Dictionary of literary terms online. Literary terms

>>A brief dictionary of literary terms

Allegory- an allegorical description of an object or phenomenon for the purpose of its specific, visual representation.

Amphibrachium- a three-syllable meter of a verse, in a line of which groups of three syllables are repeated - unstressed, stressed, unstressed (-).

Anapaest- a three-syllable verse size, in the lines of which groups of three syllables are repeated - two unstressed and stressed (-).

Ballad - poetic story on a legendary, historical or everyday theme; The real in a ballad is often combined with the fantastic.

Fable- a short allegorical story of an instructive nature. The characters in fables are often animals, objects, and which exhibit human qualities. Most often, fables are written in verse.

Hero (literary)- a character, character, artistic image of a person in a literary work.

Hyperbola- excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object.

Dactyl- a three-syllable verse, in a line of which groups of three syllables are repeated - stressed and two unstressed.

Detail (artistic)- expressive detail with the help of which an artistic image is created. A detail can clarify and clarify the writer’s intention.

Dialogue- a conversation between two or more persons.

Dramatic work or drama- a work intended to be staged.

Genre literary- manifestation in a more or less extensive group of works of common features of the image of reality.

Idea- the main idea of ​​a work of art.

Intonation- the main expressive means of spoken speech, which allows one to convey the speaker’s attitude to the subject of speech and to the interlocutor.

Irony- subtle, hidden mockery. The negative meaning of irony is hidden behind the external positive form of the statement.

Comedy- a dramatic work based on humor, funny.

Comic- funny in life and literature. The main types of comics: humor, irony, satire.

Composition- construction, arrangement and interrelation of all parts of a work of art.

Legend- a work created by folk fantasy, which combines the real (events, personalities) and the fantastic.

Lyrical work- a work that expresses the author’s thoughts and feelings caused by various life phenomena.

Metaphor- transferring the properties and actions of some objects to others, similar to them but based on the principle of similarity.

Monologue- the speech of one person in a work.

Novella- a narrative genre close in scope to a story. The short story differs from the short story in the sharpness and dynamics of the plot.

Personification- transferring the characteristics and properties of living beings to non-living ones.

Description- a verbal image of something (landscape, portrait of a hero, interior view of a home, etc.).

Parody- a funny, distorted likeness of something; comic or satirical imitation of someone (something).

Pathos- in fiction: sublime feeling, passionate inspiration, elevated, solemn tone of the narrative.

Scenery- depiction of nature in a work of art.

Tale- one of the types of epic works. In terms of the scope of events and characters, the story is more than a short story, but less than a novel.

Portrait- an image of the hero’s appearance (his face, figure, clothes) in the work.

Poetry- poetic works (lyrical, epic and dramatic).

Poem- one of the types of lyric-epic works: the poem has a plot, events (as in an epic work) and an open expression by the author of his feelings (as in lyrics).

Parable- a short story containing a religious or moral message in an allegorical form.

Prose- non-poetic works of art (stories, novellas, novels).

Prototype- a real person who served the writer as the basis for creating a literary image.

Story- a small epic work telling about one or more events from the life of a person or animal.

Narrator- the image of a person in a work of art, on whose behalf the story is told.

Rhythm- repetition of homogeneous elements (speech units) at regular intervals.

Rhyme- consonance of the endings of poetic lines.

Satire- ridiculing, exposing the negative aspects of life by depicting them in an absurd, caricatured form.

Comparison- comparison of one phenomenon or object with another.

Poem- a poetic line, the smallest unit of rhythmically organized speech. The word "verse" is often used to mean "poem".

Poem- a short poetic work in verse.

Poetic speech- unlike prose, speech is rhythmically ordered, consisting of similar sounding segments - lines, stanzas. Poems often have rhyme.

Stanza- in a poetic work, a group of lines (verses) that constitute a unity, with a certain rhythm, as well as a repeating arrangement of rhymes.

Plot- the development of action, the course of events in narrative and dramatic works, sometimes lyrical ones.

Subject- the range of life phenomena depicted in the work; what is said in the works.

Fantastic- works of art in which a world of incredible, wonderful ideas and images is created, born of the writer’s imagination.

Literary character- an image of a person in a literary work, created with a certain completeness and endowed with individual characteristics.

Trochee- two-syllable verse with stress on the first syllable.

Fiction- one of the types of art is the art of words. The word in fiction is a means of creating an image, depicting a phenomenon, expressing feelings and thoughts.

Artistic image- a person, object, phenomenon, picture of life, creatively recreated in a work of art.

Aesopian language- forced allegory, artistic speech, full of omissions and ironic hints. The expression goes back to the legendary image of the ancient Greek poet Aesop, the creator of the fable genre.

Epigram- a short satirical poem.

Epigraph- a short saying (proverb, quote) that the author places before the work or part of it to help the reader understand the main idea.

Episode- an excerpt of a work of art that is relatively complete.

Epithet- an artistic definition of an object or phenomenon, helping to vividly imagine the object and feel the author’s attitude towards it.

Epic work- a work of art in which the author tells about people, the world around us, and various events. Types of epic works: novel, story, short story, fable, fairy tale, parable, etc.

Humor- in a work of art: depiction of heroes in a funny, comic form; cheerful, good-natured laughter that helps a person get rid of shortcomings.

Iambic- two-syllable verse with stress on the second syllable

Simakova L. A. Literature: Handbook for 7th grade. behind-the-scenes initial deposits from my Russian beginning. - K.: Vezha, 2007. 288 pp.: ill. - Russian language.

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Dictionary of literary studiesand linguistic terms

Allegory. The trope, which consists in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a concrete one, lifestyle. For example, in fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed in the form of a wolf, deceit in the form of a snake, etc.

Alliteration. Repetition of identical consonant sounds or sound combinations as a stylistic device. Sh AndPen yePen clean glasses andpunch AP lameno blue(Pushkin).

Anaphora. WITH a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel series (verse, stanza, prose passage).

Anaphora sound. Repetition of the same combinations of sounds.

Gr bridges demolished by oza,

Gr both from the washed out cemetery.(Pushkin)

Anaphora is morphemic. Repeating the same morphemes or parts of complex words.

...Black ogling the girl

Black maned horse! (Lermontov)

Lexical anaphora. Repeating the same words.

Not intentionally the winds were blowing,

Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm.(Yesenin)

Anaphora syntactic. Repetition of the same syntactic structures.

Am I wandering? I'm along the noisy streets,

Am I coming in? to a crowded temple,

Am I sitting between crazy youths,

I indulge in my dreams. (A.S. Pushkin)

Antithesis. A stylistic figure that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply contrasting concepts, thoughts, and images. Where there was a table of food, there was a coffin costs(Derzhavin). Antithesis is often built on antonyms. The rich even feast on weekdays, but poor and grieving on holiday(proverb).

Archaisms. Obsolete for a certain era, obsolete linguistic elements (words, expressions), replaced by others, for example: in vain(in vain, in vain) neck(neck), since ancient times(from time immemorial) actor(actor), this(this), that is to say(that is); stomach(meaning “life”), a shame(meaning “spectacle”), real(meaning “existing”). In terms of stylistic archaisms are used:

a) to recreate the historical flavor of the era (usually in historical novels, stories);

b) to give speech a touch of solemnity, pathetic emotion (in poetry, in an oratory, in a journalistic speech);

c) to create a comic effect, irony, satire, parody (usually in feuilletons, pamphlets);

d) for speech characteristics character (for example, a linden tree of clergy).

Hyperbola. A figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, significance, etc. of any object or phenomenon. By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. In artistic speech, hyperbole is often intertwined with other means - metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc. At one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed(Mayakovsky).

Gradation . A stylistic figure consisting of such an arrangement of parts of a statement (words, sentence segments), in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotional-expressive meaning, due to which an increase (less often a weakening) of the impression they make is created.

The gradation is ascending. Arranging words in order of increasing meaning. I came, I saw, I conquered(Julius Caesar). In autumn, the feather grass steppes completely change and take on their own special, original, unique appearance.(Aksakov).

Gradation descending. Arranging words in order of decreasing importance.

I swear to the wounds of Leningrad, to the first devastated hearths:

I won’t break, I won’t waver, I won’t get tired, I won’t forgive my enemies a single grain.(O. Berggolts)

Inversion. Arranging the members of a sentence in a special order, violating the usual (direct) order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Inversion is one of the stylistic figures. Bear hunting is dangerous, a wounded animal is terrible, but the soul of a hunter, accustomed to dangers since childhood, is brave.(Koptyaeva) (inversion of the main members of the sentence). The moon came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at the deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages(Neverov) (inversion of agreed definitions). At first I was very upset(Pushkin) (inversion of adverbs of measure and degree).

Irony. A trope consisting of the use of a word or expression containing
assessment of what is ridiculed; one of the forms of denial. A distinctive feature of irony is a double meaning, where the truth is not what is directly expressed, but its opposite, implied; the greater the contradiction between them, the stronger the irony. In art, this manifests itself in satirical and humorous depictions. Break away, smart one, you are delirious, head? ( Krylov) (addressing the donkey).

Historicisms Outdated words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted. Boyar, clerk, oprichnik, constable, crossbow. Historicisms are used as a nominative means in scientific-historical literature, where they | serve as names for the realities of past eras, and as a visual means in works of fiction, where they contribute to the reconstruction of a particular historical era.

Litotes. The opposite trope of hyperbole. Litota is a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes appears in folk tales: Tom Thumb, a man with a fingernail. You have to bow your head below the thin blade of grass(Nekrasov).

Metaphor. The use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena. "Noble Nest" ( the direct meaning of the word nest is “bird’s dwelling”, the figurative meaning is “human community”), airplane wing ( cf.: bird's wing), Golden autumn(cf.: golden chain). Unlike a two-term comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared are given, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness in the use of words. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects or phenomena can be based on a variety of features.

The metaphor is simple. A metaphor built on the bringing together of objects or phenomena according to one of their common characteristics. The bow of a ship, the leg of a table, the dawn of life, the sound of waves, a hail of bullets, the sunset is blazing, speech is flowing.

The metaphor is expanded. A metaphor built on various associations of similarity. Here the wind embraces flocks of waves with a tight hug and throws them wildly anger against the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes(Bitter).

Lexical metaphor(dead, petrified, erased). A word in which the original metaphorical transfer is no longer perceived. Steel pen, clock hand, door handle, sheet of paper.

Metonymy. Using the name of one item instead of the name of another item based on an external or internal connection between them; a type of trope. The connection can be:

a) between the object and the material from which the object is made. Not on silver - I ate on gold(Griboyedov);

b) between content and containing. Well, eat another plate,
my dear!(Krylov);

c) between an action and the instrument of this action. His pen breathes revenge(A.K. Tolstoy);

e) between a place and the people in that place. But our open bivouac was quiet(Lermontov).

Neologism. A word or figure of speech created to denote a new subject of expression of a new concept. Astronaut, cosmodrome, lavsan. After a word comes into widespread use, it ceases to be a neologism ( walking excavator, programmed training). And some neologisms Soviet era have already become obsolete words (tax in kind, sponge committee, people's commissariat, nepman, komsomolets, workday, etc.).

Stylistic neologism.(individual-stylistic). A neologism created by the author of a given literary work for a specific stylistic purpose and usually not widely used and not included in the vocabulary of the language. Green-haired(Gogol), Moscow soul(Belinsky), above the blizzard(Block), huge, multiplying, mandolin, hammered(Mayakovsky).

Oxymoron. A stylistic figure consisting of a combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another, as a result of which a new semantic quality arises. An oxymoron always contains an element of surprise. Bitter joy, ringing silence, eloquent silence, sweet sorrow, sad joy. The title of a work is often based on an oxymoron: L. Tolstoy “Living Corpse”, Y. Bondarev “Hot Snow”.

Personification . The trope consists in the fact that an inanimate object, an abstract concept, a living being not endowed with consciousness is attributed with qualities or actions inherent in a person - the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel. Personification is one of the oldest tropes, its origins owing to the animalistic worldview and all kinds of religious beliefs; occupies a large place in mythology and folklore: phenomena of nature and everyday life are personified; fantastic and zoological characters of epics, fairy tales, legends. In the modern period, it is most often found in the language of fiction: more in poetry, to a lesser extent in prose. What are you howling about, night wind, why are you complaining so madly?(Tyutchev). Her nurse lay down next to her in the bedchamber - silence(Block). When, raging in the stormy darkness, the sea played with the shores...(Pushkin).

Synecdoche. One of the trails, view metonymy , consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche are:

a) a part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door there are pea coats, overcoats, sheepskin coats...(Mayakovsky);

b) whole in the meaning of part:

- Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet? Well isn't it sneakypeople ! (Tvardovsky);

c) singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:

There's a groan thereHuman from slavery and chains...(Lermontov);

d) replacing a number with a set:

Millions of us. Us - darkness, and darkness, and darkness. (Block);

e) replacing the specific concept with a generic one:

"Well,

Sit down, light! (Mayakovsky)

Tautology 1. Identity, repetition of what was said in other words, without introducing anything new. Author's words are the words of the author.
2. Repetition of cognate words in a sentence. In the struggle for the disruption of rights, workers united as one. The following features of the work should be noted. The disadvantages of the manual include the insufficient amount of illustrative material.
3. Unjustified redundancy of expression. Better position (the form better already contains the meaning comparative degree. The highest peaks (the form highest already contains the meaning of the superlative degree).

Ellipsis (ellipse - loss, omission). Omission of an element of an utterance that is easily reconstructed in a given context or situation. There are curious people in all the windows, boys on the roofs(A.N. Tolstoy). Champagne.(Chekhov). Ellipsis is used as a stylistic figure to impart dynamism, intonation of lively speech, and artistic expressiveness to the statement. We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, swords into sickles and plows.(Zhukovsky). Instead of bread - a stone, instead of teaching - a mallet(Saltykov-Shchedrin ). Officer - with a pistol. Terkin - with a soft bayonet(Tvardovsky).

Epithet. Artistic, figurative definition, type of trope . Cheerful wind, dead silence, gray antiquity, black melancholy. When interpreted broadly, an epithet refers not only to an adjective that defines a noun, but also to an adjective noun, as well as an adverb that metaphorically defines a verb. Frost-voivode, tramp-wind, old man ocean; The Petrel soars proudly(Bitter ); Petrograd lived in these January nights tensely, excitedly, angrily, furiously(A.N. Tolstoy).

Permanent epithet. An epithet often found in folk poetry, passing from one work to another. Sea blue, field clean, Sun red, clouds black, Kind Well done; green grass, red girl.

Epiphora. Stylistic figure, opposite anaphora, consisting in repeating the same elements at the end of each parallel series (verse, stanza, sentence, etc.). I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why titular adviser?(Gogol).

Dear friend, even in this quiet house the fever strikes me. I can’t find a place in a quiet house Near a peaceful fire! (Block)

A brief dictionary of literary terms

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“A brief dictionary of literary terms / A manual for secondary school students”: “UCHPEDGIZ”; Moscow; 1963

annotation

“The Dictionary includes about 500 terms, covering basically the minimum range of theoretical concepts that high school students can encounter and which together constitute a well-known cycle of knowledge on the theory of literature.

The authors of the “Dictionary” sought to present theoretical concepts concisely and as accessible as possible to students, provide them with examples, give them a certain assessment, and connect them with questions that arise in the study of modern Soviet literature. Using the “Dictionary” with the help of the teacher, students can expand the range of their theoretical knowledge.”

L. I. Timofeev and N. Vengrov

BRIEF DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS

Manual for secondary school students

FROM THE AUTHORS

“Without theory, there is no history of a subject.” These words of N. G. Chernyshevsky are directly related to the science of literature. All the cognitive and educational wealth that the fiction studied at school contains can be fully assimilated only when the student has a certain level of culture in perceiving a literary work: an understanding of what artistic and literary creativity is; what are its main features, its social significance; how a literary work is constructed and how it should be analyzed; how the literary process develops.

Only under such conditions will a work of art and literature be sufficiently fully perceived by students.

The importance of such a theoretical basis for the perception of fiction for the school is obvious, which not only imparts to students a certain minimum of historical and literary knowledge, but also, perhaps, this is the main thing, prepares them for the independent perception of literature outside the school walls. It will be fruitful precisely when the school graduates a student with a developed artistic taste and knowledge that allows him to deeply understand fiction.

Meanwhile, at present our school has neither a course in literary theory nor the necessary textbook. The minimum literary and theoretical knowledge with which a student leaves school must be decisively increased.

The task of the “Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms” brought to the attention of the reader is to fill this gap to a certain extent. It is clear that the "Dictionary" does not in any way replace course in literary theory, since it cannot give systems concepts, their relationships, their methodological understanding.

He should only expand the range of theoretical concepts of students, help them understand, with the help of the teacher, the terms that they encounter in critical articles and literary works, and arouse their interest in issues of literary theory.

The Dictionary includes about 500 terms, covering basically the minimum range of theoretical concepts that high school students can encounter and which together constitute a well-known cycle of knowledge on literary theory.

The authors of the Dictionary strove to present theoretical concepts concisely and as accessible as possible to students, to provide them with examples, to give them a certain assessment, and to connect them with questions that arise when studying modern Soviet literature. Using the “Dictionary” with the help of the teacher, students can expand the range of their theoretical knowledge.

Considering the saturation of works on literary theory with foreign terminology, the authors sought to either explain the term, its meaning and origin, or find unambiguous Russian terms; foreign terms (with a reference to their Russian designation) are left so that the reader, encountering them in literature, can find them in the Dictionary.

When revising and adding to the “Dictionary”, critical comments and suggestions expressed in reviews about it were taken into account. Additions belong to P. F. Roshchin.

A

Abbreviation(from Latin brevis - short) - abbreviated words in writing, colloquial speech, works of art.

For example, from V. Mayakovsky:

V Tse Ka Ka

bright years,

over the gang

poetic

grabbers and burning,

I'll lift you up

like Bolshevik party card,

all one hundred volumes

party books.

Tse Ka Ka (TsKK)- instead of Central Control Commission; party card- instead of party card.
Paragraph(from German Absatz) - part of the text from one indent, red line, to the next. For example, two paragraph in L. N. Tolstoy’s story “The Bone”:
Vanya turned pale and said:

“No, I threw the bone out the window.”

And everyone laughed, and Vanya began to cry.
Autobiography(from gr. 1 autos - myself, bios - life, graphō - writing) - a description of one’s life by some person. In fiction autobiography called a work in which the writer describes his life.

Such autobiography is, for example, the work of V.V. Mayakovsky “I Myself”.

Autobiographical are works of art in which the author used events from his personal life as material (for example, autobiographical stories by A. M. Gorky “Childhood”, “In People”, “My Universities”).
Autograph(from gr. autos - myself, graphō - I write) - a manuscript of a work written by the author himself, a letter, an inscription on a book, etc. Autograph also called the author's handwritten signature.

Autographs records of great people (statesmen, scientists, writers) are carefully collected, studied and stored in scientific institutes, museums, and state archival repositories.

Thus, at the Institute of Marxism-Leninism under the Central Committee of the CPSU they collect, study and store autographs Marx, Engels, Lenin and publish the works of the classics of Marxism, verified with autographs.

Autographs A. S. Pushkin were collected, studied and stored at the Institute of Russian Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences; autographs A. M. Gorky - in the A. M. Gorky archive at the A. M. Gorky Institute of World Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Author's speech(from Latin au (c) tor - creator) - words with which the author directly, from himself, characterizes his heroes, evaluates their actions, describes events, settings, landscape.

Sometimes author's speech in the work is not connected with the characters and events of the story. Such copyright, or, otherwise, lyrical, digressions the author expresses his thoughts, reports his feelings, explaining and supplementing his narrative.

Author's speech in the form of such lyrical digressions, full of deep feeling and thought, we find in N.V. Gogol, for example in his work “Dead Souls”: reflections on the purpose and fate of the writer (“Happy is the writer...”), on the fate of Russia (“Not so whether you too, Rus'..."), etc. Known lyrical digressions in the novel by A. A. Fadeev “The Young Guard” with the author’s thoughts about the childhood of “a boy with an eagle heart”, about friendship, about mother’s hands, etc.

Thanks to author's speech The reader, along with the characters in the work, also imagines the image of the author, the narrator (see), which sometimes, as for example in “Dead Souls,” complements other images of the work and helps to better understand its content.

Acmeism, like symbolism (q.v.), it was a phenomenon of noble-bourgeois culture in the era of its decomposition and decline, but unlike symbolism it abandoned mysticism and strived for a concrete image of the material and natural world, simple human feelings, etc. However, extreme individualism Acmeism led to the fact that poetic world its representatives were very poor and limited, far from real life.

Speaking in their literary manifestos against symbolism (see), the Acmeists, like the Symbolists, were adherents of the theory of “art for art’s sake” (see). Their individualistic creativity was also far from public life, alien and hostile to the people.

After the Great October Socialist Revolution the group acmeists fell apart.
Acrostic(from the gr. akrostichon - extreme line) - a poem in which the initial letters of the lines form the first or last name of a person, a word or an entire phrase. For example:
L azure day

U went out, went out.

N face-to-face shadow

A X! hid us.
From the first letters of poetic lines a word is formed moon. This is how poetic riddles are sometimes written - the answer is in the first letters of the poems. Acrostic sometimes it is a dedication of a work to a person.
Act(from Latin actus - act, action) - in dramatic works and performances, a completed part of a work, a separate action of a drama or comedy.

They say: “four-act play”, “three-act drama”, etc.

stand up, slim!

Hello to the revolution,

Happy speed!

This is unity

there is a great war

iz everyone,

how did you know the history?

The rhythm of the verse and its regularity are determined here only by the accents; between stresses, as is easy to count, there are sometimes one, then two, sometimes four unstressed syllables, but in each line there are four stresses.

When most lines have the same number of accents accent(or tonic) poem allows a smaller or larger number of them in individual lines, and sometimes gives a stable alternation of lines with different numbers of stresses, for example in the poem by V.V. Mayakovsky “Marxism is a weapon, a firearm method” (4-3-4-3).
Akyn- folk poet-singer of the Kazakh people. Your own poems akyns they recite in a chant to the sounds of a string instrument - dombra.

Outstanding akyn was Dzhambul Dzhabayev (1846–1945).

Such couplets were written in the 12th century. French poem about Alexander the Great. Hence the name - Alexandrian verse.

Russian poets, including A. S. Pushkin, more than once turned to Alexandrian verse:
The sullen guardian of the muses, || my longtime persecutor, 3

Today to reason || I thought about it with you.

Don't be afraid: I don't want to, || seduced by a false thought,

Blame censorship || damn careless...

Alcaic- cm. Ancient versification.
Allegory(from the gr. allegoria - allegory) - one of the types of tropes (see) - an allegorical image of an abstract concept or phenomenon of reality using a specific life image. The features and characteristics of this image, corresponding to the main features of the allegorically depicted concept or phenomenon, evoke the idea of ​​it that the writer wants to create.

So, justice allegorically depicted in the image of a woman with blindfolds and scales in her hands; allegory of hope- anchor; allegory of freedom- broken chains, etc. On the badges and appeals of hundreds of millions of workers fighting for peace, a white dove is depicted - an allegory of world peace.

Allegory often used in fables and fairy tales, where cunning is allegorically depicted in the form of a fox, greed in the form of a wolf, deceit in the form of a snake, etc.
Alliteration(from Latin ad - to, with lit(t)era - letter) - repetition in verse or, less often, in prose of identical, consonant consonant sounds to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech. Alliteration emphasizes the sound of individual words, highlighting them and giving them a particularly expressive meaning.
Not V A V here V asked and re V ate,

TO from l ohm cl O To ocha and cl killing himself...
(A. S. Pushkin, Bronze Horseman.)

Alliteration, when it does not serve a specific expressive purpose, it leads to an empty, meaningless play with sounds, for example, in the symbolist poet:
H uzhdy h aram h black h yoln...
Almanac(from Arabic al mana - time, measure) - so in the XIV–XV centuries. collections of calendar tables with astronomical calculations were called; later, from the 16th century, they were published annually, supplemented with various reference information, short stories, poems, jokes, etc.

Subsequently almanac began to be called a collection of literary and artistic works of various contents.

From Russian antiques almanacs The literary and artistic collection “Polar Star”, published in 1823–1825, is known. Decembrist writers A. A. Bestuzhev and K. F. Ryleev; in that almanac A. S. Pushkin, A. S. Griboyedov, V. A. Zhukovsky, I. A. Krylov and other outstanding writers of that time took part.

On the initiative of A. M. Gorky, under Soviet power they began to publish almanac, which was named after the current year of the Great October Socialist Revolution: “Year XXXI”, “Year XXXIV”. Later, this almanac began to bear the name “Literary Contemporary”.

amphibrachium- a foot in which a long syllable is sandwiched between two short ones (ᴗ-ᴗ).

Example amphibrachium in Russian verse:
The last cloud | Russian storm!

You are the only one | you're touching | clear | lezur.

Scheme amphibrachium:

Amphimacra- see Ancient versification.
Allusion(from Latin allusio - hint) - a stylistic figure (see), which consists in the use of a popular catchphrase as a hint at the essence of a particular fact. For example, a victory achieved at the cost of great sacrifices is usually called a “Pyrrhic victory” (“Another such victory, and I will be left without an army” - this is how the Epirus commander Pyrrhus assessed one of his victories over the Romans in 279 BC) .

The same is the stylistic role in speech and in literary works of such generally known expressions as “I came, I saw, I conquered”, “What will Princess Marya Aleksevna say!” and so on.

For example: " Mother(not the father) loves the daughter” and “Mother loves daughter(not my son)."

IN teenage years A. S. Pushkin wrote and translated several Anacreontic poems- “Phial of Anacreon”, “Coffin of Anacreon”, etc.

In ancient versification (see) anapaest- a foot in which the first two syllables are short, the last is long (ᴗᴗ-).

Examples anapest in Russian verse:
Here is the bottom entrance. | On celebratory days,

Odӗrzhi|my hŏlo|pskym nӗdu|gŏm…

Scheme anapest:

Anaphora(from the gr. anaphora - bringing up) - see. Unity of people.
Anachronism(from the gr. ana - back and chronos - time) - a deviation from historical accuracy in the depiction of any era, which consists in the fact that historical figures who lived in another time are depicted as characters of one era in the work; the characters of the work use words or concepts unknown in the depicted era; the life and situation characteristic of another historical period are described, etc. For example, in some epics, heroes go to drink wine “at the tsar’s tavern” - in those days there were no kings.

Anachronism also called a relic of antiquity, an outdated view, an outdated custom.
Joke(from the gr. anekdotos - unpublished) - a short story about a funny incident, a funny incident.

Anecdotes was first called the “Secret History” of the Byzantine historian Procopius (VI century AD), which described incidents from the personal life of Emperor Justinian and his courtiers. An anecdote or anecdotal story called a story or episode in a work, built on funny accidents. This is, for example, one of the early stories by A.P. Chekhov, “The Horse's Name.”
Annals(from Latin annus - year, annalis - annual) - a record of historical events by year among the ancient Romans. In ancient Rus', such a weather record was called chronicle(cm.).
Annotation(from Latin annotacio - note) - short note, explaining the contents of the book. Such annotations, sometimes with a critical assessment of the work, they are published in literature reference books, book catalogs, etc.
Anonymous(from the gr. anonymos - without a name) - an untitled work, without indicating the name of the author. Anonymous They also call the author of an essay who has hidden his name.

Anonymous are, for example, works of folk art - epics, songs, fairy tales (see), “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, etc.
Antibakhiya- cm. Ancient versification.
Antithesis(from the gr. antithesis - opposition) - one of the stylistic figures (see): a turn of poetic speech, in which, to enhance expressiveness, directly opposite concepts, thoughts, and character traits of the characters are sharply contrasted.
They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other...
(A. S. Pushkin, Eugene Onegin.)

Ancient versification- a system of versification in ancient Greece, where it arose back in the 8th century. BC e., and in ancient Rome, where in the 3rd century. BC e. she came from Greece.

In the ancient world, poets did not read their poems, but sang; the poet was also a singer, and he was depicted with a musical instrument - a lyre (hence the name lyrics, cm.).

We can only approximately imagine the sound of ancient poems: their sound recording has not reached us. But the surviving poetic works poets of the ancient world, the writings of the ancients about poetry, reports of historians and writers of that time give us the opportunity to more or less definitely imagine the system ancient versification.

Ancient versification also called metric(from Latin metron - measure).

Based on poetic meter ancient versification there are short and long syllables. The time required to pronounce a short syllable was called pestilence; pronouncing a long syllable took two moras. Long and short syllables were combined into feet. The repetition of such feet formed a verse - a poetic line. IN ancient versification no rhyme.

Marking a long syllable with a symbol ‾ and a short syllable with a symbol ̆, we bring the main feet into ancient versification:
disyllabic:
Iambic: ᴗ-

chorea or trachea: -ᴗ

spondee: --
trisyllabic:
dactyl: -ᴗᴗ

amphibrachium: ᴗ-ᴗ

anapest: ᴗᴗ-

bakhiy: --ᴗ

antibacchium: ᴗ--

amphimacra: -ᴗ-

second peon: ᴗ-ᴗᴗ

third peon: ᴗᴗ-ᴗ

peon fourth: ᴗᴗᴗ-

These are, for example, the verses in the Alcaeus stanza, named after the ancient Greek lyricist Alcaeus, and the sapphic verse that the ancient Greek poetess Sappho (or Sappho) wrote with.

The Alcaeus stanza contains four verses, of which the first two verses in the stanza consist of eleven long and short syllables in the following alternation:
ᴗ-ᴗ--ǀǀ-ᴗᴗ-ᴗᴗ
the third is of nine syllables:
ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ
the fourth is of ten syllables:
-ᴗᴗ-ᴗ ǀǀ ᴗ-ᴗ-ᴗ
In Russian, the Alcean stanza sounds approximately like this:
Barely resisting || the onslaught of evil waves,

Already overwhelmed || the deck is completely water;

The sail is already shining through,

All full of holes. || The clamps are loosened

Here is an example of a sapphic stanza from the poem “Swimmer” by K. Pavlova:

Covers the heights of heaven || dusk gray.

Daring swimmer holds || the path is dangerous

With firm faith.

For example: “Anthology of Georgian poetry”, “Anthology of Belarusian poetry”.

Usage antonyms helps the writer to more expressively reveal internal contradictions in a phenomenon, character, etc., which the writer wants to emphasize, for example:

I command thunder with my mind,

I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god!
(G. R. Derzhavin, God.)

Intermission(from French entre - between and acte - action) - a break between individual acts or actions of a dramatic work.

In old times intermissions small scenes were also called interludes (see), which were performed during the break between the actions of the play.

We can say: in the novel “The Young Guard” the development of Oleg’s heroic character reaches apogee in the scene of his interrogation by the Nazis.

Apocrypha generally referred to as a work falsely attributed to any author.
Apostrophe(from the gr. apostrophē - deviation) - one of the stylistic figures (see): a turn of poetic speech consisting of referring to an inanimate phenomenon as if it were animate, or to an absent person as if it were present.
Farewell, free elements!..
(A. S. Pushkin, To sea.)
Alexander Sergeevich!

Let me introduce -

Mayakovsky.

Give me your hand!

Apotheosis(from the Greek apotheōsis - deification) - this was the name in the past for a celebration in honor of a victory, glorification of the solemn completion of an event, praise of its heroes.

In a dramatic work or performance apotheosis- the final ceremonial picture.

This is the name, for example, for the final scene of M. Glinka’s opera “Ivan Susanin,” depicting the triumph of the Russian people over the foreign invaders.
Argotisms- cm. Jargon.
Arsis- in ancient versification (see) the part of the foot (see) on which there is no rhythmic stress, in contrast to the thesis (see) - the strong part of the foot on which the rhythmic stress falls. The word "arsis" translated from Greek means "rise". Originally it meant raising a leg in a dance. Over time, when verse and music separated from dance, the word “arsis” became entrenched in metrical versification with a meaning directly opposite to the original one (decline, “lowering” of rhythm).
Aruz(Arabic, pronunciation arud) - Arabic-Persian metric system of versification. It is based on the alternation of long and short syllables (the presence of long and short vowels is a phonetic feature of Arabic languages).

Dimensions aruza Until the 20th century, poetry from Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan was also used.

So, in the play “The Eagle and the Eaglet” A. N. Tolstoy uses archaisms in the speech of Ivan the Terrible and other characters:

“My nobles are leaving for service colorful, and horse-drawn, and crowded, and do not stand firmly for the fatherland and do not want to play a fierce mortal game against an enemy. The poor man cares about his fatherland, but the rich man cares about his womb.” That's the truth.

Be fulfilled by my will

And, bypassing the seas and lands,

Verb burn people's hearts.
(A. S. Pushkin, Prophet.)

Sometimes, on the contrary, archaisms are used for an ironic purpose and, inserted into everyday speech, give it a mocking character, as is often found in the anti-religious poems of D. Bedny and the satires of V. V. Mayakovsky.

It shot up oly me

Above the roar of the airfield,

And the pigeons seem to goals e,

They rushed along against a gray background of thunder.
(L. Martynov, Pigeons.)

In modern Soviet poetry assonance became very widespread.

we mean -

we say - party,

we mean -

Ashug(from Turkic aşik - lover) - folk singer-poet among the peoples of the Caucasus. Composing your poems, ashug reads them in a chant to the sounds of a folk stringed instrument.

Songs and poems of the famous Dagestan ashuga Suleiman Stalsky is widely known in the Soviet Union.

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS AND REFERENCE MATERIALS 1

ACCENT VERSE- a type of tonic verse in which only the number of stresses in a line is regulated, and the number of unstressed syllables fluctuates freely. For example, from V.V. Mayakovsky:

monument during life
is due according to rank.

I would pawn
dynamite -
come on,
tease!

I hate it

all kinds of carrion!

all life!

ALLEGORY(Greek allegoria - allegory) - an artistic technique based on the depiction of an abstract idea, an abstract concept through a concrete image, thought. The relationship between an image and its meaning is established by similarity. For example, an olive branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, the image of the goddess Themis (a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands) is an allegorical image of justice; the snake entwining the bowl is an allegory of medicine; baby with bow and arrows - Cupid - allegory of love, etc.

In oral folk art, the images of some animals are allegorical. The fox is an analogue of cunning, the hare - cowardice, the lion - strength, the owl - wisdom, etc.

As an allegory, allegory is most closely related to metaphor and is often considered as a common metaphor, or as a series of metaphorical images combined into a closed whole, into a single complex image.

For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem “In the depths of the Siberian ores...” created allegorical image freedom, which will “receive joyfully at the entrance” the Decembrist convicts.

M.Yu. Lermontov in the poem “The Poet” found an allegorical image of “a blade covered with the rust of contempt” in order to compare it with a poet who has lost his “purpose”.

ALLITERATION(from Latin a1 - to, with and litera - letter) - repetition of identical, homogeneous consonants, creating euphony, “musicality,” intonational expressiveness.

For example, in K. Balmont’s poem “Moisture” the sound effect is created due to the alliteration “l”:

The swan swam away into the darkness,

In the distance, turning white under the moon,

The waves caress the oar,

Lily is fond of moisture.

One of the functions of alliteration is onomatopoeia. In the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Borodino” sounds “z”, “zh”, “ch”, “r”, “s” convey the dynamics of the battle; whistle of buckshot, bursting of cannonballs, etc.:

You will never see such battles!..

Banners were worn like shadows,

The fire sparkled in the smoke,

Damask steel sounded, buckshot screamed,

The soldiers' hands are tired of stabbing,

And prevented the cannonballs from flying
A mountain of bloody bodies.

AMPHIBRACHIUS- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot in which the middle syllable is stressed (-  -) "reasonable". In Russian poetry, amphibrachs have been used since the beginning of the 19th century. For example, A. S. Pushkin used amphibrachs in the poem “I look like crazy at the black shawl...”, in “Song about the prophetic Oleg”, N. A. Nekrasov in the song “In a moment of despondency, O Motherland! ..” from the poem “Who Lives Well in Rus',” etc.

ANAPAEST- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot in which the last syllable is stressed (   -): "Human". In Russian poetry he first appeared in A.P. Sumarokov (ode “Against the Villains”). Used, for example, N.A. Nekrasov in the poems “Troika”, “You and I are stupid people...”, A.A. Fet (“I won’t tell you anything...”), A.T. Tvardovsky (“I was killed near Rzhev...”), etc.

ANAPHORA(Greek anaphora - carrying out) - unity of beginning, repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several stanzas, verses or hemistiches. Anaphora, like any kind of repetition of individual words or expressions in general, gives the verse poignancy and expressiveness, emphasizing its important semantic points. So, in the stanza of A.A. Block:

Again with age-old melancholy
Feather grass bent down to the ground,

Again beyond the foggy river
You call me from afar.

The anaphoric “again” emphasizes the “eternity” of Russian melancholy
and the incessant voice that calls the poet somewhere.

In M. Tsvetaeva’s poem, anaphora sets the rhythm of the sequential semantization of the name “Blok”, “encrypted” in the system of comparisons:

Your name is a bird in your hand,

Your name is like a piece of ice on the tongue.

One single movement of the lips.

Your name is five letters.

ANIMALISM(from Latin animal - animal) - a direction in literature, which is based on the image of animals and the relationship between man and animal. An animal as an object of image, along with other phenomena of the surrounding world, acquires a value-semantic and aesthetic characteristic. For example, in the animalistic poetry of S.A. Yesenin (“Cow”, “Song of the Dog”, “Fox”), the animal, while maintaining objective, natural features, becomes the unconditional and full-fledged lyrical object of the work.

ANTAGONISTS- irreconcilable opponents. For example: Chatsky and Famusov (“Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedov), Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov (“Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev), Satin and Luka (“At the Lower Depths” by M. Gorky), Yuri Zhivago and Pavel Strelnikov (“Doctor Zhivago” by B.L. Pasternak), etc.

ANTITHESIS(Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure consisting of a sharp opposition of concepts or images. Most often, the antithesis is expressed openly - through antonym words, emphasizing the contrast of the depicted phenomena. For example, in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” it is said this about the opposite characters of Onegin and Lensky:

They got along.

Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

The figure of antithesis can serve as a construction principle for individual parts of works of art in poetry and prose. For example, the story of the transformation of the landowner Plyushkin into a “hole in humanity” in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol shows how stinginess turns into wastefulness.

The titles of many works are also based on antithesis: “War and Peace”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Shield and Sword”, “Cunning and Love”, “Red and Black”, etc.

ASSONANCE(from lat. assonare) - repetition of the same vowels. Assonance is a vivid means of expressiveness of poetic language. An example of the use of assonance is an excerpt from a poem by A. S. Pushkin:

Do I wander along the noisy streets,

I enter a crowded temple,

Am I sitting among the crazy youths,

I indulge in my dreams.

In this passage, the vowel “u” sounds, giving the verse a dull melodious quality.

ASSOCIATION- a special form of communication between several representations, in which one of the representations causes another. For example, Ranevskaya’s remark: “Oh, my garden! After a dark, stormy autumn and cold winter, you are young again, full of happiness, the heavenly angels have not abandoned you...” - associatively gives rise to the image of Eden - a blooming garden, where a man who knew no sin was blissful.

ARCHAISMS- obsolete words that have been completely forced out of modern usage or replaced by others denoting the same concepts. In fiction they are used as an expressive device to convey the flavor of an era, speech characteristics of a character, giving speech solemnity or irony, etc. For example: “With one push, drive away a living boat...” (A.A. Fet), “And the dark shelter of solitude...”, “From the eyes of the hypocritical mob...” (A.S. Pushkin).

APHORISM(Greek aphorismos - saying) - a saying that expresses some generalized thought that reveals the general and typical in reality, in a laconic, artistically sharpened form. An aphoristic manner of writing and speaking means a condensed, abrupt way of expression. Aphorisms are scattered in abundance in the play by A.S. Griboedov’s “Woe from Wit”: “I would be glad to serve, it’s sickening to be served”, “Happy people don’t watch the clock”, “He who is poor is not a match for you”, etc.

BALLAD(from Latin ballo - dancing) - a genre of lyric poetry that is narrative in nature. The ballad is based on unusual case. The ballad received particular development in the poetry of sentimentalism and romanticism. In Russian literature, the founder of the ballad as a plot genre was V.A. Zhukovsky (“Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Tsar of the Forest”, etc.). Following him were samples of Russian balladdals A.S. Pushkin (“Song of the prophetic Oleg”, etc.), M.Yu. Lermontov (“Borodino”, “Dispute”, “Tamara”, etc.), I.Ya. Kozlov, A.K. Tolstoy, V.Ya. Bryusov and others.

The ballad genre in the poetry of the Soviet period is represented by the works of N.S. Tikhonova (“The Ballad of the Blue Bag”, “The Ballad of Nails”), followed by S. Yesenin (“The Ballad of Twenty-Six”), E.G. Bagritsky (“Watermelon”, “Smugglers”), etc.

FABLE is a short moralizing story in poetic form. The characters in an allegorical fable plot are often animals, inanimate objects, but often also people. The structure of a fable presupposes a narrative and a conclusion from it, i.e. a certain provision (rule, advice, instruction) attached to the narrative and often representing the final word of one of the characters. In Russian literature of the 18th - 19th centuries, the masters of the fable genre were A.I. Sumarokov, I.I. Dmitriev, I.A. Krylov. Of the modern fabulists, the most famous is S.V. Mikhalkov.

BLANK VERSE- unrhymed verse. The name comes from the fact that the endings of the verse, where consonance (rhyme) is usually placed, remain sonically blank (“white”). Nevertheless, blank verse is organized intonationally and rhythmically. “The Sea” by V.A. is written in blank verse. Zhukovsky, “Again I visited...” A.S. Pushkin, poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasova.

Ver libre - cm. FREE VERSE.

ETERNAL IMAGES- images whose general artistic meaning goes far beyond their specific historical content and the era that gave birth to them. Eternal images capture the most general, essential aspects of human nature, express typical, constant, recurring conflicts and situations in the history of human society. Classic examples of eternal images are Don Quixote, Prometheus, Hamlet, Don Juan, Faust. In Russian literature Molchalin, Khlestakov, Plyushkin, Judushka Golovlev and similar images live long years and even centuries in the consciousness of several generations, since they generalize typical, stable traits of human characters.

ETERNAL DARKNESS- the most significant themes for humanity in all eras and constantly repeated in all national literatures are the themes of life and death, light and darkness, love, freedom, duty, etc. For example, in M. A. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita” there are eternal themes the struggle between good and evil, cowardice, betrayal, mercy, love and creativity become the subject of reflection by the writer and his heroes.

HYPERBOLA(Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a stylistic figure consisting of a clear exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon. Hyperbole can consist of both quantitative exaggeration (for example, “a thousand times”, “an entire eternity”, etc.) and figurative expression, combined with other stylistic devices, forming hyperbolic metaphors, comparisons, personifications, etc.

Hyperbole is often found in Russian songs and ditties. In the spirit of popular reception, N.A. uses hyperbole. Nekrasov:

I saw how she squints:

With a wave, the mop is ready.

N.V. Gogol became famous for his hyperboles (“A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper”), V.V. Mayakovsky (“... I tell you: the smallest speck of living dust is more valuable than everything that I do and have done!”), etc.

Hyperbole is often used to indicate exceptional properties or qualities of people, natural phenomena, events, things. For example, in the poem “Mtsyri” by M. Yu. Lermontov, a young man defeats a predatory leopard, not inferior to him in strength and dexterity:

And I was terrible at that moment;

Like a desert leopard, angry and wild,

I was on fire and screaming like him;

As if I myself was born
In the family of leopards and wolves
Under the fresh forest canopy.

GRADATION- a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase or decrease in their semantic or emotional significance. For example: “I called you, but you didn’t look back, / I shed tears, but you didn’t descend...” (A. Blok) - ascending gradation. “He brought mortal resin / And a branch with withered leaves...” (A.S. Pushkin) - descending gradation.

GROTESQUE(French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character. The grotesque violates the boundaries of plausibility, imparts conventionality to the image and takes the image beyond the limits of the probable, deforming it. The basis of the grotesque is the unthinkable, the impossible, but necessary for the writer to achieve a certain artistic effect. Grotesque is a fantastic hyperbole. Hyperbole is closer to reality, grotesque - to a nightmare, fantastic dream, vision. For example, the dream of Tatyana Larina (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) is filled with grotesque images of monsters:

One with horns and a dog's face,

Another with a rooster's head,

There's a witch with a goat beard,

Here the frame is prim and proud,

There's a dwarf with a ponytail, and here
Half crane and half cat.

Tatyana sees with horror a fantastic dance in the “wretched hut”: “a crab riding on a spider”, “a skull on a goose neck / Spinning in a red cap”, “the mill is dancing in a crouch / And its wings are crackling and flapping.”

The satirical function of the grotesque is relevant in Russian literature: N.V. Gogol (“The Nose”), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (fairy tales, “The History of a City”), V.V. Mayakovsky repeatedly resorts to the grotesque (“Mystery-bouffe”, “Bedbug”, “Bathhouse”, etc.). Uses grotesque A.T. Tvardovsky (“Terkin in the Next World”), A. A. Voznesensky (“Oza”),

DACTYL- in syllabic-tonic versification, a three-syllable foot in which the first syllable is stressed (-  ): "tree". The poem “Clouds” by M. Yu. Lermontov is written in dactyl: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers!

The azure steppe, the pearl chain
You rush as if like me, exiles
From the sweet north to the south.

DECADENCE(from Latin decadentia - decline) - a general name for the crisis phenomena of culture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness and rejection of life. Decadence is characterized by mysticism, belief in supernatural forces; extreme individualism and glorification of death and decay; the pursuit of external beauty * pretentiousness of literary form. Certain decadent tendencies were reflected in the literature of modernism (in symbolism, futurism, imagism, abstractionism, surrealism).

DIALOGUE(from Greek dialogos) - form oral speech, a conversation between two or more persons. In drama, dialogue is the main means of developing action, the main way of depicting characters. In lyric poetry, dialogue is used to reveal the positions of the participants in a dispute, as, for example, in the poem by A.S. Pushkin “Conversation between a bookseller and a poet”, N.A. Nekrasov "Poet and Citizen". This tradition is followed by O. Chukhontsev (“Poet and editor (of a certain kind).”

DISTICH(or couplet) - the simplest form of a stanza, consisting of two lines connected by a common rhyme (aa, vv, etc.). For example, in the poem by A.A. Block:

Singing dream, blooming color,

Vanishing day, fading light.

Opening the window, I saw lilacs.

It was in the spring - on a flying day.

The flowers began to breathe - and onto the dark cornice
The shadows of jubilant robes moved.

The melancholy was suffocating, the soul was busy,

I opened the window, trembling and trembling.

And I don’t remember where I breathed on my face from,

Singing, burning, she went up onto the porch.

DIARY- literary form in the form of regular records kept in chronological order. A significant feature of the diary is its subjective form: the story of events is always told in the first person, the choice of topic always clearly depends on the personal interests of the author. A work of fiction sometimes uses the diary of a literary hero (for example, “Pechorin’s Diary” in “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, the diary of Doctor Bormental in “ Heart of a Dog» M.A. Bulgakov). The form of a diary serves to psychologically reveal the inner world of a character or author.

DOLNIK- a poetic meter that preserves the rhythmic pattern of a three-syllable meter, but the number of unstressed syllables between two stressed syllables fluctuates (unstressed syllables “fall out”). A group of syllables united by one beat is called a beat, and depending on the number of such beats, a given dolnik is called a bilobular, trilobular, etc. The use of a dolnik was first noted in the 19th century (M.Yu. Lermontov, A.A. Fet). The dolnik came into active circulation at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries in the works of A.A. Bloka, A.A. Akhmatova, A. Bely and others.

For example, from A. A. Blok:

You'll get lost in the thick grass,

You will enter a quiet house without knocking...

DRAMA(from Greek drama - action) - 1. One of the types of fiction (along with epic and lyric poetry). Drama is intended to be staged. The main element of a dramatic work is the depicted action, sometimes an action-deed expressed in stage directions, sometimes an action-word. The only means of depicting the characters in a drama is their own speech (dialogues, monologues, remarks). The actual author's commentary on the play (description of the setting, atmosphere of the action, behavior, gestures of the characters) is limited, as a rule, to stage directions. The nature of the plot of a drama is unique - it has much narrower limits than an epic (in terms of the number of characters, time span, etc.).

2. Dramatic genre, which is a play with an acute conflict that finds its own, but not tragic or comedic, resolution in the finale. Drama as a genre combines tragic and comic principles, which is why it is often called the middle genre. There are everyday, psychological, symbolic, heroic, romantic, social and philosophical drama. An example of drama in Russian literature can be “The Thunderstorm” by A.N. Ostrovsky, “At the Bottom” by M. Gorky.

GENRE(from the French genre - genus, type) - a historically established and developing type of work of art. In modern literary criticism, the term is used to designate the literary types into which the genus is divided. For example, epic genres - novel, story, short story, short story, essay, etc. Lyrical genres include ode, friendly message, epigram, elegy, satire, sonnet, etc. Dramatic - tragedy, comedy, drama, melodrama, vaudeville, etc. Plays an important role in the classification of genres historical development literature, manifested in literary trends. Thus, classicism and romanticism are characterized by a strict ordering of genres, and within the realistic movement, rigid genre systems practically do not exist (for example, a novel in verse, a poem in prose, a poem in prose as synthetic forms).

TIE- the beginning of a contradiction (conflict) that forms the basis of the plot, the initial episode, the moment that determines the subsequent development of the action of a work of art. Usually the plot is given at the beginning of the work, but can be introduced elsewhere. For example, Chichikov’s decision (N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls”) to buy the souls of dead peasants is reported at the end of the first volume of the poem.

TITLE (TITLE OF THE WORK)- the most important component of a work, located outside its main part, but occupying the strongest position in it; the first element with which the reader begins to become acquainted with the text.

The main functions of titles are:

Nominative (nominative) is the historically established initial function of titles. By naming the text, the author distinguishes it from other works;

Informative - a universal function, since every title, to one degree or another, carries information about the text and reflects the content of the work;

Retrospective - the title requires returning to it after reading the work, since the title not only expresses the content of the literary work, but should also interest and intrigue the reader;

Expressive-appellative - the title can reveal the author’s position, as well as psychologically prepare the reader for the perception of the text.

The title introduces the reader to the world of the work:

Expresses the main theme, outlines the main plot lines, defines the main conflict (“Who lives well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Requiem” "A. A. Akhmatova);

Names the main character of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov);

Highlights the cross-cutting character of the text (“Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Old Woman Izergil” by M. Gorky);

Indicates the time of action (“October 19” by A.S. Pushkin, “Noon” by F.I. Tyutchev, “Evening” by A.A. Fet, “Winter Night” by B.L. Pasternak, “In August forty-four.. ." V. O. Bogomolova);

Indicates the main spatial coordinates (“I go out alone on the road...” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “In a restaurant” by A. A. Blok, “Quiet Don” by M. A. Sholokhov);

Creates the effect of anticipation (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboyedov).

Titles are built according to certain structural models, which are based on general linguistic syntactic patterns, but at the same time have their own specific features, inherent only to titles.

Titles can be presented:

In a word (“The Thunderstorm” by A. N. Ostrovsky, “Gooseberry” by A. P. Chekhov);

A coordinating combination of words (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov);

Subordinating phrase (“The Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov, “The Gentleman from San Francisco” by I.A. Bunin);

Sentence (“ An Extraordinary Adventure, who was with Vladimir Mayakovsky in the summer at the dacha” V.V. Mayakovsky, “War is thundering somewhere” by V. Astafiev).

The title can be a trope (“Cloud in Pants” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy), a reminiscence (“The Lord’s Summer” by I.S. Shmelev, “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk” by N.S. Leskova), etc.

SOUND RECORDING- a system of sound repetitions of certain elements of the sound composition of the language: consonants and vowels, stressed and unstressed syllables, pauses, various types intonation, etc.

In the system of sound writing, alliteration, assonance, and onomatopoeia play an important role.

For example, in a poem by A. Voznesensky:

We are the opponents of the dim,

We are accustomed to width -

Is it a Tula samovar?
Or Tu-104.

ZOOMORPHIC TRANSFORMATIONS(from the Greek zoon - animal, morphe - form) - the transformation of a person into an animal or the appearance of any characteristic zoological signs in him. For example, the famous sorcerer Prince Vseslav of Polotsk, the hero of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” turned into a wolf and managed to cover vast distances from Kyiv to Tmutorokan in one night, competing in his swift running with the pagan sun god Khors himself.

IDEOLOGIST- an exponent or defender of the ideology of a social class, socio-political system or direction.

A unique idea of ​​the hero-ideologist is formed by M.M. Bakhtin, analyzing the novels of F.M. Dostoevsky. The character of a hero-ideologist is determined not so much by the influence of the social environment as by the essence of the idea professed by a person. For Dostoevsky, the reason for Raskolnikov’s crime (“Crime and Punishment”) is in his theory, and not in his poverty (although the latter is not discounted, and the theory itself has social origins).

The hero-ideologist occupies a very special place in Dostoevsky’s novels. To the self-development/character characteristic of a character in a realistic work, freedom and completeness in the expression of ideas are added.

IDEA(Greek idea - concept, representation) - the main idea a work of art that expresses the author’s attitude to reality. It is possible to understand the idea of ​​a work only in the totality and interaction of all the artistic images of the work. For example, the main idea of ​​A. S. Pushkin’s poem “Arion” is the lyrical hero’s loyalty to the ideals of Decembrism.

IMAGINISM(from the French image - image) - a trend in Russian decadence. Imagists asserted the priority of the self-valued image, form over meaning, idea. Adherents of imagism saw the task of creativity in inventing previously unprecedented images and words. At one time, S. A. Yesenin joined the Imagists.

INVERSION(from Latin inversion - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted word order. For example, in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin:

He passes the doorman with an arrow
He flew up the marble steps...

Inversion allows you to update the meaning of a word, giving speech special expressiveness.

INTERPRETATION is the cognitive and creative development of the artistic content of a work, the result of which is the comprehension of its semantic and aesthetic integrity.

Interpretation of a literary work involves:

Treating the text as a whole that artistically reproduces reality;

Recognition of the possibility of variable interpretation of the text based on the polysemy of the artistic image;

The need for a dialogical relationship with the author of the interpreted text, built on the principles of trust and criticality;

Inclusion of mechanisms of emotional-figurative and logical-conceptual comprehension of the text.

For example, B.M. Gasparov interprets the content and structure of A. Blok’s poem “The Twelve” in the light of the theory of carnival by M.M. Bakhtin. The action of the work, as the researcher reveals, takes place on Christmastide. It is this time of action, which leaves the imprint of the Yuletide carnival on the events taking place in the poem, that explains, according to B.M. Gasparov, the possibility of the appearance of the image of Christ in the poem about the revolution. Everything that happens on the streets of the winter city, as the interpreter believes, resembles a theatrical performance. Among the characters, popular-generalized images stand out - the “long-sexed” one, the bourgeois, the lady in karakul, the writer-vitia. Their movements (sliding, falling, hobbling) resemble the mechanical movements of dolls in a farce show. The atmosphere of a carnival performance is created by “voices” from the street (screams of prostitutes, shouts of a patrol, gunfire, etc.). The element of folk theater is given in parallel to the organized stage action and creates the effect of destroying the boundaries between “literary” and “real” life. The cross-cutting leitmotif of the poem (“They walk into the distance with a sovereign step”) is organized according to the principle of a procession of mummers; in the finale it turns into an apotheosis parade with a popular print and decorative figure of Christ, in whose hands a blood-red flag flutters like an Easter banner. The procession following Christ is perceived as his “retinue”, consisting of God’s “angels”, or twelve apostles. B. M. Gasparov points out the apocalyptic nature of the carnival: the “end of the world” is negation, the destruction of the familiar world, but this is a “fun” destruction.

Modern researchers Peter Weil and Alexander Genis offer their interpretation of the main conflict of the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". The main ideological opponents, in their opinion, are the “civilizer” Bazarov and the “guardian of traditions” Kirsanov. Bazarov believes that somewhere there is a “formula of prosperity and happiness” that needs to be found and offered to humanity, and for this “it is worth sacrificing some insignificant little things.” The “Civilizer” does not intend to create anything anew, it plans to destroy what already exists. The world, “reduced to a formula, turns into chaos,” and Bazarov becomes the bearer of this chaos. The uniqueness of Bazarov’s “formula” is opposed by the “diversity of the system,” which is personified by Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov. This hero of Turgenev is convinced that well-being and happiness lie in something else - accumulation, summation, preservation. According to interpreters, the main conflict of the work lies in the collision of the “civilizing impulse with the order of culture.” Since the pathos of destruction and reconstruction turned out to be unacceptable for Turgenev, he forces Bazarov to “lose.”

INTERIOR(French interieur - internal) - the internal space of a building or room in a building; in a work of art - a depiction of the furnishings of the premises in which the characters live and act. The interior can be full of various details and subject details.

Such, for example, is the interior of Manilov’s house (N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls”): “beautiful furniture, covered with dandy silk fabric”, “a dandy candlestick made of dark bronze with three antique graces, with a dandy mother-of-pearl shield”; “the walls were painted with some kind of blue paint, like gray, four chairs, one armchair, a table on which lay a book with a bookmark,” etc.

IRONY(from the Greek eironeia - pretense, mockery) - one of the author’s ways of assessing what is depicted, an allegory expressing ridicule. Irony is not laughter, but mockery, and the narrator can be outwardly serious. Ingenuously expressed irony turns into a joke, evil irony into sarcasm.

For example: “... he, apparently, was born into the world already completely ready, in a uniform and with a bald spot on his head” (N.V. Gogol), “... and with immensely wide and thick, light brown and gray sideburns , of which each would have three beards” (I.A. Goncharov).

A.S. Pushkin in the novel “Eugene Onegin” uses an ironic phrase to characterize one of the guests at Tatyana Larina’s name day:

Gvozdin, an excellent owner,

Owner of poor men.

In the novel “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev characterizes the Kirsanovs’ servant Peter as “a man of the newest improved generation,” ironizing the views of “children.” N.V. Gogol in “Dead Souls” calls the prosecutor “the father and benefactor of the entire city,” although it immediately turns out that he is a bribe-taker and a grabber.

“ART FOR ART” (“PURE ART”)- the general name of aesthetic concepts that affirm the self-integrity of artistic creativity and the independence of art from socio-political circumstances and conditions. For example:

Not for everyday worries,

Not for gain, not for battles,

We were born to inspire

For sweet sounds and prayers.

(A.S. Pushkin. “The Poet and the Crowd”)

Quatrain (Quatrain)- a stanza consisting of four lines connected by common rhymes, having a complete meaning. The quatrain uses various types of rhyme: abba, abab, aabb. The most common is cross (abab).

For example, a poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Winter Road” consists of seven quatrains:

Through the wavy mists
The moon creeps in

To the sad meadows

She sheds a sad light.

On the winter, boring road
Three greyhounds are running,

Single bell
It makes a tiresome noise...

CLASSICISM(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic direction and style in the art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, which is characterized by high civic themes, strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules (for example, the rules of the “three unities”: time, place , actions), reflection of life in ideal images, as well as an appeal to the ancient heritage as the norm. Representatives of classicism in Russian literature were V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, G.R. Derzhavin.

CONTEXT- the speech or situational environment of the entire work or part of it, within which the meaning and significance of a word, phrase, etc. is most accurately revealed. For example: about the uniqueness of the metaphorical image of a dagger in the poem of the same name by A.S. Pushkin can be judged by considering him in the general context of dagger motifs in Russian poetry (“Dagger” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Dagger” by V.Ya. Bryusov, etc.).

ENDING- the final component of the entire work or any part of it. In poetry - the final line, often aphoristic. For example: “And, going around the seas and lands, / Burn the hearts of people with a verb!” (A.S. Pushkin. “Prophet”); “Living life is not a field to cross” (B. Pasternak. “Hamlet”), In drama - the hero’s remark “at the end of the curtain” at the end of any act or the entire play. For example: “Famusov. "Oh! My God! What will Princess Marya Aleksevna say?” (A.S. Griboyedov. “Woe from Wit”), “Satin (quietly). “Eh... ruined the song... fool!” (M. Gorky. “At the Bottom”), In prose - the final maxim, landscape, etc. “The wind blew and exposed from under the rags the dry chest of the old woman Izergil, who was falling asleep more and more deeply. I covered her old body and lay down on the ground next to her. It was quiet and dark in the steppe. Clouds kept crawling across the sky, slowly, boringly... The sea rustled dully and sadly” (M. Gorky. “Old Woman Izergil”).

COMEDY(Greek coraoidia, from coraos - cheerful crowd and oide - song) - one of the main types (genres) of drama as a type of literature, depicting situations in life and characters that cause laughter. Comedy forms a negative attitude towards the aspirations, passions of the characters or the methods of their struggle. Comedy, as a special form of the comic, most accurately captures and conveys its most important shades - humor, irony, sarcasm, satire. Vivid examples of comedy in Russian literature are “The Minor” by D.I. Fonvizina, “The Inspector General” N.V. Gogol; A. S. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”) and A. P. called their plays comedies. Chekhov (" The Cherry Orchard»),

COMPOSITION(Latin compositio - composition, linking) - a set of techniques and means used by the author to construct a work, reveal and organize images, their connections and relationships.

The composition includes the arrangement of characters; the order of reporting the events in the plot (plot composition); alternation of plot and extra-plot components of the narration, change of narration techniques (author's speech, first-person narration, dialogues and monologues of characters, various types of descriptions: landscapes, portraits, interiors), as well as the ratio of chapters, parts, stanzas, turns of phrase.

Chronological rearrangements of individual events can be especially significant in a work of art (M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”). Compositional techniques such as silence or recognition, delayed exposure, lack of exposure or resolution may be important for understanding the author’s intention and idea of ​​the work.

The following types of composition are distinguished: vertex (“Gypsies” by A. S. Pushkin); mirror (“Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin); ring (“Troika” by N. A. Nekrasov); open (“Lady with a Dog” by A.P. Chekhov); concentric (“Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev).

CONFLICT(from Latin conflictus - collision) - a clash, a struggle, on which the development of the plot in a work of art is built. In drama, conflict is the main force, the spring driving the development of dramatic action, and the main means of revealing characters. In works of art, there is often a combination of “external” conflict - the hero’s struggle with forces opposing him - with “internal” psychological conflicts - the hero’s struggle with himself, with his delusions and weaknesses. Thus, Eugene Onegin (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) comes into conflict with the nobility and provincial landowners, with other characters - Lensky, Tatyana Larina; finally, with himself, trying to get rid of the blues, internal discontent.

WINGED WORDS- widely used apt figurative sayings of historical figures, literary characters, etc. For example: “We’re making noise, brother, we’re making noise...” (A.S. Griboyedov). “Extraordinary ease of thought...” (N.V. Gogol). Winged words often take the form of aphorisms. For example: “Inspiration is not for sale, but you can sell a manuscript” (A.S. Pushkin); “Man - that sounds proud!” (M. Gorky).

CLIMAX(from Latin oilmen - peak) - the moment of highest tension in the development of action, maximally aggravating the artistic conflict. Thus, in M. Sholokhov’s story “The Fate of a Man,” the culminating episodes are those in which the hero learns about the death of his family.

There can be several climactic moments in a literary work. For example, in the novel by I.S. Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons" in the storyline Evgeny Bazarov - Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov, the climax is the duel scene. In the Bazarov-Odintsov storyline, the climax is the scene when the hero confesses his love to Anna Sergeevna and rushes to her in a fit of passion. In the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time” and in the poem by A.T. Tvardovsky's "Vasily Terkin" each chapter has its own culmination.

LEGEND(from Latin legenda - something that should be read or recommended to be read) is a term used in several meanings. In a broad sense - an unreliable narrative about the facts of reality, containing elements of heroism and fantasy, in a narrower sense - the prosaic genre of folklore; a narrative about miraculous persons and events, which is, however, perceived as reliable.

Sometimes writers and poets include folklore or fictional legends in their works. Thus, the legend about Ataman Kudeyar is included in the poem by N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, and the legend of the Grand Inquisitor - in the novel “The Brothers Karamazov” by F.M. Dostoevsky. The legends about Larra and Danko are included in M. Gorky’s story “The Old Woman Izergil”.

LYRICS(from the Greek lyrikos - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre) - one of the three types of fiction (along with epic and drama). This is a type of poetic creativity that expresses feelings and experiences about an event or fact, while epic tells, consolidates external reality, events and facts in words, and drama does the same, but not on behalf of the author, but through direct conversation, dialogue between themselves actors. The lyrics reflect individual states of character at certain moments in life, the author’s own “I”; the speech form of lyrics is an internal monologue, mainly poetic.

LYRICAL HERO- the hero of a lyrical work, whose experiences, thoughts and feelings it reflects. The image of the lyrical hero is not identical to the image of the author, although it covers the entire range of lyrical works created by the poet; Based on the image of the lyrical hero, a holistic idea of ​​the poet’s work is created. However, in most of their works A.S. Pushkin, N.A. Nekrasov, F.I. Tyutchev, A.A. Feg is a lyricist without a lyrical hero. The author's image in their lyrical works seems to be merged with a real personality - the personality of the poet himself. For example, in the poem “Again I Visited...” Pushkin, and not the lyrical hero, expresses thoughts about the future, about “a young, unfamiliar tribe.” Y. Tynyanov identified three poets in whom the author’s “I” is embodied in the image of a lyrical hero - M.Yu. Lermontova, A.A. Blok, V.V. Mayakovsky.

We should talk about a lyrical hero when, in a poem written in the first person, the lyrical subject, to one degree or another, differs from the poet, the author of the poem. The poet, as it were, gets used to someone else’s role, puts on a “lyrical mask.” For example, “The Prisoner” by A.S. Pushkin, “Prophet” M.Yu. Lermontova and others.

LYRICAL DISTRACT (AUTHOR'S DISCLOSURE)- form of author's speech; the word of the author-narrator, distracted from the plot description of events for the purpose of commenting and evaluating them or for other reasons not directly related to the action of the work. Lyrical digressions are characteristic of lyric-epic works; digressions in epic works are called author's digressions. For example, there are lyrical digressions in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, copyright - in “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Vasily Tyorkin” by A.T. Tvardovsky.

LYROEPIC GENRE- a type of literary work that combines the features of epic and lyricism: a plot narration of events is combined with emotional lyrical digressions. Most often, the work takes on a poetic form (“Svetlana” by V.A. Zhukovsky, “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “ Cloud in Pants" by V.V. Mayakovsky, "Requiem" by A.A. Akhmatova, etc.). The following genres of lyric epic are distinguished: epic, ballad, poem.

LITERARY DIRECTION- a concept that characterizes the unity of the most significant creative features of literary artists in a certain historical period. This unity usually arises and develops on the basis of a common artistic position, worldview, aesthetic views, and ways of displaying life. Literary movements include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, and realism.

"EXTRA MAN"- a conventional name for a number of heterogeneous heroes, endowed with a consciousness of their own uselessness, suffering from the lack of a clear goal in life, aware of their “social uselessness.”

The “superfluous man” in Russian literature of the 19th century is presented as a nationally unique phenomenon of great social significance. The creators of this type gave it a multifaceted characterization, revealed its contradictory essence, pointed out its positive and negative meaning, and defined ideological meaning and the aesthetic significance of this “iconic” literary phenomenon.

It is traditionally believed that “superfluous people” in Russian literature are represented by two groups of characters: the first includes heroes of the 20-30s. XIX century - Onegin (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin), Pechorin (“Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov) and some others, to the second - heroes of the 40-50s. XIX century - Beltov (“Who is to blame?” by A.I. Herzen), Agarin (“Sasha” by N.A. Nekrasov), Rudin (“Rudin” by I.S. Turgenev) and some others.

A.S. Pushkin and M.Yu. Lermontov synthesized in their characters the features of the “superfluous man” of all previous Russian literature (the first contours of heroes of this type were outlined in “A Knight for an Hour” by N.M. Karamzin, “The Russian Werther” by M.V. Sushkov, “Theon and Aeschines” by V. .A. Zhukovsky, “The Eccentric” by K.F. Ryleev, “The Strange Man” by V.F. Odoevsky, “The Wanderer and the Homebody” by K.N. Batyushkov, etc.) and outlined the main vectors. further development this type.

In the 20-30s. XIX century The meaning and content of the image of the “superfluous person” consists in a forced, historically conditioned refusal of activity. The “superfluous people” of this period, possessing extraordinary intelligence and energy, cannot act due to objective reasons, so their strength is wasted on satisfying individualistic desires. The trouble of Onegin and Pechorin is not inability, but in the impossibility of fulfilling their “high destiny.” However, their positive meaning is not in real activity, but in the level and quality of their consciousness and self-awareness in comparison with the environment. Rejection of existing living conditions, protest in the form of non-participation in any form of activity determine the special position of the “superfluous person” in Russian society in the era of noble revolutionism and the reaction that followed it.

In the 40-50s. XIX century With changes in socio-historical living conditions, the type of “superfluous person” also changes. After a seven-year reaction, broader opportunities for activity appear, and the goals and objectives of the struggle become clearer. Opens a gallery of “extra people” from the 40s and 50s. Beltov. This is a hero with a “painful need for action,” noble, gifted, but capable only of “multilateral inaction” and “active laziness.” Then the “superfluous person” becomes an “ideologist” - he promotes advanced ideas and influences the minds of people. The honorable role of “sower” is given to Agarin - his noble ideas fall on fertile soil, and young Sasha will no longer stop only at “proclaiming” her views, but will go further. Rudin’s special place among the “superfluous people” of that time is determined by the fact that his aspirations were aimed not at personal, but at the common good. Having risen to the denial of evil and injustice, he, with the power of his sincere words, influences the hearts of those who are young, full of strength and ready to join the fight. His word is his historical deed.

60s The 19th century brought fundamental changes to the hierarchy of literary heroes. The origin and appearance on the historical arena of a new social force - the revolutionary-democratic intelligentsia - clarifies the aspects and directions of the individual’s activities. A necessary condition for “usefulness” is the inclusion of the individual in real social practice. This requirement was reflected in a number of programmatic publications of the “sixties” (N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, etc.). Noting the numerous weaknesses and shortcomings of the “superfluous man” of Russian literature of the 19th century, the revolutionary democrats of the 60s. paid tribute to everything positive that these heroes carried within themselves.

Other modifications of this type (Oblomov I.A. Goncharova, “paradoxolist” F.M. Dostoevsky, Likharev and Laevsky A.P. Chekhov) cannot be considered “classical” due to the incommensurability of social significance and the nature of their influence on public consciousness.

"SMALL MAN"- a conventional name for a number of heterogeneous heroes occupying the lower niche in the system of social hierarchy and united by common psychological and behavioral traits (wounded pride combined with awareness of one’s own humiliation, understanding of the injustice of the social structure, an acute sense of personal insecurity). The main plot of works about “little people” is usually the story of the hero’s resentment or insult by the powers that be; the main opposition is the opposition “little man” - “significant person”.

The first sketch of the image of the “little man” appeared in Russian literature in the 13th century. Daniil Zatochnik (“Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik”), protesting against the tendency to evaluate a person by his wealth and class, complains that he lives in poverty and sadness, suffers under the “work yoke” of a master who constantly humiliates him. In the hero’s prayer addressed to the prince, one can hear the voice of a man who has experienced all the vicissitudes of fate and passionately thirsts for justice.

The gallery of classic “little people” is opened by Samson Vyrin (“ Stationmaster» A.S. Pushkin). “A real martyr of the fourteenth class,” insulted and humiliated, he dies due to the inability to defend his paternal rights, his human dignity.

In the 30-50s. In the 19th century, the theme of the “little man” was developed mainly in line with the story of a poor official. The humble and unrequited Akaki Akakievich (“The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol) is “a creature not protected by anyone, not dear to anyone, not interesting to anyone.” He not only suffers from a despotic, indifferent and disrespectful attitude towards himself, but also tries to protest. The theft of a new overcoat, a wall of indifference on the part of those who, on duty, were supposed to help the hero, cause a kind of rebellion - in a state of unconsciousness, Bashmachkin addresses “ significant person“The most terrible words,” and after death triumphs over the offender.

Writers of the natural school developed two directions in the depiction of the “little man” - accusatory-satirical and compassionate-sympathetic. They saw the psychological duality of this type and characterized a phenomenon that was later called the “ideological underground.” In the works of the natural school, close attention is paid to the motives of honor, pride, and “ambition” of the “little man.” These tendencies culminate in F.M.'s Poor People. Dostoevsky. Makar Devushkin is able to rise to the understanding that “in heart and thoughts he is a man.” He protests against identifying himself with Gogol’s character; his awareness of the injustice of the social order gives rise to a painful and contradictory combination of humility and rebellion in his soul.

In the 60s XIX century, the “little man” begins to lose its generic characteristics and gradually exhausts its original content. Democratic writers waged an active struggle for the right of an individual to independently control his own destiny, and the “little man” in their works manifests himself as an individual, ready to fight for his happiness and actively resist circumstances.

By the 80s. the destructuring of the image of the “little man” was continued in the works of A.P. Chekhov (“Death of an Official”, “Thick and Thin”, “On a Nail”, etc.). His heroes are no longer “little”, but “ small people”and do not evoke sympathy in the reader.

In a broad sense, “little man” continued to exist in the literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. But the heroes of A. Kuprin, L. Andreev, I. Shmelev, A. Serafimovich, S. Skitalets are capable of a conscious protest against the humiliation of their human dignity, are ready to make an independent moral choice, to refuse the fate of the “little man” prepared for them. Therefore, due to the exhaustion of species characteristics, the term “little man” cannot be used in relation to these characters.

MEDITATIVE LYRICS(from Latin meditatio - in-depth and purposeful reflection) - a special genre-thematic variety of poetry, representing in-depth reflection, individualized contemplation, aimed at comprehending the hidden laws of existence. Meditative lyrics are related to philosophical ones, but do not merge with them. For example: “Am I wandering along noisy streets...” (A. S. Pushkin), “I go out alone onto the road...” (M.Yu. Lermontov), ​​“On a haystack at night in the south...” (A. .A. Fet). Examples of meditative lyrics are found in A.A. Bloka, I.F. Annensky, N.A. Zabolotsky.

METAPHOR(Greek metaphora - transfer) - a type of trope based on the transfer of a name by similarity or analogy. Similar features can be color, shape, nature of movement, any individual properties of an object: “the unburning fire of unthinkable love” (V.V. Mayakovsky), “the fire of dawn” (A.A. Blok).

In language and in artistic speech, there are two main models according to which metaphors are formed. The first is based on animation, or personification (the clock is ticking, the year has flown by, feelings are fading), the second is based on reification (iron will, deep sadness, tongues of flame, the finger of fate). Poem by F.I. Tyutchev’s “There is in the primordial autumn...” is built on an alternation of metaphors:

Where the cheerful sickle walked and the ear fell,

Now everything is empty - space is everywhere, -

Only a web of thin hair
Glistens on the idle furrow...

Metaphors can become the basis for creating symbolic images. For example, in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's “Sail” metaphors are the basis of the symbolic image of the sail:

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What did he throw in his native land?..

Alas! he is not looking for happiness
And he’s not running out of happiness!

And he, the rebellious one, asks for a storm,

As if there is peace in the storms!

If a metaphor is revealed over a large segment of text or an entire work, then it is called expanded. Mayakovsky’s poem “A Cloud in Pants” deploys the well-known metaphor “nerves were diverging”:

like a sick person out of bed,
the nerve jumped.

And so, -
first walked
barely,
then he ran in
excited,
clear.

Now he and the new two
rushing about with desperate tap dancing.

When a metaphorical expression is taken in its literal sense, a new understanding of it arises. This phenomenon is called the realization of a metaphor. This technique is used to build the ending of V.V. Mayakovsky’s poem “The Sedentaries,” in which the everyday metaphor “he is torn to pieces” is realized.

METONYMY(Greek metonymia - renaming) - a type of trope, which is based on the transfer of a name by contiguity.

Unlike metaphor, which is formed as a result of similarity, metonymy is based on a real connection, on real relationships between objects. These relations, which make two objects of thought logically adjacent to each other, can be of different categories. In the novel “Eugene Onegin” A. S. Pushkin used metonymic allegory: “I read Apuleius willingly, / But I did not read Cicero” (the author and his work), “The language of Petrarch and love” (signs of the subject and the subject itself), “Parterre and armchairs - everything is in full swing” (object and person), “Everything for a plentiful whim / Scrupulous London sells” (object and space).

MONOLOGUE (from the Greek monos - one and logos - word, speech) is a type of artistic speech. In a literary work, a monologue is the speech of a character addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike dialogue, does not depend on their remarks. In plays and epic works, monologues are a form of speech by characters. In the comedy by A. S. Griboedov “Woe from Wit” the main characters - Chatsky and Famusov - pronounce monologues reflecting their worldview (“And who are the judges?..”, “There is an insignificant meeting in that room...”, “That’s it... then, you are all proud!..”, etc.). Most lyric poems are a lyrical monologue.

MOTIVE(from the Greek moveo - I move, set in motion) - the simplest unit of plot development. Any plot is an interweaving of closely related motifs. A motif is a recurring set of feelings and ideas of the author. Traditional in literature are the motifs of the road, death, exile, escape, etc. For example, the main motive of M. Yu. Lermontov’s lyrics is the motive of loneliness (“Sail”, “Clouds”, “Both boring and sad...”, “I go out alone on the road...”, etc.).

NATURAL SCHOOL- the conventional name of one of the stages in the development of critical realism in Russian literature (40s of the 19th century). It is characterized by a focus on the “natural,” i.e., a strictly truthful, unartificial depiction of reality. The natural school united many talented writers of that time - N.V. Gogol, I.A. Goncharova, F.M. Dostoevsky, N.A. Nekrasova and others - and played an important role in the formation and development of Russian literature.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY- philosophy of nature, speculative interpretation of nature, considered in its integrity. For example: the poetry of F. I. Tyutchev is characterized by a special philosophy of nature, or natural philosophy, since the poet makes the entire universe the subject of artistic depiction, relates every moment of existence to eternity, invades the boundaries of philosophy and the forbidden spheres of higher knowledge.

NEOLOGISMS(Greek neos - new and logos - word) - words, phrases or expressions created to designate a new object or phenomenon, as well as new meanings of old words. It is necessary to distinguish between linguistic (general) and individual author's neologisms, i.e. those that entered into linguistic use as a result of socio-political, scientific, cultural changes, and those created by authors in order to enhance the impact of the literary word on the reader. The poems of V.V. are rich in individual author’s neologisms. Mayakovsky: “third class black from being black”, “his obscenity” (capital), “hundred-thousand-saber cavalry”, “drygonestvo” (about a ballerina), etc.

NOVELLA(Italian novella - story) - epic genre, a type of story. It features a sharp, exciting plot and an unexpected ending. Sometimes a short story is called a chapter from a novel, since it is characterized by an extraordinary semantic capacity, a desire to reveal the fate of the hero in a laconic form. These are “Ionych” by A.P. Chekhov, “Mr. from San Francisco”, “Clean Monday” by I.A. Bunin, “The Fate of Man” by M.A. Sholokhov.

"NEW PEOPLE"- the conventional name of the heroes who became the embodiment of a new type of public figure that appeared in Russia in the 60s. XIX century among the various intelligentsia. This term was introduced into literary use by N.G. Chernyshevsky. Dmitry Lopukhov, Alexander Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna, Katya Polozova, the Mertsalovs and many other heroes of the novel “What is to be done?” are in no way similar to their literary predecessors - “superfluous” and “small” people.

Geroev N.G. Chernyshevsky, who received a labor education, is distinguished by a thirst for knowledge; they are most interested in natural sciences. Materialists and socialists, they have a program for the reconstruction of society on new, reasonable principles, they have mastered the economic theory of organizing collective labor (social-labor and household communes without exploitation on the basis of equality).

New moral and ethical standards determine their relationships with other characters in the novel. The actions of the “new man” are based on correctly understood expediency; their actions are regulated by the theory of “reasonable egoism” or, as it is also called, the theory of utility and benefit. People of moral perfection, heroes of N.G. Chernyshevsky embody that life “norm” to which every “ordinary” person should strive.

Since “new people” are the embodiment of “reasonable” ideas about life, the concept of personality presented in the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky, was called “rationalistic”.

By showing the reader a new “hero of the times,” the author partly answered the question posed in the title of the work: in order to live with dignity in the present and bring a happy future closer, one must be a “new man.”

It is believed that the heroes of other works of the 60s are modifications of the “new man”. (“Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve” by I.S. Turgenev, “Difficult Time” by V.A. Sleptsov, etc.). Like the classic “new people,” the characters in these novels are characterized by a heightened sense of self-esteem, a desire to deny the existing order, high intelligence, and political and social certainty of ideals. The main content of the life of the “new man” of the 60s. becomes work for the good of the future, animated by willpower. However, Turgenev’s Bazarov no longer has a clear program for creating the future (“First we need to clear the place...”), and the Bulgarian Insarov is fighting against external enemies for the freedom of his own homeland. Therefore, the question of who will fight the “internal Turks” remains open in these works.

The further literary fate of the “new man” is difficult to trace: his generic characteristics are blurred so much that the heroes of parodies of N.G.’s novel also become “new”. Chernyshevsky, and the heroes of the famous “anti-nihilistic” novels, and the heroes of the literature of socialist realism. Therefore, it is traditionally believed that the “classical” representatives of this literary type are commoners of the 60s, ideologists and practitioners seeking to radically change the life structure of Russian society.

OH YEAH(from the Greek ode - song) - a lyrical work dedicated to the depiction of major historical events or persons, touching on significant themes of religious and philosophical content, saturated with a solemn tone and pathetic inspiration of the author. The ode used lofty, bookish vocabulary, archaisms, and allegories. This genre of poetry reached its true flowering in the 18th century. - in the era of classicism - in the works of M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin (“Monument”). In the XIX - XX centuries. The ode genre has undergone significant changes in both content and style. The ode was also addressed by A.S. Pushkin (“Liberty”), V.V. Mayakovsky (“Ode to the Revolution”), O.E. Mandelstam (“Twilight of Freedom”), etc.

OXYMORON(Greek oxymoron - witty stupidity) - a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate combination of definitions and concepts that are incompatible in meaning. This is a verbal antithesis, as a result of which unexpected images arise. “Eloquent silence”, “getting away with it” are oxymorons of everyday speech. Lyrically, oxymorons reflect complexity emotional world the lyrical hero or the inconsistency of the phenomena of reality. For example, “I love nature’s magnificent withering...” (A.S. Pushkin), “the wretched luxury of an outfit” (N.A. Nekrasov), “it’s fun for her to be sad, so elegantly naked” (A.A. Akhmatova). The title of a literary work is often based on an oxymoron - “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu.V. Bondarev, etc.

PERSONALIZATION- a type of trope that denotes the image of an inanimate or abstract object as animate (capable of thinking, feeling, speaking). For example, a vivid personification image was created by A.S. Pushkin in the poem “To the Sea”. In the poet's depiction, the sea is a living creature capable of sadness, anger, and willfulness. Therefore, it is so natural to compare the sea with Byron - the singer of the sea and the man created by its “spirit”. An internal spiritual kinship connects the poet himself with the sea: the sea is a “friend” who is sad with him, its “reviews”, “dull sounds” and “abyss voices” are understandable to the poet.

FEATURE ARTICLE- a “small” epic genre, based not on the depiction of a conflict, like the short story genre, but on a descriptive depiction of some socially or morally significant phenomenon or event. There are travel, documentary, portrait, “physiological”, and psychological essays.

SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM(from the Greek parallesmos - walking side by side) - a similar syntactic structure of two (or more) sentences or other text fragments. Parallelism is used in works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and those close to them in their artistic features literary works (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N.A. Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A.T. Tvardovsky). Parallelism as a compositional technique is widespread in lyrics:

And, devoted to new passions,

I couldn't stop loving him:

So an abandoned temple is still a temple,

A defeated idol is still God!

(M. Lermontov)

When horses die, they breathe,

When the grasses die, they dry up,

When the suns die, they go out,

When people die, they sing songs.

(V. Khlebnikov)

PARONYMY(Greek raga - near, with, outside and onyma - name) - a technique of artistic speech that consists in establishing connections between words that are similar in sound, sharpening poetic associations. Paronyms create expressive consonances that emphasize the uniqueness of semantic relationships between words. For example: “Siberians! Rumor doesn’t lie, -/ Even though the people are from the forest, from the pine trees, / Even though they are a national team, they are selective...” (A.T. Tvardovsky).

PATHOS(from the Greek pathos - passion, feeling) - the ideological and emotional mood of a work of art or all creativity; passion that permeates the work and gives it a unified stylistic coloring. There are heroic, civil, lyrical, tragic and other types of pathos.

For example, in the poem by A.A. The Russia bloc interprets the fate of the country as tragic. The corresponding pathos permeates the lines:

Russia, poor Russia,

I want your gray huts,

Your songs are windy to me -

Like the first tears of love!

SCENERY(French paysage, from pays - country, locality) - an image of pictures of nature that performs various functions in a work of art depending on the style and artistic position of the writer. There are the following types of landscape: lyrical, romantic, symbolic, psychological. Depending on the type of literature, a landscape can carry different meanings. Thus, in lyric poetry, pictures of nature reflect the moods and experiences of the lyrical hero. For example, the feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Clouds” are set off by “heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers,” and the joyful mood of the lyrical hero in the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “Winter Morning” is associated with the following landscape:

Under blue skies
Magnificent carpets.

Glistening in the sun, the snow lies;

The transparent forest alone turns black,

And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river glitters under the ice.

In epic works, nature is often an independent object Images. Nature influences not only the actions of people, but also their psychological state. For example, the landscape placed in the chapter “Oblomov’s Dream” (I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”) shows the state of peace, calm and harmony of the protagonist, immersed in the feelings of his childhood.

PERIPHRASE (PERIPHRASE)(from the Greek pariphrasis - retelling) - a trope that denotes the replacement of the direct name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their essential features. For example: “king of beasts” instead of lion; "pea coat" instead of detective; "Foggy Albion" instead of England. Instead of saying that Onegin settled in his uncle’s room, A.S. Pushkin writes in his novel “Eugene Onegin”:

He settled in that peace,

Where is the village old-timer?
For about forty years he was quarreling with the housekeeper,

I looked out the window and squashed flies.

CHARACTER(French personnage, from Latin persona - personality, face) - a character in a work of art or stage performance. In any work, characters are divided into central (main), secondary and episodic.

Animals (fables, fairy tales), inanimate objects and fantastic creatures can also act as characters - if they reveal human character traits.

The central characters are depicted in more detail, they are the main participants in the events, and often the idea of ​​the work is connected with them. The portrayal of minor characters is more concise, their characteristics are less detailed, and their role in the plot of the work is limited to participation in a small number of events. Episodic characters often serve to create the background, the setting of the action. They can be outlined with just a few strokes. So, in the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita" the central characters are Pontius Pilate, Yeshua Ha-Nozri, the Master, Margarita, Woland. Minor characters - Kaifa, Varenukha, Rimsky, Styopa Likhodeev, episodic characters - Annushka, accountant Sokov, Baron Meigel, etc.

In dramatic works, non-stage characters are also distinguished - those people who are not on stage and who therefore are not characters in the literal sense. However, they are mentioned in conversations or remarks, they are spoken about with approval or condemnation. For example, off-stage characters in the play by A.S. Griboedov's "Woe from Wit" are the nephew of Princess Tugoukhovskaya, Skalozub's brother, Maxim Petrovich, Princess Marya Aleksevna, etc.

SONG- a small lyrical work intended for singing; usually couplet (strophic). It is necessary to distinguish between folk song and song as a genre of written poetry. In oral folk art, the following types of song genres have developed: lyrical, historical, comic, love, dance, ritual and calendar (submarine, Maslenitsa, vesnyanka, harvest, etc.), etc. Folklore songs themselves may also be included in a literary work (“Song of the Girls” in the third chapter of “Eugene Onegin”) or, more often, stylizations of folk songs (songs in N.A. Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'”). Ancient Cossack songs are organically included in the structure of M.A.’s novel. Sholokhov “Quiet Don”, symbolizing the common destinies of the Cossacks of all times. .

STORY- “medium” in terms of volume and coverage of life material, the genre of the epic (along with the “large” genre of the novel and the “small” genre of the story). The leading genre feature of the story is moral descriptiveness, that is, the writers’ primary attention to depicting the life and customs of a certain social environment. For example, “The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn.

REPEAT- repetition of compositional elements, words, phrases and other text fragments in a work of art. There are sound repetitions (assonance and alliteration, rhyme), anaphora, epiphora, refrain, chorus, etc. Repetition can emphasize key value one word or another to characterize a person’s state or his attitude towards something, emotionally highlighting or strengthening it. For example, in the poem “Railway” by N.A. Nekrasov, using the anaphorically repeated verb “carried out,” emphasizes the strength and patience of the Russian people:
The Russian people have endured enough

He also took out this railway -

He will endure whatever God sends...

SUBTEXT- a hidden meaning, different from the direct meaning of the statement, which is restored based on the context. In the theater, subtext can be revealed through silence, intonation, irony, gesture, and facial expressions. Subtext is more typical for realistic works based on psychologism.

Subtext is of great importance in the works of F. M. Dostoevsky and M. Gorky. The system of subtextual meanings in the dramaturgy of A.P. Chekhov is especially developed.

PORTRAIT(from the French portrait - image, portrait) - an image of the hero’s appearance (facial features, figures, postures, facial expressions, gestures, clothes) as one of the means of characterizing him; type of description. A portrait gives the writer ample opportunities to characterize not only the appearance, but also the inner world of a person, since a person’s appearance always reveals, to a greater or lesser extent, his views on life, character, and psychological characteristics.

Story literary portrait goes back to ancient times and reflects the artist’s process of understanding the world, the search for ways to create an individual human character.

In the early stages of the development of literature, the personal element in the portrait was unexpressed. Folklore heroes were endowed with a conditionally symbolic appearance: “red” maidens, “kind” fellows, “mighty” heroes, etc.

In the literature of Ancient Rus', a generalized abstract portrait performed an evaluative function, indicating, as a rule, the social status of the hero.

Classicists created two stereotypes: an “idealizing” portrait of a noble hero and a portrait of a hero of low birth.

The portrait of sentimentalists is already psychological; it is intended to help see in the hero, first of all, a “sensitive” soul.

For the romantics, the portrait is exotically colorful, conveying the contrasting qualities of a bright, independent, chosen personality: “... his wide forehead was yellow like the forehead of a scientist, gloomy like a cloud covering the sun on the day of a storm, his lips were thin, pale, stretched and compressed somehow - with a convulsive movement, and a whole future shone in the eyes...” (M.Yu. Lermontov. “Vadim”).

In realistic literature, a portrait is characterological: the hero’s appearance reflects his character traits, individual social, family, age and other traits.

The portrait gives an idea of ​​the writer’s aesthetic ideal and allows us to identify the author’s understanding of the category of beauty.

A portrait can be a one-time description or consist of several descriptions with varying degrees of distance from each other. Concentrated portraits are typical for episodic characters, while dispersed ones are typical for the main ones.

The structure of a portrait can be simple or complex. Portraits of a simple structure include detailed portraits, consisting of a description of one portrait feature, and sketch portraits, consisting of a description of several details. In portraits of a complex structure, portrait components are presented in a complex, for example: “It was a young woman of about twenty-three, all white and soft, with dark hair and eyes, with red, childishly plump lips and delicate hands. She was wearing a neat cotton dress; the new blue scarf lay lightly on her rounded shoulders” (I.S. Turgenev. “Fathers and Sons”).

More complex look- comparison portrait. The author resorts to this type portrait characteristics in cases where it needs to evoke certain associations in the reader. In the story by N.S. Leskov’s “The Enchanted Wanderer,” the narrator introduces the main character, Ivan Severyanovich Flyagin: “... he was in the full sense of the word a hero, and at the same time a typical simple-minded, kind Russian hero, reminiscent of grandfather Ilya Muromets in the wonderful painting by Vereshchagin and in the poem by Count A. TO. Tolstoy."

An even more complex form is the impression portrait. With an almost complete absence of portrait details, it leaves a vivid impression on the reader and encourages them to speculate on the image created by the author of the text. This is the portrait created by A.A. Fetom:

You're all on fire. Your lightning
And I am decorated with sparkles;

Under the shadow of gentle eyelashes
Fire from heaven is not scary to me.

But I'm afraid of such heights

What has your soul given to me?

When the reader first meets the hero, an expositional portrait is usually given. F.M. Dostoevsky, clearly wanting to win the reader over to his hero, introduces Rodion Raskolnikov: “By the way, he was remarkably good-looking, with beautiful dark eyes, dark blond, above average height, thin and slender.”

In a leitmotif portrait, some individualized detail is assigned to a character, which is repeated throughout the entire narrative. For example, the leitmotiv detail in Matryona’s portrait sketches (“Matryonin’s Dvor” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn) becomes a “radiant”, “kind” smile. The portrait of the “enlightened” Magryona becomes a means of revealing the heroine’s inner world, in which calm, peace and goodness reign.

A psychological portrait expresses one or another state of a character. There was something about Marmeladov (F.M. Dostoevsky. “Crime and Punishment”) “... very strange; his gaze seemed to even glow with enthusiasm - perhaps there was both meaning and intelligence - but at the same time there seemed to be a flicker of madness.”

Two types of psychological portrait have emerged:

1) a portrait that emphasizes the correspondence between the hero’s appearance and his inner world; 2) a portrait that contrasts with the hero’s inner world. For example, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time,” a discrepancy between Pechorin’s appearance (feigned indifference, coldness, calmness) and his true spiritual qualities and the passion of his nature is revealed. Often the portrait contains the author’s assessment of the character (for example, the portrait of Olga in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin or Helen in “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy).

MESSAGE- a work written in the form of a letter or address to any person(s). For example, messages from A.S. Pushkin “To a Poet Friend”, “To Chaadaev”, “I.I. Pushchina"; messages from S.A. Yesenin “Letter to Mother”, “Letter to a Woman”, “Letter to Grandfather”, “Letter to Sister”, etc.

POEM(from Greek poiem - to create, poiema - creation) - a lyric-epic work with a narrative or lyrical plot. The originality of the poem is based on the combination of narrative characteristics of characters, events, etc. and their disclosure through the perception and assessment of the lyrical hero, the narrator, who plays an active role in the poem.

Depending on the artistic position of the author and artistic techniques heroic, romantic, lyrical-psychological, philosophical, historical and other poems stand out (“The Bronze Horseman” by A.S. Pushkin, “Mtsyri” and “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” N.A. Nekrasova, “The Twelve” by A.A. Blok, “Requiem” by A.A.

POETICS(from the Greek poietike - poetic art) - a section of literary theory that studies the structure of literary works and the system of visual and expressive means used in them. The term "poetics" also refers to a system artistic means, characteristic of the writer, certain genres, literary trends of the era.

RECEPTION- constructive principle of organizing a literary work: plot-compositional, genre, stylistic.

For example, techniques in the field of composition: the introduction of extra-plot elements, changing points of view; stylistic devices: metaphors, inversions, repetitions, etc.

PARABLE- moral teaching in allegorical form. By its nature, a parable is close to a fable, but the meaning of a parable is always deeper, more philosophical. The legends about Larra and Danko (“The Old Woman Izergid” by A.M. Gorky) are of a parable nature, in which the author touches on the philosophical problem of the extraordinary personality of man and her place in society.

PROLOGUE(from the Greek prologos - preface) - the introductory part of a work of art, which sets out the events that precede in time the events of the plot. The prologue episodes are not part of the plot action, but are necessary for understanding it. In addition, the prologue can give detailed characteristics of the characters, show their past, and express the author’s position.

For example, the poem by A.S. Pushkin’s “The Bronze Horseman” opens with a prologue in which the poet creates a multifaceted image of St. Petersburg and expresses the author’s attitude towards the “city of Peter.”

SPACE AND TIME- conventional forms of understanding existence. They are the most important characteristics of the picture of the world created by the author, determine the rhythm and tempo of the text, and ensure a holistic perception of it by the reader.

Various shapes the organization of space and time in a work is ensured by the specifics of the artistic direction, the genre features of the text, the method of constructing the plot, etc.

In folklore, space and time are universal: the events depicted occur “everywhere” and at the same time “nowhere,” “always” and at the same time “never.”

Classicism requires adherence to the unity of time, place and action, strict regulation of spatio-temporal relations.

The romantic worldview, which gave rise to the idea of ​​“two worlds,” significantly expanded the possibilities of this category. Since the object of close attention of romantics is not so much external as inner world personality, it is he who becomes the center of space-time coordinates.

In realistic art, the concept of linear time has become a priority, according to which time for everyone moves equally in a straight line from the past through the present to the future.

The “Copernican revolution” was carried out by the authors of the “great” novels of the 19th century. The main characteristics of artistic time are duration or brevity, static or dynamic, discontinuity or continuity, etc. Artistic space is determined by closedness or unlimitedness, proportionality or deformation, integrity or fragmentation, etc.

Depending on the degree of artistic convention, space and time can be abstract or concrete. The action in fairy tales takes place “in a certain kingdom”, “in a certain state”, and in fables - in general “in the world” (“For me, those talents are worthless, / In which the Light is of no use, / Although sometimes the Light marvels at them”) and “always” (“How many times have they told the world/That flattery is vile and harmful; but everything is not for the future,/And the flatterer will always find a corner in the heart”).

Specific space connects the depicted world with toponyms (from the Greek topos - place and entanglement - name, title) of the real world. The specification of space is used to create generalized images of the “world”, “city”, “village”, “estate”, etc. Spatial coordinates placed in the text of the story by I.A. Bunin’s “Clean Monday” (Ordynka, Red Gate, Griboedovsky Lane, Okhotny Ryad, “Prague”, “Hermitage”, Rogozhskoe Cemetery, Novodevichy Convent, Marfo-Mariinskaya Convent, etc.), contribute to the creation of the image of Moscow at the beginning of the 20th century. Expanding the space-time framework of the work, they inscribe the specific space of Moscow into the general space of Russian History.

The degree of specificity of time in different works varies. Depending on the relationship between real and artistic time, eventless, or “zero” time (the author’s descriptions of the interior, landscape, portrait of characters) and eventful time are distinguished. Event time can be chronicle-everyday (the same type of events are repeated many times over time: from year to year, day after day) and event-plot (the passage of time determines the most important changes in the lives of the heroes).

The ideological and artistic function of chronicle-everyday time is the reproduction of stable forms of existence (for example, the noble cultural, everyday and family way of life in the novels by I. A. Goncharov “Oblomov” and I. S. Turgenev “The Noble Nest”). Event-plot time allows us to show the hero’s life as a “self-manifestation” of an individual personality in space (the ideological and moral quests of Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov; the life of Ivan Flyagin, the main character of N. S. Leskov’s story “The Enchanted Wanderer,” traced from childhood to spiritual “growing up”) " etc.).

In the literature of the 20th century, the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world becomes more complex. Along with traditional types of organization of time and space (“Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov), new ones appear: A single state in the dystopia of E.I. Zamyatin “We”, Chevengur in the novel of the same name by A.P. Platonova, Yershalaim in “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov, “absurd”, “internal” space, which became the realities of the text, and not reality in “School of Fools” by S. Sokolov, “Moscow - Petushki” by V.V. Erofeeva.

Other concepts are also used to denote the connection between space and time - chronotope and space-time continuum.

INTERCLOSURE- an element of the plot that presupposes the outcome of events, the resolution of contradictions (conflict) between the characters. Usually the denouement is located at the end of the work, but sometimes, in accordance with the author’s intention, in the middle and even at the beginning (for example, in I.A. Bunin’s story “Easy Breathing”). In the comedy A.S. Griboedov's "Woe from Wit" the denouement is the scene after the ball in Famusov's house, in which Chatsky's conflict with Famusov's society ends (although is not resolved).

Sometimes the denouement indicates the intractability of the main conflict, in this case they talk about the open ending of the work (“Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “The Cherry Orchard” by A.P. Chekhov, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, etc.) .

SIZE POEM- a way of organizing the sound composition of a poetic work. It is determined by the number of syllables (in syllabic versification), the number of stresses in a line (in tonic versification), and the number of stressed syllables (in syllabic-tonic versification). In syllabic-tonic versification, two-syllable (trochee, iambic) and three-syllable (dactyl, anapest, amphibrachium) poetic meters are distinguished.

STORY- a “small” epic genre, characterized by a small volume and concise depiction of life phenomena. As a consequence, there is a small number of characters, the short duration of events, and a simple composition (the center of the work is only one episode from the life of the main character). The stories are such works as “Student”, “Man in a Case”, “Death of an Official” by A.P. Chekhov, “Clean Monday” by I.A. Bunin, “The Fate of Man” by M.A. Sholokhov.

REALISM(from Late Latin realis - material, real) - an artistic method (and literary direction), following which the writer objectively, reliably depicts life in typical characters acting in typical circumstances. The main task of a realist writer is to study the social connections of man and society. In a work of art - a historically specific depiction of characters and circumstances in their interdependence. The most important stages in the development of realism as an artistic method: educational (D.I. Fonvizin, I.A. Krylov), critical (N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov and others), socialist (M. Gorky, M.A. Sholokhov and others).

REALITY- a word denoting an object, concept or phenomenon characteristic of the history, culture, life of a particular people or country. For example: “throne” (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”), “gorenka” (“Who Lives Well in Rus'”), “chief of the head” (“Overcoat”), “camp”, “ration” (“One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” ),

REASONER- an artistic character prone to constant declarations (official or solemn program statements) and recitations. For example, the sounding boards are Pravdin in the play by D.I. Fonvizin “The Minor”, ​​Chatsky in the comedy by A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, Kuligin in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "The Thunderstorm".

REMARK(from French remarque - remark, note) - explanations with which the playwright precedes or accompanies the course of action in the play. The stage directions contain indications of the place and time of action, movements, gestures, facial expressions, and intonations of the characters. For example, in A. P. Chekhov’s play “The Cherry Orchard”:

F and r s (comes to the door, touches the handle). Locked. We left... (Sits on the sofa.) They forgot about me... It’s okay... I’ll sit here... But Leonid Andreich, I suppose, didn’t put on a fur coat, he went in a coat... (Sighs with concern.) It’s me I didn’t look... It’s young and green! (He mumbles something that cannot be understood.) Life has passed, as if he had never lived... (Lies down.) I’ll lie down... You don’t have strength, there’s nothing left, nothing... Oh, you. ..klutz! (Lies motionless.)

Since the end of the 19th century, stage directions in the dramas of A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky and others play an increasingly important role, revealing the author’s assessment of a character or episode.

REMINISCENCES- “references” present in literary texts to previous cultural and historical facts, works or their authors. As a reproduction of a fragment of “alien text” at any level (plot, figurative, quotative, metric, etc.), reminiscences can be included consciously or arise independently of the will of the author, involuntarily.

Reminiscences can be quotes or their retelling; names of works, often used in the meaning of artistic centers; names of characters that have become symbols; events that perform the functions of a visual medium; borrowings in which the plot scheme, arrangement of characters, their features and characters are subtly changed by the author.

For example, in the poem “There is melodiousness in the sea waves...” by F.I. Tyutchev used the image of the “thinking reed”, which belongs to B. Pascal (“Thoughts”). For B. Pascal, this metaphor is a sign of the necessary presence of man in the natural world. For F.I. Tyutchev, this image helps explain the tragedy of existence by the “discord” between man and nature, as a result of which the “thinking reed” can only bitterly complain and protest: “And the thinking reed grumbles...”.

In the works of A.A. Blok used the biblical reminiscence of “carrying your cross.” Introducing it into the figurative system of the poem “Kite” allows the author to highlight the traditional meaning of “submission to fate”: “Grow, submit, bear the cross.” In the poem “Russia,” this image leads to the appearance of other shades (“And I carefully carry my cross”), which contributes to the emergence of a new, symbolic meaning of the text: the suffering prepared for the lyrical hero is not only initially inevitable, but also holy. He is ready to consciously accept them and “carefully” bear them.

Connections of several reminiscences form “reminiscence nests”. So, for example, the second line of the poem by O.E. Mandelstam: “I read the list of ships until the middle...” (“Insomnia. Homer. Tight sails...”) - refers the reader to the second song of the Iliad (“The Dream of Boeotius, or the list of ships”). The list given by Homer contains the names of 1186 ships sailing against Troy. This explains the appearance in the text of O.E. Mandelstam of images associated with the category of time and with movement (the gaze of the lyrical hero, who is in a state of insomnia, glides along the lines of the Iliad, and they seem to him to be floating in the sky like a brood of cranes, a wedge, a train). The images of cranes give rise to a second layer of reminiscences (“foreign land”, “wedding train”). The purpose of the campaign is announced in the third stanza: “If not for Helen, / What is Troy for you alone, Achaean men?” The entire reminiscent nest allows us to clarify the main idea of ​​the text - everything in the world is “moved by love”, and one should obey this universal law, as the proud and courageous Achaeans once obeyed it.

“Polygenetic Reminiscences” refers the reader not to one, but to a number of sources. For example, lines from a poem by M.I. Tsvetaeva “Who is created from stone, who is created from clay...” evokes in the reader associations associated with the content of some myths about the creation of man from earth and clay, apocryphal legends about the creation of Adam, introduce biblical motifs baptism by water.

REPLICA(from the French replique - objection) - a dialogical form of the actor’s statement; the interlocutor's response phrase, followed by the speech of another character.

RHYTHM(from the Greek rhythmos - tact, proportionality) - periodic repetition of any elements of the text at certain intervals. In literary works, rhythm is created by the repetition of phonetic elements: sounds, pauses, stresses, syllables, combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables, as well as words, series of words, syntactic structures.

A RHETORICAL QUESTION(from Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures; a structure of speech in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer; it only enhances the emotionality and expressiveness of the statement.

For example, in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "Death of a Poet":
Killed!., why sobs now,

Empty praise unnecessary chorus
And the pathetic babble of excuses?

Fate has reached its conclusion!

Weren't you the one who persecuted me so viciously at first?
His free, bold gift
And they inflated it for fun
A slightly hidden fire?

RHYME(from the Greek rhythmos - proportionality) - repetition of individual sounds or sound complexes connecting the endings of two or more lines. Individual sounds (“love is blood”) can be repeated in lines, words (“young is a hammer”) are a simple rhyme, and groups of words are a compound rhyme. Rhymes are divided into exact (if all sounds coincide) and inaccurate (if there is a phonetic coincidence or similarity of individual sounds). Depending on the location of stress in rhyming words, rhymes are masculine (with stress on the last syllable: deception - fog), feminine (with stress on the penultimate syllable: glory - fun), dactylic (with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line: boys - fingers ), hyperdactylic (with emphasis on the fourth syllable from the end of the line: opalovaya - pinning).

RHYME- arrangement of rhyming lines in a verse. There are three main types of rhyme: paired (adjacent) - aabb, cross - abab and ring (encircling) - abba.

NOVEL(French romances - narrative) - epic genre, prose work large form, revealing the history of several, sometimes many human destinies over a long period of time. This is one of the freest literary forms, suggesting a huge number of modifications: historical, picaresque, knightly, love, psychological, philosophical, adventure, detective, fantasy, etc. novel. The novel is capable of synthesizing a wide variety of genre trends and even entire genres. For example, a “novel in verse”, a chronicle novel, an autobiographical novel, a novel in letters, an epic novel, etc.

The most significant works in the novel genre were created in the 19th century - “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin, “Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky", "Oblomov" by I.A. Goncharova, etc.

ROMANTICISM(French romantisme) - artistic method and literary movement that developed in late XVIII- early 19th century The Romantics, rejecting the everyday life of their contemporary civilized society as boring and colorless, strove for everything unusual - mysticism, fantasy, mystery. They contrasted base practicality with sublime feelings and passions, a rich spiritual life (art, philosophy, religion), and the pursuit of the ideal. For romantics, a person is a small universe, a microcosm, a bright individuality. The hero of romanticism is a strong, free person who struggles with routine, an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances. Russian romantics turned to oral folk art and used folklore images, plots, means of artistic representation (V.A. Zhukovsky “Svetlana”, M.Yu. Lermontov “Mtsyri”), Features of romanticism are noticeable in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkina, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.M. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet, early stories of M. Gorky, etc.

EPIC NOVEL- a genre of epic that combines the features of a novel and an epic. Such a work with particular completeness covers a particular historical era in a multi-layered plot. The fate of the individual in his individual moral quest (a feature of the novel) is closely connected with the fate of the country and people (a feature of the epic); characters are formed and evolve under the influence of major historical events. Works of this genre include “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, “Walking through torment” by A.N. Tolstoy.

SARCASM(from the Greek sarkasmos - mockery) - angry, caustic, open mockery of the person depicted, the highest degree of irony. This is, for example, the epigram of A. S. Pushkin “On Arakcheev”:
Oppressor of all Russia,

Governors tormentor
And he is the teacher of the Council,

And he is a friend and brother to the king.

Full of anger, full of revenge,

Without a mind, without feelings, without honor,

Who is he? Devoted without flattery

Penny soldier.

SATIRE(from Latin satira - overflowing dish, mishmash) - 1. Type of comic: merciless ridicule of socially harmful phenomena and human vices. Satirical laughter has a lot of shades, and the range of satirical works is unusually wide: from “satire on morals” by N.V. Gogol (“The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls”) and A.N. Ostrovsky (“The Thunderstorm”) to the political satire of M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The History of a City,” fairy tales). Behind satirical laughter there is always a certain position of the writer, an understanding of what the subject being ridiculed should be like if it were devoid of comic contradictions. The author's position is expressed through criticism, denial of the very subject of the image or its individual properties. Satire determines the specificity of many literary genres: fables, epigrams, pamphlets, feuilletons, comedies.

2. The genre of lyric poetry, which arose in antiquity. The main genre feature of satire is ridicule of a wide variety of life phenomena. Genre signs of satire are found in the final 16 lines of the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “The Death of a Poet”, in the poem by V. V. Mayakovsky “The Sedentaries”.

FREE VERSE, or VERS LIBRE(French vers iibre) - a type of verse that is devoid of rhyme and meter and retains only one feature that distinguishes it from prose - a given division into correlated and commensurate lines, which is marked in the text by their graphic arrangement. For example:

She came in from the cold

Flushed,

Filled the room
The aroma of air and perfume,

And completely disrespectful to classes
Chatting.

(A. A. Blok)

SENTIMENTALISM(from the French sentiment - feeling, sensitivity) - an artistic method and literary movement that developed in the second half of the 18th century. Sentimentalism contrasted classicism with an increased interest in the human personality (regardless of class), its feelings and experiences, and inner life. Pictures of nature were of great importance for symbolism, against the background of which the state of the hero’s soul was revealed with particular emotionality. The founder of sentimentalism in Russia was N.M. Karamzin (story “Poor Liza”),

SYMBOL(from the Greek symbolon - conventional sign, sign) - a multi-valued allegorical image based on the similarity, resemblance or commonality of objects and phenomena of life. Using symbols, the artist does not show things, but only hints at them, forces us to guess the meaning of the unclear, to reveal “hieroglyphic words.” Thus, the symbol always has a figurative meaning; this is a trope. Unlike an allegory, a symbolic image does not have a straightforward, rational meaning. He always retains lively, emotional associations with a wide range of phenomena.

There are two main types of symbols. The first type includes symbols that have a basis in cultural tradition - image-symbols of the sea, sail, road, path, sky, blizzard, fire, cross, etc.

The second type includes symbols created without reference to cultural tradition. Such symbols arose within one literary work or a series of works. These are the symbols of the cherry orchard in the play by A.P. Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard", the leopard in the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “Mtsyri”, the madly rushing Rus'-troika in the poem by N.V. Gogol "Dead Souls". A symbol of life and faith, a metaphor for the soul in the novel by B.L. Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago" is a candle.

SYMBOLISM- a literary movement of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, the main principle of which is the artistic expression of ideas and images through symbols. Symbolists avoided naming the object directly, but preferred to hint at its content and meaning with the help of allegory, metaphor, sound writing, etc. Symbolism is usually divided into two movements - the “senior” symbolists, whose work began in the 1890s. (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, etc.), and the “younger”, beginning creative life which fell in the 1900s. (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov, etc.).

SYNECDOCHE(ancient Greek synekdoche - correlation) - one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, based on transfer by quantity: 1) a part is called instead of the whole, for example, in N.V. Gogol’s “Dead Souls” Chichikov addresses a man: “Hey, beard! How can we get from here to Plyushkin?” Here the meanings of “man with a beard” and “beard” are combined; 2) the singular number is called instead of the plural, for example, in M.Yu. Lermontov: “And it was heard until dawn / how the Frenchman rejoiced.”

SYNCRETISM(from the Greek synkretismos - connection, unification) - the inseparability of various types of cultural creativity. In modern science it is considered as a tendency towards the formation of a new unified picture of the world, based on an understanding of the interdependence and interconnectedness of everything that exists.

For example, in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” God shows Igor the path from Polovtsian captivity to the Russian land, but the text of the monument repeatedly mentions other, pagan deities (Dazhdbog, Stribog, Chore, Veles, etc.), which indicates the specificity of the syncretic Christian- pagan worldview of the author of the work.

General principles of constructing artistic images in comedy by D.I. Fonvizin "Nedorosl" due to value orientations and aesthetic settings of satire (comedy) and ode (tragedy).

The blurring of boundaries between individual works and their combination into lyrical cycles determines the poetry of A.A. Akhmatova creating a new independent work. Thus, in the collection “The Rosary,” the cycle is formed around one poem, which is central and contains certain combinations of themes.

SKAZ- 1. The principle of narration, based on imitation of the speech manner of a narrator representing any ethnic, professional, socio-historical, class group (N.S. Leskov “Lefty”, “The Enchanted Wanderer”).

2. Genre of folklore, a narrative about modern events or the recent past; unlike a legend, it usually does not contain fantasy elements.

SONNET(Italian sonetto, from Provence sonnet - song) - a lyric poem consisting of fourteen verses, constructed and arranged in a special order.

In an Italian sonnet, 14 verses are grouped into two quatrains and two tercets. Examples of the most common rhyme schemes are:

1) abba, abba, ccd, ede

2) abba, abba, ede, dee

3) abba, abba, cdd, eed

4) abab, abab, cdc, ede

5) abab, abba, ccd, eed, etc.

Another form of sonnet is also known, English, it was developed by W. Shakespeare: three quatrains and a couplet with paired rhyme.

The sonnet genre presupposes a strict sequence in the disclosure of poetic thought: assertion - doubt - generalization - conclusion.

For example, A.S. Pushkin created three famous sonnets: “The stern Dante did not despise the sonnet...”, “To the Poet” (“Poet! Do not value the people’s love...”), “Madonna.”

COMPARISON(lat. comparatio) - comparison of the depicted object or phenomenon with another object according to a common characteristic. Comparison can be expressed in phrases with comparative conjunctions as if, as if, exactly; instrumental case (“the dust stands like a pillar”); using negative particles (negative comparison):

The red sun does not shine in the sky,

The blue clouds do not admire him:

Then he sits at a meal wearing a golden crown,

The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

(M.Yu. Lermontov. “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov”)

Some types of tropes - metaphor and metonymy - contain a hidden comparison.

STYLE(from Latin stilus and Greek stylos - writing stick, later - handwriting) - the unity of the figurative system, visual and expressive means, creative techniques, permeating the entire artistic structure. They talk about style in art and literature, about the style of a particular work or genre, about the individual style of the author, as well as about the style of entire eras or artistic movements. Features of the literary style are clearly manifested in the language (selection of vocabulary, methods of organizing speech, etc.).

POEM- a separate line of a poem, as well as the general name of a poetic speech that differs in rhythm.

POEM- a small lyrical work written in poetic form either on behalf of the author (“I remember a wonderful moment...” by A.S. Pushkin), or on behalf of the lyrical hero (“I was killed near Rzhev...” by A.T. Tvardovsky ).

FOOT- a group of syllables consisting of one stressed and one or more unstressed ones; a conventional unit by which the poetic size and length of a verse are determined. In Russian classical verse there are five types of feet, combined into two groups:

Disyllabic (trochaic, iambic);

Trisyllabic (dactyl, amphibrachium, anapest).

STANZA(from the Greek strophe - whirling, revolution, turn) - a combination of verses united by a common rhyme, a stable alternation of various poetic meters, and representing a rhythmic-syntactic whole. A stanza can contain from two to 14 poetic lines. Depending on the number of lines, stanzas are divided into couplets (distich), terzas, quatrains (quatrains), sextins, octaves, etc. The “Onegin” stanza was created by A.S. Pushkin specifically for the novel “Eugene Onegin”. Its block diagram looks like this: ababccddeffegg.

PLOT(from French sujet - subject, content) - a set of events depicted in a literary work, that is, the life of characters in changing circumstances. The plot is the organizing principle of most epic and dramatic works. It can also be present in lyrical works (extremely compressed, sparingly detailed): “I remember a wonderful moment...” A.S. Pushkin; “Troika”, “On the Road”, “Railroad” N.A. Nekrasova, etc. The plots recreate life's contradictions: without conflict in the lives of the characters, it is difficult to imagine a sufficiently expressed plot (for example, “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov...” by M.Yu. Lermontov, the novel “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, the drama “The Thunderstorm” A. N. Ostrovsky).

The plot consists of episodes organized in different ways. At the same time, the plot is a holistic, complete event that has a beginning, middle and end, otherwise - exposition, plot, development of action, climax and denouement. IN major work, as a rule, contains several storylines that either intertwine, or merge, or develop in parallel (for example, in “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M. .A. Sholokhov, “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov).

TAUTOLOGY(Greek tauto - the same and logos - word) - repetition of words that are identical or similar in meaning and sound composition. Used as a means of enhancing emotional impact. For example: “I killed him of my own free will” (M.Yu. Lermontov), ​​“Oh, the box is full” (N.A. Nekrasov).

SUBJECT(from the Greek theme - main idea) - the subject of artistic depiction, a range of issues, events, phenomena, objects of reality, reflected in the work and held together by the author's intention. For example, the subject of the image in the lyrics of M.Yu. Lermontov became the feeling of loneliness of the lyrical hero (“Clouds”, “Sail”, “Both boring and sad...”, etc.). Important in the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin has a theme of freedom (“Prisoner”, “To Chaadaev”, “To the Sea”, etc.).

Unlike lyrical works, epic and dramatic works are rarely devoted to one topic; most often they are polythematic, that is, they touch on several topics that concern the author. For example, in the story “The Captain's Daughter” by A.S. Pushkin addresses the theme of noble duty and honor, love and friendship, the role of the individual in history, etc. In such cases, it is customary to talk about the theme of the work.

TOPIC- a system of interrelated themes of a work of art.

TERCET(from Latin tres - three) - a stanza consisting of three verses per rhyme. For example, a poem by A.A. Block "Wings":

I will spread my light wings,

I will push apart the walls of air,

I will leave the distant countries.

Wind, sparkling threads,

Starry ice floes, float,

Long blizzards, sigh!

There are slight worries in the heart,

There are star roads in the sky,

Silver-snow palaces...

TERZA RIMA(from Italian terzina) - a stanza of three verses rhyming in such a way that a series of terzinas forms a continuous chain of triple rhymes: aba, bvb, vgv, etc. and closes with a separate line, rhymed with the middle verse of the last terza. For example, in “Song of Hell” by A. A. Blok:

The day has burned out on the sphere of that earth,

Where I looked for ways and shorter days.

There a purple twilight fell.

I'm not there. The path of the underground night
I slide down the ledge of slippery rocks.

The familiar Hell looks into empty eyes.

I was thrown into a bright ball on earth,

In the wild dance of masks and guises
I forgot love and lost friendship...

TYPE(from the Greek typos - image, imprint, sample) - an artistic image endowed with generalized properties of certain social phenomena. A literary type is a prominent representative of a group of people (estate, class, nation, era). For example, Maxim Maksimych (M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”), Captain Tushin (L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”), Vasily Terkin (A.T. Tvardovsky “Vasily Terkin”) - a type of Russian soldier; Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin (N.V. Gogol “The Overcoat”) - the type of “little man”; Evgeny Onegin (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) - the type of “superfluous man”, etc.

TOPOS(from the Greek topos - place) - artistic images of open natural spaces, as well as “places” for the unfolding of artistic meanings. For example, the Russian land in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is part of the forest-steppe space in the south of Rus' from Kyiv to Kursk, and later - the entire set of East Slavic lands, the territory of the Old Russian people. For the author of the monument, this is a national, historical, geographical and mythological space. Calling on his contemporaries to stand up for the insult of this time, for the Russian land, the creator of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” persistently emphasizes the main idea of ​​​​the work: the unity of the Russian land, based on the cessation of princely strife and the joint struggle with the steppe inhabitants.

TRAGEDY(from the Greek tragos - goat and ode - song) - one of the types of drama, which is based on a particularly intense, insoluble conflict, most often ending in the death of the hero. The content of the tragedy is determined, as a rule, by a conflict that is exceptional in its significance, reflecting the leading trends in socio-historical development and the spiritual state of humanity. Hence the enlarged, elevated character of the depiction of the hero, called upon to solve issues of world-historical significance. Tragedies are, for example, “Hamlet” by W. Shakespeare, “Boris Godunov” by A.S. Pushkin.

TRAILS(Greek tropos - turnover) - figures of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative meaning in order to achieve greater artistic expression. The transfer of meanings of words is based on their polysemy. There is no trope in the expression “sad mood”, since the words are used in their direct (or primary) meaning. The expression “sad meadows” (A.S. Pushkin “Winter Road”) is a trope, since it merges the mood of the lyrical hero and the dull desert landscape into one image. The main types of tropes are metaphor, metonymy, personification, comparison, hyperbole, irony, etc.

FABULA(Latin fabula - narrative, history) - a chain of events that are narrated in a work, in their time sequence. In other words, the plot is something that can be retold, “what really happened,” while the plot is “how the reader found out about it.” The plot may coincide with the plot, but it may also diverge from it. The plot and plot diverge, for example, in M. Yu. Lermontov’s novel “A Hero of Our Time.”

FANTASTIC(from the Greek phantastice - the ability to imagine) - the world of fanciful ideas and images born of the imagination based on the facts of real life. Science fiction depicts the world as emphatically conventional.

The fairy tale by M.E. is filled with fantastic elements. Saltykov-Shchedrin “The Tale of How One Man Fed Two Generals.” A man who pleases the generals can do anything: cook a handful of soup, build “a ship - not a ship, but such a vessel that you can sail across the ocean,” etc.

Sometimes individual characters or elements of the plot turn out to be fantastic (V.V. Mayakovsky’s plays “The Bedbug” and “Bathhouse”). Fiction can underlie the construction of the artistic world of a work (“Master Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov).

FOLKLORE(from English, folk - people, lore - wisdom) - mass verbal artistic creativity that has become part of the everyday tradition of a particular people. The most important feature of folklore is that it represents the art of the spoken word, since it arose before the advent of writing. The following genres of folklore have emerged: epics, historical songs, fairy tales, traditions, legends, tales, genres of ritual poetry, proverbs, sayings, etc.

PHRASEOLOGISTS - stable combinations words whose meanings are interpreted similarly to the meaning of one word. For example: “And everything is sewn and covered - no one sees or knows anything, only God sees!” (A.N. Ostrovsky).

FUTURISM(from Latin futurum - future) - avant-garde movement in European and Russian art of the 10-20s. XX century, based on the feeling of the collapse of traditional culture and the desire to understand through art the features of an unknown future. Futurist poets abandoned conventional artistic forms to the point of destroying natural language (deformation of the word, destruction of syntax, “telegraphic language,” introduction of mathematical and musical signs into the text, etc.). Two branches formed in Russian futurism: ego-futurism (I. Severyanin) and cubo-futurism (V.V. Mayakovsky). Poets who united around the Centrifuge publishing house (B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev) also joined futurism.

CHARACTER(Greek character - trait, feature) - a set of stable mental characteristics that form the personality of a literary character. For example, in the stories “The Death of an Official” and “Thick and Thin” by A.P. Chekhov draws similar characters of Chervyakov and the “subtle”: they are characterized by veneration, lackeyness, and fear. The means of revealing character in a work of art are portrait, costume, interior, speech manner, etc. Each literary movement (classicism, romanticism, sentimentalism, realism) reveals its own stable types of characters.

HOREUS- two-syllable poetic metre, in which the stress falls on the first syllable (-  ). For example, from A.S. Pushkin:

The clouds are rushing, the clouds are swirling;

Invisible moon
The flying snow illuminates;

The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy.

CHRONOTOP(from the Greek chronos - time, topos - place) - the unity of spatial and temporal parameters aimed at expressing a certain meaning; a significant natural relationship between “temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature” (M.M. Bakhtin). For example, the uniqueness of the chronotope in the story by A.P. Chekhov's “Student” (“physical” and “biblical” time-space as the opposition of everyday and existential levels of the work) allows the writer to go beyond the specific historical framework, give the story a universal sound, comment on a specific situation from a broader perspective, and most fully reveal the problems of the work and the capacity of its ideological and artistic content.

ARTISTIC DETAIL(from the French detail - a small component of something, detail, particularity) - the smallest unit of the objective world of a work of art, a memorable feature, detail of appearance, clothing, furnishings, experience or action. For example, in the appearance of Pierre Bezukhov (L.N. Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”), the following details of his appearance attract attention: a smile that makes his face “childish, kind, even stupid and as if asking for forgiveness”; look - “smart and at the same time timid, observant and natural.” Details of the decoration of Eugene Onegin’s office (A.S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”) help Tatyana Larina judge his hobbies and tastes: “And a portrait of Lord Byron, / And a column with a cast-iron doll / Under a hat, with a cloudy brow, / With hands, compressed by the cross."

ARTISTIC TIME- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the forms (along with space) of being and thinking. Time in a work of art is recreated with words in the process of depicting and developing characters, situations, the hero’s life path, speech, etc. For example, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov, in order to create a sense of the passage of time, uses the following words and expressions: “One morning I went to see them...”, “in the evening,” “For four months everything went as well as possible...”, “At that moment two people passed by the well.” ladies...”, “It’s been three days since I’ve been in Kislovodsk,” etc. The writer deliberately dates each chapter of Pechorin’s Journal, notes the time of day and the length of the action: “May 13th. This morning the doctor came to see me; his name is Werner, but he is Russian.”

ARTISTIC SPACE- a category of poetics of a work of art, one of the main characteristics of the artistic existence of heroes. Significantly different from real space. Characteristics artistic space(limitedness-unlimitedness, volume, locality, proportionality, specificity, etc.) are determined by the method, genre, plot of the work, as well as the creative individuality of the author. For example, A.S. Griboyedov in “Woe from Wit” depicts Moscow at the beginning of the 19th century. in its specific topographical realities (Kuznetsky Most, “English Club”, etc.) and draws psychological picture namely the Moscow nobility (“All Muscovites have a special imprint”), In the poem by N.V. Gogol's “Dead Souls” describes the Russian province (for example, the provincial town of NN) in the smallest details of life and customs, but without specific topographical indications. Characterizing in detail the space of Raskolnikov’s closet room, F.M. Dostoevsky in “Crime and Punishment” looks for the origins of the hero’s worldview. In fiction, abstract space is created along with the concrete. It is perceived as universal, rarely has specific features and does not have a significant impact on the characters and behavior of the characters. Sometimes both types of space are combined in one work (for example, in “The Master and Margarita” by M.A. Bulgakov, the concrete space of Moscow and the space of his novel, fictional by the Master, are combined).

ARTISTIC METHOD- a set of the most general principles and features figurative reflection life in art, which are consistently repeated in the work of a number of writers and thus can form literary movements. Artistic methods (and movements) include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism, postmodernism.

AESOP'S LANGUAGE(named after the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop) - artistic speech based on forced allegory, secret writing in literature. Aesopian language was used, for example, by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in his fairy tales.

EXISTENTIALISM(from Latin exsistentia - existence) - a way of identifying the foundations of the existence of an individual in society and society itself as a whole. Being in existentialism is considered as a kind of direct, undivided integrity of subject and object. The original and authentic being is the subject’s experience of his “being-in-the-world.” Being is interpreted as existence, unknowable by scientific means.

Existential thinking is a characteristic feature of the worldview of Russian writers and poets. For example, for F.M. Dostoevsky, as well as for the existentialists, the problem of human existence in all its manifestations becomes the object of artistic research. The problem of duality, comprehensively developed in the novels of this author, is also extremely relevant for Russian existentialism. An existential worldview is also characteristic of F.I. Tyutchev, who gravitates toward depicting borderline situations and perceives human life as "being for death."

EXPOSITION(Latin exposition - explanation) - the background of the event or events underlying the literary plot. It can be located at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of the work. There are delayed, diffuse, detailed, direct exposure.

For example, in the poem “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol's exhibition is delayed: an explanation of the historical and everyday situation is given after the beginning of the action, and information about Chichikov, the main acting person, - at the end of the story; the writer first showed Chichikov’s actions, and then explained the conditions in which such a person could grow up.

ELEGY(Greek elegeia) - lyrical genre; a poem that expresses mainly the motives of sadness, loneliness, disappointment, and reflections on the frailty of life. For example, “I visited again...” A.S. Pushkin, “Both boring and sad...”, “I go out alone on the road...” M.Yu. Lermontov, “There is melodiousness in the sea waves...” F.I. Tyutcheva and others.

EPIGRAM(from the Greek epigramma - inscription) - a genre of satirical poetry, a short poem ridiculing a person or social phenomenon. Epigrams are characterized by brevity, aphorism, and the poet’s personal attitude to the subject of ridicule. For example, from Pushkin:

Half my lord, half merchant,

Half sage, half ignorant,

Half-scoundrel, but there is hope

That it will finally be complete.

EPIGRAPH- a short text in the form of a small quotation from any well-known source (religious, folklore, literary, philosophical, journalistic, etc.). Placed immediately before the text of the work, immediately after the title or before any part of the text.

The epigraph reads:

The epigraph can be double (“Oh rus!.. Oh Rus'!”), triple (“Moscow, Russia’s beloved daughter,/Where can I find someone equal to you?” (Dmitriev), “How can you not love your native Moscow?” (Baratynsky), “ Persecution of Moscow! What does it mean to see the light? / Where is it better? / Where we are not” (Epigraphs in the novel “Eugene Onegin” by A.S.).

The epigraph can be structured as a dialogue: “Vanya (in Armenian coachman). Dad! Who built this road?/Dad (“coat with red lining”). Count Pyotr Andreich Kleinmichel, my dear!” /Conversation in the carriage” (“Railway” by N. A. Nekrasov). It can be developed into a system of epigraphs, as, for example, in the story “The Captain's Daughter” by A. S. Pushkin, where the “publisher” directly indicates in the afterword that he “found” a “decent epigraph” for each chapter of Grinev’s manuscript. A truncated folklore epigraph to the entire text (“Take care of your honor from a young age”) defines the main problem of the work. The remaining epigraphs, designed in the form of proverbs, excerpts from folk songs, authentic fragments of works by Russian writers of the 18th century, or author's stylizations written in the “ancient style”, develop the main themes of the story, together with the titles of the chapters, they are either a condensed “summary” of their content, or emphasize any of their characteristic features.

The epigraph becomes a kind of connecting link between the writer and existing literature, between the writer and his reader. The epigraph forms the “horizons of reader expectations.” Understanding the epigraph occurs sequentially in three stages: perception, which preliminarily orients the reader; correlation of the epigraph with the text; a new level of understanding of the epigraph, revealing new meanings and expanding the boundaries of text interpretation.

EPILOGUE(from Greek epi - after, logos - word, letters, “afterword”) - the final part of a work of art, which tells about the further fate of the heroes after the events depicted. For example, the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” ends with an epilogue, in which the author shows Raskolnikov a year and a half after the events described in the main part. He is in hard labor, next to him is Sonya Marmeladova. Briefly tells about the fate of Raskolnikov's relatives - mother, sister Dunya, Razumikhin. A large epilogue, consisting of two parts (the historical life of the country and the private life of the heroes seven years later), completes the epic romance of L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". The epilogue of The Master and Margarita tells the reader what happens to the heroes of the novel after Woland leaves Moscow. We learn about the round-ups of unfortunate cats and the persecution of suspicious citizens, the fates of Likhodeev, Varenukha, Nikolai Ivanovich and, of course, the poet Bezdomny, who turned into the venerable history professor Ponyrev, who continues to remain under the magical influence of mystical history.

EPITHET(Greek epitheton - application) - a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object (phenomenon) in the form of a hidden comparison. An epithet refers not only to an adjective (“ruddy dawn”, “timid breathing”, “zealous horse”), but also to an appendix noun; an adverb that metaphorically defines a verb (“frost-voivode”, “tramp wind”, “Petrel soars proudly”).

A special group consists of permanent epithets that were formed in oral folk art and which are used only in combination with a certain word (good fellow, beautiful maiden, greyhound horse, living water, pure field, etc.).

EPOS(Greek epos - word, narrative) - one of three literary families(along with lyrics and drama), the main feature of which is the narration of events external to the author. The narration in the epic is usually conducted in the past tense, as about events that have already occurred, and on behalf of a real or conditional narrator, witness, participant and, less often, the hero of the events. The epic uses a variety of methods of presentation (narration, description, dialogue, monologue, author's digressions), the author's speech and the speech of the characters. .

HUMOR(from English, humor - humor; disposition, mood, complexity) - a special type of comic that combines ridicule and sympathy, involves a soft smile and a gentle joke, which are based on a positive attitude towards the person depicted. Unlike satire, humor is aimed at the shortcomings of individual people and everyday life that have no social significance. Humor is an essential feature of “The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda” by A. S. Pushkin, the early stories of A. P. Chekhov, the poem “Vasily Terkin” by A. T. Tvardovsky, etc.

JAMB- a two-syllable poetic meter in which the stress falls on the second syllable (  -). For example, the poem by A. A. Fet “Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch...”:

Learn from them - from the oak, from the birch.

It's winter all around. Cruel time!

In vain their tears froze,

And the bark cracked, shrink.

1 The dictionary is compiled based on the following dictionaries and reference books: Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes/Ed. N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L.D. Frenkel, 1925 (http://feb-web.ru); Literary encyclopedic dictionary/Under the general. ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.A. Nikolaev.- M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1987; Dictionary of literary terms. - Edited by: L. I. Timofeev and S. V. Turaev. - M.: Education, 1972; Kvyatkovsky A.P. School poetic dictionary. - M.: Bustard, 2000; Rusova N. Yu. From allegory to iambic: Terminological dictionary-thesaurus in literary criticism, - M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2004; Great Literary Encyclopedia/Krasov-
skiy V. E. et al. - M.: Philol. SLOVO Island: OLMA-PRESS Education, 2003.

This "Dictionary of Literary Terms" is intended to serve as a reference tool for secondary school literature teachers. It provides a brief interpretation of more than six hundred theoretical terms used in literary science.

Based on the main task of the Dictionary - to serve as a reference book on the theory of literature, the compilers and authors of the Dictionary introduced historical and literary material only to the extent that it was needed to illustrate one or another theoretical position. A dictionary cannot replace reference books and encyclopedias on the history of literature. When selecting each historical and literary term, first of all its theoretical significance was taken into account. Therefore, the Dictionary did not include the names of schools and literary groups, which, although they were important for the history of a particular national literature, but did not receive international distribution (for example, Sturm and Drang in Germany, Parnassus in France, or the Acmeists in Russia).

When interpreting a particular term, as a rule, the role of this term was taken into account not only in Russian, but also in other literatures (especially if this role is not the same and is associated with different eras). In this regard, the authors and compilers sought to overcome the one-sidedness found in a number of works (including those of a reference nature) - to draw theoretical conclusions based on the experience of only one national literature.

Along with the terms adopted in European literary criticism, in Slavic studies and in the poetics of the peoples of the USSR, the Dictionary includes concepts and scientific designations that are still little known in our country, which have become widespread in the literatures of some peoples of the East (India, China, Korea, Japan). Given their specific nature, they are arranged not in a general alphabet, but according to national groups. As a rule, less commonly used terms were not included in the Dictionary.

The bibliographical indications in the Dictionary are necessarily brief and are intended to point the reader to a number of manuals, books and articles that will help expand knowledge in this particular area of ​​literary criticism. Naturally, for many terms (for example, from the field of poetics) the bibliography is not indicated, since it would be necessary to list the same publications many times. Works of a general nature are concentrated in bibliographic references to such articles as “Literary Studies”, “Philology”, “Posification”. Sources inaccessible to the general reader were indicated only in certain necessary cases.

This book is the first attempt at a reference book on literary criticism, and the compilers are aware of this. A dictionary is the first approach to solving the problems they face. But we hope that the wordsmiths to whom the Dictionary is addressed will help with their advice and comments in our further work to improve the reference book, the publication of which is clearly in need.

L. I. Timofeev, S. V. Turaev

List of basic abbreviations

acad. - academician

AN - Academy of Sciences

English - English

antique - antique

Arab. - Arabic

b. h. - mostly

br. - brothers

letters - literally

century, century - century, centuries

including - including

on - inclusive

entry - introductory

city ​​- year, city

gas. - newspaper

gg. - years

Ch. - head

Ch. arr. - mainly

Greek - Greek

verbatim - verbatim

other - other

Ancient Greek - ancient Greek

magazine - magazine

ed: - edition

Italian - Italian

etc. - and the like

int - institute

publishing house - publishing house

art - art

Kazakh. - Kazakh

Kyrgyz - Kyrgyz

k.-l. - any

Ph.D. - some

book - book

comment - a comment

to-ry - which

lat.- latin

Leningrad State University - Leningrad State University

"Lef" - "Left Front of Art"

literary studies - literary studies

lit-ra - literature

m.b. - May be

MSU - Moscow State University

pl. - many

n. e. - our era

eg - For example

beginning - Start

some - some

German - German

island - island

society - society

OK. - about (about time)

lane - translation

Portuguese - Portuguese

etc. - others

preface - preface

approx. - note

prof. - Professor

ed. - editor, editors

With. - page

Sat. - collection

see - look

abbr. - abbreviated

comp. - compiler

Wed - compare

Art. - article

i.e. - that is

t.z. - point of view

because - since

so-called - so-called

That. - Thus

Turkic - Turkic

Ukrainian - Ukrainian

univ - university

outdated - obsolete term

French - French

member-corr. - corresponding member

Japanese - Japanese

Preparation of bibliography. Abbreviations in the names of periodicals and other publications

"West. Europe"

"Questions of Literature", "VL" "Questions of Literature".

"Issues of linguistics", "VY" - "Issues of linguistics".

"Documents of the USSR Academy of Sciences" - "Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences."

"ZHMNP" - "Journal of the Ministry of Public Education".

"Izv. ORYAS AN" - "News of the Department of Russian Language and Literature of the Imperial Academy of Sciences

"Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. OLYA" - "Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Department of Literature and Language."

"In. Literature" - "Foreign Literature".

"Lit. newspaper" - "Literary newspaper".

"Youth Guard" - "Young Guard".

"New World" - "New World".

"Russian literature" - "Russian literature".

"Tr. ODRL" - "Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences."

"Study note. Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after Potemkin" - "Scientific notes of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute pedagogical institute them. Potemkin".

Note: In the titles of works in Russian, all abbreviations accepted in the “Dictionary of Literary Terms” are used.

City name abbreviations

In Russian

G. - Gorky

K. - Kyiv L. - Leningrad

M. - Moscow

M. - Moscow

L. - Leningrad

Ya - Yaroslavl

O. - Odessa

P. - Petrograd, St. Petersburg

Kaz. - Kazan

St. Petersburg. - Saint Petersburg

Tb. - Tbilisi

X. - Kharkov

In foreign languages

Dresd. - Dresden

Fr/M - Frankfurt am Mein

Warsz. - Warsaw

Abbreviations in bibliographies

In Russian:

Full collection op. - Full composition of writings

Collection op. - Collected Works Op. = Essays

Favorite op. - Selected works. prod. - Selected works

Lit. - Literature

ed. - edition

t., tt. volume, volumes

h. - part

section - chapter

Ch. - head

With. - page

lane from English - translation from English

lane from lat. - translation from Latin

rus. lane - Russian translation

Sat. Art. - Digest of articles

V. - release

In foreign languages:

Terms that have special articles in the Dictionary are highlighted in italics.

Dictionary of literary terms

Editor T. P. Kazymova, Editor-bibliographer 3. V. Mikhailova, Art editor E. A. Kruchina, Technical editor E. V. Bogdanova, Proofreader A. A. Rukosueva.

Delivered to set 7/VIII 1972. Signed for printing 10/1 1974. Boom. typogr. No. 3 60X90 1/16. Pech. l. 32. Academic ed. l. 48.76.. Circulation 300 thousand copies. A05019, Zak. 1217.

Publishing house "Prosveshchenie" of the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR for publishing, printing and book trade. Moscow, 3rd proezd Maryina Roshcha, 41

Order of the Red Banner of Labor Leningrad printing house No. 1 "Printing Yard" named after A. M. Gorky Soyuzpoli-grafproma under the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for Publishing, Printing and Book Trade. 19713.6, Leningrad, P-136, Gatchinskaya st., 26

Price without binding 1 rub. 32 books, binding 21 books.

Dictionary of literary terms. Ed. From 48 comp.: L. I. Timofeev and S. V. Turaev. M., "Enlightenment", 1974. 509 p.

The dictionary is a reference book, the first publication of this type intended for secondary school teachers. The dictionary provides an interpretation of the most important concepts and terms accepted in literary criticism, and a description of literary methods and trends.

Theoretical questions are revealed based on the material of classical Russian, Soviet and world literature.