer properties of PVC linoleums was compiled taking into account the opinions of experts. When filling out the questionnaire, specialists determined the place of each of the properties according to the principle of preferences in a pairwise comparison of the selected 14 properties. The results of the expert assessment performed by three groups of specialists were processed by the rank correlation method.

The transformation of the rank matrix based on personal data was carried out taking into account the principle of the sum of ranks in each row, which should correspond to the value L(lLtl) = 105. The matrix we obtained is shown in Table. 1.4.

Results of ranking of consumer properties

Based on the summarized data in Table. 1.4 calculated the concordance coefficient (W):

where m = 3 (number of groups of specialists); n = 14 (number of variables);

The actual value of the concordance coefficient differs markedly from zero (W = 0.866), therefore it is believed that the opinions of experts regarding the significance of properties are significantly related. It should be noted that experts rank “facts” with some difference, since the found value of W differs markedly from unity. In this regard, it became necessary to check the significance of the concordance coefficient using the X2 criterion:

The table value of X 2 for a 5% significance level is Xk P = 22.362; and its calculated value is 33.774. Thus, the results obtained confirm that the degree of agreement between opinions is quite high.

Based on the calculation data, we constructed an average a priori significance diagram for the properties being assessed. A diagram of the significance of properties is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Rice. 1.7. Diagram of the importance of consumer properties As can be seen from the diagram, the importance of consumer properties is most highlighted by experts for the properties durability, biological safety, non-contamination and cleanability. The parameters of significance for the properties are very close: odor intensity, resistance to mechanical stress, heat impermeability, stability of performance properties and appearance. Properties with a total score

The weight for significant consumer properties was established by expert method on a fixed amount basis. The results of assessing the weight of the most significant properties are presented in Table. 1.5, commodity experts, hygienists and technologists acted as experts.

Table 1.5

Summary data on expert assessment of consumer properties

• Applied statistics. Fundamentals of econometrics: Textbook for universities. In 2 volumes, 2nd ed., revised. T. 1: Ayvazyan S. A., Mkhitaryan V. S. Probability theory and applied statistics. M., 2001. S. 301-306, 442-503.

The size of a specific item characterized such properties: comparability, variability and relativity.

The main property of the quantity is comparability. Only as a result of comparison can a quantitative characteristic of any value be obtained.

The quantity is also characterized variability and relativity. The same object can be defined by us as larger or smaller depending on the size of the object it is compared with.

Property of quantity - variability. Example: changing the length of a table only changes its size, but does not change its content and quality; the table remains a table.

The third property of quantity is relativity. The magnitude of any object is relative, it depends on what other magnitude it is considered in relation to. In fact, one and the same object can be defined by us as larger or smaller depending on the size of the object with which it is compared.

It should also be noted that quantity is a property of an object, which cannot be presented in isolation from the subject. Magnitude is inseparable from it.

Comparability, variability, relativity - the basic properties of a quantity can be comprehended by preschoolers in the most concrete form, in actions with various objects when selecting and comparing their length, width, height, volume.

Item size, those. item size, is determined based on comparison only. It is impossible to say whether an object is large or small, it can only be compared with others. Thanks to comparison, you can come to an understanding of relationships and to new concepts: “more”, “less”, “equal”, which define various qualities, including length, width, height, volume and many others.

Not always objects are exposed direct comparison. In life you often have to make mental comparison of this subject with our existing general ideas about the size of known objects.

Perception of magnitude depends:

From the distance from which the object is perceived, as well as

From the size of the object with which it is compared.

The further an object is from the one who perceives it, the smaller it appears, and vice versa, the closer it is, the larger it appears. Preschoolers are characterized by a constant perception of size, that is, children, especially younger preschoolers, do not take into account the distance of objects when determining size.

Characteristics of size subject also depends on location in space. The same object can be characterized how high (low), how long (short).

It depends in horizontal or vertical position he is in.

Reflection of quantity as a spatial feature subject associated with perception- the most important sensory process, which is aimed at identifying and examining an object, revealing its features. Various analyzers are involved in this process.: visual, auditory, tactile-motor, and the motor analyzer plays a leading role in their mutual work, ensuring adequate perception of the size of objects.

Perception of magnitude is happening by establishing complex systems connections, both intra-analyzer(between the muscular and optical components of the eye), and inter-analyzer(between tactile and motor, motor and visual analyzers). It follows that young children, without sufficient experience, often make false conclusions about the size of an object, since they judge it only by the available images on the retina.

The role of words is also great in the process of perceiving magnitude. Thanks to word denoting size, becomes possible isolating a quantity as an independent feature of an object.

The problem of reflecting magnitude cannot be considered only as a problem of perception. It should equally be considered as a problem of thinking. Knowledge of magnitude is carried out, on the one hand, touch based, and on the other - mediated by thinking and speech.

There is a complex dialectical relationship between feelings and reason, which finds concrete manifestation, for example, in the fact that process of magnitude perception(as well as other properties) mediated by thinking by comparison, analysis, use of relevant concepts, judgments, inferences, etc. An indispensable mental operation that provides an assessment of the size of objects is comparison.

Thus, it should be noted that this The concept is quite complex for preschoolers to perceive and understand.

Adequate perception of size depends on:

Experience in practical handling of objects,

Development of the eye,

Inclusions in the process of word perception,

Participation of thought processes: comparison, analysis and synthesis.

Children's perception of the size of objects preschool age is different a number of features.

The experience of sensory discrimination of size, which develops at an early age, lasts for a very long time. local character: a sign of magnitude is firmly assigned to a specific object.

For children junior and middle preschool age magnitude more is not the main identifying feature And has no signal value. Children recognize a sign of size only when this sign becomes significant for them, it acquires practical significance.

They perceive and compare the size of an object more easily if this the sign is contrasting.

Due to lack life experience preschoolers weakly correlate the size of one object with the size of another.

The concept of the size of objects is younger preschoolers (children 3 years old) have a global, undifferentiated character, i.e. focus on the total volume of the object, without highlighting its length, width, height.

They define any sign of size as large or small. Preschool children have difficulty learning the relative nature of the size of an object - that the same object can be both large and small, depending on what other object its size is compared with.

- Children four years old already differentiated suitable for choosing items by length or width, but provided that the length of the object exceeds the width.

Preschoolers have difficulty learning three-dimensionality of quantity. For them it remains for a long time difficult distinction in the same subject several signs quantities.

In older preschool age the child learns to distinguish the parameters of quantities, their properties, learns verbal description, use of the properties of objects in different types activities. At this time, he masters techniques for perceiving more complex phenomena. For children of senior preschool age, a short period of time is required to master all three dimensions.

Preschoolers have poorly developed constancy of perception– the ability to perceive the size of an object at different distances and in different positions.

Isolating a quantity as an independent feature of an object becomes possible thanks to the word, denoting the value. With the help of the word, the sign of size is distracted from the object, and this allows children to highlight this sign in any objects, with their different positions. Having mastered the names of quantities in a familiar situation, the child can use them in relation to new objects that he had not previously perceived. Generalization in speech of the sensory experience of distinguishing sizes creates the basis for the formation of ideas and concepts about the size of objects.

The word magnitude itself is unclear children because they rarely hear it. When children's attention is drawn per item size, educators prefer to use words the same, same, which are multi-valued, so they should be add a word denoting the characteristic, by which objects are compared ( find the same size: length, width, height etc.).

Isolating one or another specific dimension, the child strives show it(runs his finger along the length, shows the width with spread arms, etc.). These inspection actions are very important for a more differentiated perception of the size of an object.

Inability to perceive magnitude differently items significantly influences for designation in other words, objects of various sizes. Most often, children use the words “big - small” in relation to any objects. This is due to the fact that adults around children often use imprecise words to indicate the size of objects (large ruler instead of long).

The importance of perception in the life of a preschooler very large, because creates the foundation for the development of thinking, promotes the development of speech, memory, attention, imagination. Well-developed perception can manifest itself in the form of a child’s observation, his ability to notice the features of objects and phenomena, details that an adult will not notice.

As has been shown, the content of any concept consists of essential properties inherent in a certain class of objects. It is these properties that distinguish these items from items of other classes. Both the process of mastering concepts and the process of their subsequent use are associated with working with properties. This means that students, first of all, must learn to see properties, know the types of properties, and be able to identify them.

In order for students to come to an understanding of essential properties, it is first important to teach them how to identify properties in objects in general. Of course, this must be done in primary school. Typically, students of this age do not see that an object has many different properties. How to teach students to see these properties? To do this, it is necessary to reveal the content of the technique for identifying properties in objects. The technique consists of comparing a given object with other objects that have different properties, as a result of which the student identifies those properties that were previously hidden to him.

Mastering the technique of comparison makes it possible to move on to identifying common and distinctive properties in objects. Students working with multiple objects (for example, blocks different sizes, color, material from which they are made, etc.), highlight those properties by which these objects differ from each other (distinctive properties), and the properties common to these objects (for example, the shape of a cube).

After teaching students to identify common and distinctive properties in objects, they should be taught to distinguish essential, important properties(from the point of view of a certain concept), from insignificant, secondary. For this purpose, you can introduce a technique that helps the student establish which properties of given objects are essential and which are not.

The technique consists of consistently varying the unimportant, secondary properties of a given object and stating that this does not lead to a change in the belonging of the object to a certain concept (class). Thus, a triangle remains a triangle regardless of the size of its angles, sides, or the spatial location of the triangle itself.

A change in the essential properties of the object under consideration leads to the fact that this object will refer to a different concept. For example, increasing the number of sides of a triangle does not allow this figure to be classified as a triangle - it could be a quadrangle, pentagon, etc.

It is advisable to practice the technique of identifying essential and non-essential properties on various subjects belonging to different areas knowledge, so that students see the general nature of the technique, its independence from specific material. So, using the example of the concept of “deciduous trees,” you can show students that these trees can differ from each other in many properties: the color of the bark, the shape and color of the leaves, the thickness and length of the trunk, the number of branches, etc. However, all these trees have one property that remains unchanged - the presence of leaves, which gives us the right to call them deciduous trees. If we change this essential property - we take trees not with leaves, but with needles, then we will not be able to call them deciduous trees: they will be coniferous trees.

Students tend to take any general property as essential, so it is important to show them that all essential properties are at the same time common to a given class of objects. Thus, the presence of three sides in a geometric figure - a triangle - is both a common and essential feature of all triangles. At the same time, it is necessary to show students that not everyone general properties in objects are their essential properties. For example, what all triangles studied in planimetry have in common is that they are located on a plane. This property is a general, but not essential property of these geometric figures (a triangle can also be located in three-dimensional space).

The ability to differentiate the properties of objects into essential and non-essential allows students to understand such types of properties as necessary, sufficient, necessary and sufficient.

Necessary properties of a concept are those that are necessarily present in all objects related to a given concept, as well as in some objects related to an opposite concept of the same kind.

Sufficient properties of a concept are those that are inherent in some objects related to this concept, and are not inherent in any object related to the opposite concept of the same kind.

Necessary and sufficient properties of a concept are those that are necessarily present in all objects belonging to this concept, and are not present in any object belonging to an opposite concept of the same kind.

The absence of one of the specified properties of a concept or all of them at once leads to the fact that the given object turns out to be not related to the given concept. Thus, the property “part of a line” is a necessary property of any segment or ray. If a geometric object does not have this property, then it does not belong to the concept of “segment” (or “ray”).

The property “has two boundary points” or “bounded on both sides” is inherent only in the concept of “segment” and is not inherent in the concept of “ray”. Consequently, the indicated properties are necessary and sufficient in relation to the concept of “segment”.

Misunderstanding of the difference between necessary, sufficient, necessary and at the same time sufficient properties is widespread among students. Thus, seventh grade students were offered special tasks, the completion of which presupposed the ability to differentiate these types of properties. Here is one of these tasks: “There is a well-known theorem: “the diagonals of a rhombus are mutually perpendicular.” Explain which of the two formulations of this theorem is true: 1) if a quadrilateral is a rhombus, then its diagonals are mutually perpendicular; 2) if the diagonals are perpendicular, then this quadrilateral is a rhombus.”

The results of the task showed that 50% of students coped with it (chosen as the first one is correct definition). 26% of students answered that both of the proposed statements were correct. It is characteristic that these students did not see any difference in these provisions at all. They believed that both formulations said the same thing, “only the words were rearranged.” This means that they do not understand the difference between necessary properties and sufficient properties.

In the second statement, the indicated properties are necessary for a rhombus, but they are not sufficient for its definition, since not only a rhombus, but also a deltoid satisfies these requirements.

Students make similar mistakes when working not only with mathematical material, but also with other material. Thus, students in grades VIII-IX were asked the following task: “Prove which of these words - beauty, fireplace, big, nail - are adjectives and which are not.” One of the students reproduced the definition of the adjective completely correctly, but could not apply it correctly. Here is his answer: “We need to check the question “which one?” If a word answers this question, then it is an adjective.” The teacher draws the student’s attention to the fact that the definition indicates one more property: adjectives denote characteristics of objects. The student was confused and refused to complete the task.

In this case, the situation is similar to the previous one: the student confuses necessary and sufficient properties. What is an adjective is a word that answers the questions “which?”

(which one?)” is a necessary property: all adjectives answer this question. Any word that does not answer this question (does not have this property) is not an adjective. However, this property alone is not enough to distinguish words that are adjectives. In fact, to the question “which one?” Words that are participles also answer: blushing, going out, running, etc. That is why, to distinguish adjectives, two properties must be taken into account.

It is important to show that not every necessary feature is sufficient. Students' mistakes are often due to the fact that they act with necessary characteristics as if they are sufficient. For example, they consider a quadrilateral that has at least two right angles to be a rectangle. This is incorrect, since a rectangular trapezoid also has these properties. For both a rectangular trapezoid and a rectangle, this property is necessary, but for neither one nor the other object it is sufficient. This means that not every necessary property is sufficient. Conversely, not every sufficient property is necessary.