Strong character - what does it mean and how to develop it? Folk character in works of modern Russian literature.

Dear classmates! There is only ONE summary here. You remember that the teacher told us to take TWO notes from different sources on each topic. Here is ONE summary from ALL possible and impossible sources. Even from Wikipedia. And from everywhere in general. Therefore, I recommend doing this - when rewriting the first outline, omit something, do not write it. And do the second summary like this - simply rewrite the first ones in your own words and add the omitted points.

Also, after the summary you should write the sources. Below it is indicated which ones are for the second one.

We don’t have the strength for these notes! What a stupid task!

3. Character in literature

1. Character as a literary category .

CHARACTER literary- an image of a person, outlined with a certain completeness and individual certainty, through which they are revealed as conditioned by a given socio-historical. situation type of behavior, and the author’s inherent moral and aesthetic. human concept. existence. Lit. H. is an artist. integrity, organic unity general, repeating and individual ; objective And subjective(comprehension of the prototype by the author). As a result, lit. H. appears " new reality”, an artistically “created” personality, reflecting a real person. type, ideologically clarifies it. It is the conceptuality of lit. The image of a person distinguishes the concept of X in literary studies from the meaning of this term in psychology, philosophy, and sociology.

The idea of ​​X. literary hero created through external and internal. "gestures" of the character, his appearance ( Portrait), copyright and other characteristics, place and role of the character in development plot. The relationship within the literary work of H. and circumstances is composed by the artist. situation. In real life, a person and a broadly understood environment are inseparable, therefore the adequacy of the X. and the circumstances in the world of the work is the most essential requirement of realism. Contradictions between a person and society, between classes or departments.

2 . Character in realistic literature. Social conditioning of character-type. Man and thing.

Character in realistic literature. Social conditioning of character-type.

The reconstruction of individual X. as a historically unique relationship between the individual and the environment became a critical discovery. 19th century realism Realistic in practice. liters, the self-developing X. is constantly present - an incomplete and incomplete, “fluid” individuality, determined by its continuous interaction with historically specific circumstances, but at the same time - “itself to myself law”(A.A. Block) and therefore sometimes comes into conflict with the original. the author's intention.

B realistic. Literature 19-20 centuries. X. embody different, sometimes opposing, author’s concepts human personality. In O. Balzac, G. Flaubert, E. Zola, the fundamental basis of individuality is universal human nature, understood in the spirit of anthropology, and its “fluidity” is explained by the incompleteness of externality. environmental influences on the fundamental principle, the measure of which “measures” the individual’s individuality. In F. M. Dostoevsky or A. P. Chekhov, individuality is perceived against the background of the determinism of circumstances as measure personal self-determination, when the X. of the hero remains an inexhaustible focus of individual possibilities. L. N. Tolstoy has a different meaning of “incompleteness” of X.: need"It's clear express the fluidity of man, what he, one and the same then the villain, That angel, That sage, That idiot, That strongman, that most powerless being” (Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 53, p. 187), is explained by the desire to discover in individuality, alienated from others of people societies, living conditions, universal, generic, “full man”.

Man and thing.

In a literary work, a thing appears as an element of the conventional, artistic world. And unlike reality, the boundaries between things and people can be fluid. Russians folk tales give many examples of humanizing things. This tradition is continued by Russian and foreign literature.

One of the most important functions of a thing in literature is characterological . Gogol’s works show the intimate connection between things and their owners; it is not for nothing that Chichikov examines dwellings in such detail in “ Dead souls" Things can be arranged in a sequential row. But one detail can characterize the character (a jar with the inscription “laceberry” prepared by Fenechka in Fathers and Sons) against the background literary tradition The absence of things can also become significant.

Things often become signs, symbols of a person’s experiences (Block. About valor, about exploits...)
3. Discoveries in the field of artistic characterology in romantic art. Type of self-aware personality.
In romanticism, which proclaimed the self-purpose and autonomy of the individual, elevating it as above psychol. “nature” and over social fate, a new understanding of X. has developed - as identical to the internal. the world of personality.

The moral pathos of the romantics is associated primarily with the affirmation of the value of the individual, which is expressed in the images of romantic heroes.

A romantic hero is not easy positive hero, he doesn’t even have to be positive, he’s a hero who reflects the poet’s longing for an ideal. The question does not even arise about whether the Demon in Lermontov or Conrad in Byron’s “Corsair” is positive or negative, but they are majestic, they contain in their appearance, their deeds, indomitable strength of spirit. And this is precisely “a personality relying on itself,” as V. G. Belinsky wrote, a personality opposing itself to the entire surrounding world.

But in the depths of romanticism, another type of personality takes shape. This is, first of all, the personality of an artist - a poet, musician, painter. She is also elevated above the crowd of ordinary people, property owners, officials, and secular loafers. Here we are no longer talking about the claims of an exceptional individual, but about the rights of a true artist to judge the world and people.

Thus, in the romantic movement two antagonistic concepts of personality are identified: individualistic and universalistic. Their fate in the subsequent development of world culture was ambiguous. The rebellion of a loner was beautiful, captivating his contemporaries, but at the same time it quickly revealed its futility. History has harshly condemned the claims of an individual to create his own court. On the other hand, the idea of ​​universality reflected a longing for the ideal of a fully developed person, free from the limitations generated by the capitalist division of labor.

4. The problem of character is in the lyrics. “Own” and “alien” consciousness in it. Cyclization as
The problem of character is in the lyrics.

Characters in the lyrics are portrayed differently than in epic And drama. Missing or dotted here plot, therefore, characters are rarely revealed through actions and actions. The main thing is the attitude of the lyrical subject to the character (hero, heroine). For example, in Pushkin’s poem "I remember a wonderful moment…» the image of the heroine is created with the help of comparisons and metaphors that convey the admiration of the lyrical hero ( “genius of pure beauty”, “tender image”), while there are no specific features. These words can be applied to almost any woman. That is why, when it is necessary to establish to whom a particular poem is dedicated, literary scholars turn more to letters and diary entries, and not to the poems themselves, i.e. First of all, they appeal to the biography of the poet, and not to his work. Nominations the characters are characterized not so much by themselves as by the attitude of the lyrical subject towards them.

“Own” and “alien” consciousness in it .

Unlike epic and drama, lyric poetry is dominated by one consciousness. Of course, his “work” takes other people's points of view into account; using the term M.M. Bakhtin, we can say that this is consciousness dialogically(Library. Bakhtin. The Word in the Novel). A striking manifestation of dialogicality in lyrics is reflection on the discrepancy between internal and external, past and present “I”, as for example, in the poem by V.F. Khodasevich “Before the Mirror”.

Self-awareness is formed with the help of numerous “mirrors” - opinions of other people about “me”. Even when a poem is constructed in the form of a dialogue between characters, this dialogue is more correctly viewed as a conflict within one consciousness, for example, in the poems “Conversation of a Bookseller with a Poet”, “Poet and the Crowd”, “Hero” by A.S. Pushkin, “Poet and Citizen” by N.A. Nekrasova and others. Here the author “splits the entire complexity of his thoughts in two, separates them into irreconcilable positions, personifies them in two opposing conventional figures”

But it is important to remember that there are poems where, during the lyrical statementsubject organization is changing : at first the lyrical subject acts asvoice, and then turns intohero. For example, in Fet's poem"Turgenev"(1864) the first two stanzas are dedicated to Turgenev, who at that time lived in Baden-Baden (“You were warmed by a bright ray of someone else’s day”). But starting from the third stanza, the author paints his portrait (“Poet! and I have found what I longed for…”), although sometimes he addresses the addressee (“And believe!"). There are many autonomations in the self-portrait: “Here, knowing neither storms nor threatening clouds // With a soul accustomed to loss, // I would like to die like a moonbeam in the morning, // Or like a sunny one at sunset.”
Cyclization as expanding opportunities for character formation.

The spiritual experience of the author, the system of his worldview and worldview are reflected in the lyrical work not directly, but indirectly, through inner world, experiences, mental states, manner of verbal self-expression of a L. g. One of the methods of embodying the image of a L. g. is considered to be cyclization (i.e., the presence of a more or less expressed poetic plot in which the inner world of a L. g. is revealed). Examples include, in particular, the “Panaevsky” cycle of N.A. Nekrasov or the cycle of "Poems about To the beautiful lady"A. Blok, where L. G. appears in various guises: a knight, a monk, a youth, which only partly makes it possible to read the biography of the author himself through the image of L. G.
Tyupa V. I. Character // Literary encyclopedic dictionary , Chernets L.V. Character // Introduction to literary criticism: Lit. work., Toporov V.N. Thing in an anthropocentric perspective (apology of Plyushkin) // Myth. Ritual. Symbol. Image.
Sources for the second summary: Martyanova S.A. Character behavior , Shchennikov G. K. K the question of the modern interpretation of the classics (I. A. Goncharov “Oblomov”), Demukhina I. A. Dialogue and dialogicity in the novel by I. S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”.
4. Text. Subtext. Intertext

1. The concept of text and its components. Author - text - reader. Energy of the text.

The concept of text and its components.

TEXT(from Latin textus - fabric, plexus) - 1) written or printed recording of a speech utterance or message, as opposed to oral implementation; 2) the sensually perceived side of a speech (including literary) work expressed and fixed through linguistic signs (regardless of the form of their implementation); 3) the minimum unit of speech communication that has relative. unity (integrity) and relates. autonomy (separately).

The essence of T. as a specific philological. the object is determined by four main. oppositions: in contrast to the system of language, it is actualized and organized syntagmatically; in contrast to speech, the speech flow as a whole, T. has certain boundaries; T. is distinguished from an arbitrary segment of the speech chain by internal. unity, integrity, conditioned by a single communicative task; finally, in contrast to its parts, T. has a certain independence of existence and is specific. organization, which is not limited to the organization of these parts.

In internal The structure of T. is distinguished by three most important groups of phenomena. The first is interphrase connections and relationships . The essence of interphrase connection is in correlating and coordinating the meanings of linked sentences, carried out both by highlighting in these meanings a certain common part (lexical and semantic repetitions, anaphoric references, for example, through demonstrative pronouns), and by establishing a certain -rogo logical. or the temporal relationship between these meanings as a whole (conjunctions, logical connectives, pronominal adverbs).

The second group of phenomena is associated with units, intermediate between offer and T. - from relatively small ones, including several. sentences (“supraphrasal unities”), up to such large ones as chapters, parts, volumes. The presence of intermediate units is a characteristic feature of the existing mechanism for constructing a text: texts written by primary schoolchildren are composed directly from sentences. Superphrasal unities are characterized primarily by a certain unity of meaning (“microthemes”) of their constituent sentences and the difference between this general microtheme and the microthemes of neighboring unities. The division of T. into similar units in the process of perception of T. is an indispensable condition for in-depth understanding or memorization of T.

The third group consists properties, inherent T. exactly how whole. Two main ones have been identified. principles that regulate the definition of a set of texts of a certain language and make it possible to distinguish a correctly constructed text from a random set of sentences. The hard principle consists in breaking down the entire set of possible components of T. ( subtexts) into a finite number of classes containing “composition-like” subtexts, and specifying schemes that determine the order in which the elements of these classes can be arranged in real texts (cf. the diagram of the structure of a fairy tale according to V. Ya. Proppu ). In contrast, the flexible principle is not based on the regulation of the composition and order of subtexts, but on the ability of relationships and connections between subtexts to overcome the linear disunity of the latter. T., built in accordance with the flexible principle, called. coherent; will distinguish him. feature is the impossibility of dividing into two consecutive. parts that are not connected to each other by any connection. Rigid and flexible principles are independent, but fairly “normal” T. are characterized by a combination of coherent and rigid component structures.

The functioning of a speech utterance as a single independent entity. T. is constituted primarily by the author T. The boundaries of T. can be set both by changes in the external communicative situation and by intra-text elements (titles, special formulas for the beginning and end of T., etc.). The introduction of intermediate boundary signs into T. (red lines, internal headings, chapter numbering) makes it possible to obtain various communicative and expressive effects by changing the relationship between internal units. structures of T. and segments distinguished by means of these signs (“revealed structure” of T.), for example, between super-phrase unities and paragraphs.

Having been created, T. enters into complex relationships with its possible readers (listeners) and with other T. functioning in a given society (“dialogical relations” according to M.M. Bakhtin ). This is inclusion in “extra-textual structures” (Yu.M.’s term). Lotman ) affects both the objective meaning acquired by text in specific conditions and the process of combining texts into more complex units of communication: cycles , thematic selections, etc.

2. Text and work. Text and meaning. Dialectics of written and unwritten. Subtext as “text depth”.

Text and work. The text should not be understood as something quantifiable. Any attempt to physically distinguish between works and texts is futile. In particular, it would be rash to say: “the work is a classic, and the text is avant-garde.

The difference here is this: a work is a material fragment that occupies a certain part of the book space (for example, in a library), and the Text is a field of methodological operations. This opposition partly resembles (but by no means duplicates) the distinction proposed by Lacan: “reality” is shown, and “real” is proven; in a similar way, the work is visual, visible (in a bookstore, in a library catalog, in an examination program), and the text is proven, expressed * in accordance with certain rules (or against known rules). The work can fit in the hand, the text is located in the language, exists only in discourse (or rather, it is a Text only insofar as it is aware of it). The text is not a product of the disintegration of the work; on the contrary, the work is a trail of the imaginary, trailing behind the Text. Or else: The text is felt only in the process of work, production. It follows that the Text cannot stand still (say, on a bookshelf); by its nature it must through something move - for example, through a work, through a series of works.

Text and meaning.

The problem of understanding a literary text is fundamental to philology. Today the text can be read using different principles. For example, from a structuralist position: identifying binary oppositions in it and finding structure, considering its “formal” side, etc. The text can be deconstructed and read solely as contradictory, “open,” incomplete, perceived as a “cemetery” of dead cultures that leave “traces” of their “absence.” However, with all the variety of reading and research strategies in modern literary criticism, they, for all their universality, productivity and undoubted necessity, still cannot exhaust all the problems that arise in the study of meaning formation in literary texts. In addition, many texts “deviate” from the research methods and concepts projected onto them and do not lend themselves to either traditional or innovative ways of reading. They lead researchers into semantic dead ends, into a series of contradictions.

It must be said that there are texts that are designed for unambiguous perception; foreign interpretations are contraindicated in their essence. These are non-fiction texts (scientific, business). In this case, double meaning or simply ambiguity, uncertainty of meaning means imperfection of the text, its insufficient development. In the case of an artistic text, the presence of a deep meaning or subtext creates a special significance of the work, its individual artistic value. As well as partly the disappearance of the semantic certainty of the text, especially in poetic texts.

Dialectics of written and unwritten.

The reader can sometimes extract from the text, and even from a separate statement, much more information than the author intended to put into it, in particular information about the author himself. Or, conversely, not understanding the meaning of the text that the author intended. It is known, for example, how upset and dejected N.V. was. Gogol with the success of The Inspector General. He thought that the viewer would be horrified and shocked to see himself in the characters of the play. But everyone, on the contrary, was happy and shouted “Ek, I killed it!” The author was disappointed; he suffered because he was not understood. The audience perceived the external, funny side of the phenomenon, but did not understand its deep essence, i.e. The author's calculation did not come true.

The conflict between the open text and the internal meaning, as already mentioned, is especially characteristic of a literary text, since sometimes behind the external events indicated in the text there is hidden an internal meaning, which is created not so much by the events and facts themselves, but by the motives that stand behind these events, motives that prompted the author to turn to these events. And since motives are guessed rather than “read” in the text, they may turn out to be different for different readers. After all, the reader also has his own view of things. And it does not necessarily coincide with the author’s interpretation. And therefore the probability of one appearing certain meaning(for the author and the reader) is extremely low. To understand such a text, active analysis is required, comparing text elements with each other. This means that it is not enough to understand the immediate meaning of the message in the text; a process of transition from the text to highlighting what the internal meaning of the message is is necessary .

The process of decoding the meaning of messages and then understanding general meaning The text is entirely connected with the speech-mental activity of the reader, in this process it is he who turns out to be the main link in the triad “author – text – reader”.
Subtext as “text depth”.

Works devoted to the interpretation of the text, in one way or another, address the problems of subtext, implication (or implicit content) and depth of the text. Often there is no clear distinction between them, and they are used as synonyms.

Signs of subtext. They are the implementation at the level of the macro context of an entire work (general textual scale), as well as the obligatory increment of logical-subject information, which is associated with the ambiguity of the restoration of meaning. So, subtext is a phenomenon that creates additional depth of content and contributes to a more complete disclosure of the themes of the work, and also evokes an emotional and evaluative attitude of the reader to what is being told. A similar position in the definition is taken by A.V. Zapadov, E.P. Sokolov: “We call subtext hidden meaning statement, which follows from the context of the entire work and is provided by the author as a way of artistic influence on the reader... The technique of subtext creates inexhaustible opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of ordinary words, even seemingly erased, banal ones, to give them significance, depth and strength" (Zapadov , Sokolova, 1979: 86). Subtext always correlates with the author's intention and the reader's reading, with the revelation of the implied meaning. This is the most general understanding of subtext (Myrkin, 1976: 88).

4. The phenomenon of intertextuality. Types of intertextual signs. Forms of functioning of the text-in-text system.

The phenomenon of intertextuality.

The term I. was introduced by Y. Kristeva under the influence of M. Bakhtin, who described literary text as a polyphonic structure. Literally, I. means the inclusion of one text in another. For Kristeva, a text is an interweaving of texts and codes, a transformation of other texts. I. blurs the boundaries of the text, as a result of which the text loses its completeness and closedness. The main structural principle of the text from the point of view of I. is its internal heterogeneity, openness, and multiplicity.

A text is produced from other texts, in relation to other texts. Moreover, not only in relation to past texts. “The phenomenon that is commonly called intertextuality should include texts that appear later than the work: the sources of the text exist not only before the text, but also after it” (Barthes). In this sense, any text is a space of intersection of other texts, the associated combinations of which create additional meaning. I. covers the entire area of ​​culture as a semiotic system. From the point of view of I., the opposition between the text (object) and the reader (subject), between reading and writing is removed. The text is, in fact, I. T. X. Kerimov.

Types of intertextual signs.

Forms of intertexts: 1. Quotation is the main form of intertexts in scientific communication. They are formally marked fragments of previously published texts. Purposes of citation: - evidentiary function (quote-argument), - illustration of the author's judgment (quote-example), - expression of the author's point of view using other people's words, reference to authority (quote-substitute). 2. Retelling in the form of indirect speech fragments from texts by other authors. 3. Background references to theory or ideas expressed previously.

Forms of functioning of the text-in-text system.

A text within a text is an introduction to the original author's text of someone else's text.

The text of a given author, taken from previous works, may also turn out to be a “foreign” text. Moreover, this may also be a text created by the same author, but seemingly inserted as a text by another author.

Someone else's text can be presented in the main text as a direct inclusion. This is primarily citation, which is used in scientific and popular science texts in order to rely on someone else’s opinion or to refute it, to make it a starting point for asserting one’s own opinion in a polemical form. A similar function is performed by links, reference (indication of someone else’s text), retelling. The text in the text may also appear in work of art. True, the forms of its inclusion here are more diverse, and its functions are more diverse.

In this case, direct quotation is not excluded: “So he wrote darkly and sluggishly...” This is where the story about our poor Igor should have begun,if he has already decidedlive here...(A. Bitov. Photograph of Pushkin).

The text can serve as a frame for the main text, convey main idea works (epigraph), be interspersed with another language (French in “War and Peace” or in “Eugene Onegin”).

It is possible to covertly quote other people's lines interspersed in the author's text without any emphasis or references.

These can be literary reminiscences (from Late Lat. reminiscentia - memory) - features that suggest a memory of another work, the result of the author borrowing a separate image, motif, stylistic device, for example, Blok’s reminiscences in the works of A. Akhmatova or Gogol’s images of the “road” and “wheel” in A. Solzhenitsyn.
4. “A quotation is not an extract. Quote is a cicada".

In the interpretation of the concept of reminiscence, there aretwo points of view . Some researchers (V.E. Khalizev, V.P. Rudnev, etc.) determinereminiscence as a generic concept , A quote(Osip Mandelstam wrote: “A quotation is not an extract. A quotation is a cicada - incessancy is characteristic of it”)how does she look.

Quotation is one of the main concepts of the theory of intertextuality. In the absence of unity in the understanding of intertextuality, and taking into account the opinion that “the linguistic mechanisms of intertextual relations are still unclear,” we have to state the uncertainty and ambiguity of the concept of quotation.

QUOTE(from Lat. cito - I call, I bring) - verbatim reproduction of an excerpt from k.-l. text. C. is used to reinforce the idea expressed by reference to an authoritative statement; as its clearest formulation; to criticize a quoted thought; as an illustration - as a valuable fact. material. C. - belonging mainly to scientific (primarily humanitarian) and official business speech, where it is indicated by quotation marks or highlighted in font and provided with a link to the source. In art speech and journalism as a stylistic. the method of using ready-made verbal education that has entered the general literature. turnover, C. promotes imagery, expressiveness and capacity of speech; it allows you to economically and deeply characterize the phenomena of reality through art. images of world art, mythology, folklore, etc. Lit. Ts. (for example, “Who are the judges?”, “A Million Torments”, “Second Lieutenant Kizhe”, “Knight for an Hour”, “We are lazy and incurious”, “The Naked King” and many others), being aphoristically brief and elegant in form, evokes an idea of ​​the whole from which it is extracted, “as if it replaces or concentrates a complex image embodied in a work of art” (V.V. Vinogradov, see “Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. OLYA”, t. 5, 1946, v. 3, pp. 231-32). Through Ts., which preserves the “old emotionality” (Yu. N. Tynyanov), the previous lit is included in the literature. experience. In such a use, the text can be modified, the reference documenting the color is usually inappropriate, and the author assumes that the reader is an expert on the texts, sensitive to associations and allusions. Special case of Ts. -winged words . C. is also used inepigraphs .
Sources for the first summary:Bakhtin M. The problem of text in linguistics, philology and other humanities. Experience of philosophical analysis // Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity , Bart R. From work to text. The pleasure of the text // Bart R. Izbr. works: Semiotics. Poetics , Kuzmina N. A. Intertext and its role in the processes of evolution of poetic language. Ekaterinburg; Omsk.
Sources for the second summary: Fomenko I. V. Quote // Introduction to literary criticism , Text as a semiotic problem: Text in the text // Lotman Yu. M. , Zholkovsky A.K. “I loved you...” Brodsky // Zholkovsky A.K. Wandering dreams and other works.

Dear classmates! There is only ONE summary here. You remember that the teacher told us to take TWO notes from different sources on each topic. Here is ONE summary from ALL possible and impossible sources. Even from Wikipedia. And from everywhere in general. Therefore, I recommend doing this - when rewriting the first outline, omit something, do not write it. And do the second summary like this - simply rewrite the first ones in your own words and add the omitted points.

Also, after the summary you should write the sources. Below it is indicated which sources to write for the first and which for the second.

We don’t have the strength for these notes! What a stupid task!

3. Character in literature

1. Character as a literary category.

CHARACTERliterary- an image of a person, outlined with a certain completeness and individual certainty, through which they are revealed as conditioned by a given socio-historical. situation type of behavior, and the author’s inherent moral and aesthetic. human concept. existence. Lit. H. is an artist. integrity, organic unity general, repeating and individual;objective And subjective(comprehension of the prototype by the author). As a result, lit. X. appears as a “new reality”, artistically “created” by a person, reflecting a real person. type, ideologically clarifies it. It is the conceptuality of lit. The image of a person distinguishes the concept of X in literary studies from the meaning of this term in psychology, philosophy, and sociology.

The idea of ​​X. literary hero created through external and internal. "gestures" of the character, his appearance ( Portrait), copyright and other characteristics, place and role of the character in development plot. The relationship within the literary work of H. and circumstances is composed by the artist. situation. In real life, a person and a broadly understood environment are inseparable, therefore the adequacy of the X. and the circumstances in the world of the work is the most essential requirement of realism. Contradictions between a person and society, between classes or departments.

2 .Character in realistic literature. Social conditioning of character-type. Man and thing.

Character in realistic literature. Social conditioning of character-type.

The reconstruction of individual X. as a historically unique relationship between the individual and the environment became a critical discovery. 19th century realism Realistic in practice. liters, the self-developing X. is constantly present - an incomplete and incomplete, “fluid” individuality, determined by its continuous interaction with historically specific circumstances, but at the same time - “itself to myselflaw”(A.A. Block) and therefore sometimes comes into conflict with the original. the author's intention.

B realistic. Literature 19-20 centuries. X. embody different, sometimes opposing, author's concepts of human personality. In O. Balzac, G. Flaubert, E. Zola, the fundamental basis of individuality is universal human nature, understood in the spirit of anthropology, and its “fluidity” is explained by the incompleteness of externality. environmental influences on the fundamental principle, the measure of which “measures” the individual’s individuality. In F. M. Dostoevsky or A. P. Chekhov, individuality is perceived against the background of the determinism of circumstances as measure personal self-determination, when the X. of the hero remains an inexhaustible focus of individual possibilities. L. N. Tolstoy has a different meaning of “incompleteness” of X.: need"It's clear express the fluidity of man, what he, one and the same then the villain, That angel, That sage, That idiot, That strongman, that most powerless being” (Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 53, p. 187), is explained by the desire to discover in individuality, alienated from others of people societies, living conditions, universal, generic, “full man”.

Man and thing.

In a literary work, a thing appears as an element of the conventional, artistic world. And unlike reality, the boundaries between things and people can be fluid. Russian folk tales provide many examples of humanizing things. This tradition is continued by Russian and foreign literature.

One of the most important functions of a thing in literature is characterological. Gogol's works show the intimate connection between things and their owners; it is not for nothing that Chichikov examines dwellings in such detail in Dead Souls. Things can be arranged in a sequential row. But one detail can characterize a character (a jar with the inscription “laceberry” prepared by Fenechka in Fathers and Sons); against the background of literary tradition, the absence of things can also become significant.

Things often become signs, symbols of a person’s experiences (Block. About valor, about exploits...)

Epics about Ilya Muromets

HeroIlya Muromets, son of Ivan Timofeevich and Efrosinya Yakovlevna, peasants of the village of Karacharova near Murom. The most popular character in epics, the second most powerful (after Svyatogor) Russian hero and the first Russian superman.

Sometimes a real person, the Venerable Ilya of Pechersk, nicknamed Chobotok, buried in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and canonized in 1643, is identified with the epic Ilya of Muromets.

Years of creation. XII–XVI centuries

What's the point? Until the age of 33, Ilya lay, paralyzed, on the stove in his parents’ house, until he was miraculously healed by wanderers (“walking kalikas”). Having gained strength, he equipped his father’s farm and went to Kyiv, along the way capturing the Nightingale the Robber, who was terrorizing the surrounding area. In Kyiv, Ilya Muromets joined the squad of Prince Vladimir and found the hero Svyatogor, who gave him a treasure sword and mystical “real power”. In this episode he demonstrated not only physical strength, but also high moral qualities, without responding to the advances of Svyatogor’s wife. Later, Ilya Muromets defeated the “great force” near Chernigov, paved the direct road from Chernigov to Kyiv, inspected the roads from the Alatyr-stone, tested the young hero Dobrynya Nikitich, saved the hero Mikhail Potyk from captivity in the Saracen kingdom, defeated Idolishche, and walked with his squad to Constantinople, one defeated the army of Tsar Kalin.

Ilya Muromets was not alien to simple human joys: in one of the epic episodes, he walks around Kyiv with “tavern heads,” and his son Sokolnik was born out of wedlock, which later leads to a fight between father and son.

What it looks like. Superman. Epic stories describe Ilya Muromets as a “remote, portly, kind fellow,” he fights with a “ninety pounds” (1,440 kilograms) club!

What is he fighting for? Ilya Muromets and his squad very clearly formulate the purpose of their service:

“...to stand alone for the faith for the fatherland,

...to stand alone for Kyiv-grad,

...to stand alone for the churches for the cathedrals,

...he will take care of Prince and Vladimir.”

But Ilya Muromets is not only a statesman - he is at the same time one of the most democratic fighters against evil, as he is always ready to fight “for widows, for orphans, for poor people.”

Way of fighting. A duel with an enemy or a battle with superior enemy forces.

With what result? Despite the difficulties caused by the numerical superiority of the enemy or the disdainful attitude of Prince Vladimir and the boyars, he invariably wins.

What is it fighting against? Against internal and external enemies of Rus' and their allies, violators of law and order, illegal migrants, invaders and aggressors.

2. Archpriest Avvakum

"The Life of Archpriest Avvakum"

Hero. Archpriest Avvakum worked his way up from a village priest to the leader of the resistance to the church reform of Patriarch Nikon and became one of the leaders of the Old Believers, or schismatics. Avvakum is the first religious figure of such magnitude who not only suffered for his beliefs, but also described it himself.

Years of creation. Approximately 1672–1675.

What's the point? A native of a Volga village, Avvakum from his youth was distinguished by both piety and violent disposition. Having moved to Moscow, he took an active part in church educational activities, was close to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, but sharply opposed the church reforms carried out by Patriarch Nikon. With his characteristic temperament, Avvakum led a fierce struggle against Nikon, advocating for the old order of church rites. Avvakum, not at all shy in his expressions, conducted public and journalistic activities, for which he was repeatedly imprisoned, cursed and defrocked, and exiled to Tobolsk, Transbaikalia, Mezen and Pustozersk. From the place of his last exile, he continued to write appeals, for which he was imprisoned in an “earth pit.” He had many followers. Church hierarchs tried to persuade Habakkuk to renounce his “delusions,” but he remained adamant and was eventually burned.

What it looks like. One can only guess: Avvakum did not describe himself. Maybe the way the priest looks in Surikov’s painting “Boyarina Morozova” - Feodosia Prokopyevna Morozova was a faithful follower of Avvakum.

What is he fighting for? For the purity of the Orthodox faith, for the preservation of tradition.

Way of fighting. Word and deed. Avvakum wrote accusatory pamphlets, but he could personally beat the buffoons who entered the village and break them musical instruments. He considered self-immolation a form of possible resistance.

With what result? Avvakum's passionate preaching against church reform made resistance to it widespread, but he himself, along with three of his comrades-in-arms, was executed in 1682 in Pustozersk.

What is it fighting against? Against the desecration of Orthodoxy by “heretical novelties”, against everything alien, “external wisdom”, that is, scientific knowledge, against entertainment. Suspects the imminent coming of the Antichrist and the reign of the devil.

3. Taras Bulba

"Taras Bulba"

Hero.“Taras was one of the indigenous, old colonels: he was all about scolding anxiety and was distinguished by the brutal directness of his character. Then the influence of Poland was already beginning to exert itself on the Russian nobility. Many had already adopted Polish customs, had luxury, magnificent servants, falcons, hunters, dinners, courtyards. Taras did not like this. He loved simple life Cossacks and quarreled with those of his comrades who were inclined to the Warsaw side, calling them slaves of the Polish lords. Always restless, he considered himself the legitimate defender of Orthodoxy. He arbitrarily entered villages where they only complained about the harassment of tenants and the increase in new duties on smoke. He himself carried out reprisals against them with his Cossacks and made it a rule that in three cases one should always take up the saber, namely: when the commissars did not respect the elders in any way and stood before them in their caps, when they mocked Orthodoxy and did not respect the ancestral law and, finally, when the enemies were the Busurmans and the Turks, against whom he considered in any case permissible to raise arms for the glory of Christianity.”

Year of creation. The story was first published in 1835 in the collection “Mirgorod”. The 1842 edition, in which, in fact, we all read Taras Bulba, differs significantly from the original version.

What's the point? All his life, the dashing Cossack Taras Bulba has been fighting for the liberation of Ukraine from its oppressors. He, the glorious chieftain, cannot bear the thought that his own children, flesh of his flesh, may not follow his example. Therefore, Taras kills Andria’s son, who betrayed the sacred cause, without hesitation. When another son, Ostap, is captured, our hero deliberately penetrates into the heart of the enemy camp - but not in order to try to save his son. His only goal is to make sure that Ostap, under torture, does not show cowardice and does not renounce high ideals. Taras himself dies like Joan of Arc, having previously given Russian culture the immortal phrase: “There is no bond holier than comradeship!”

What it looks like. He is extremely heavy and fat (20 pounds, equivalent to 320 kg), gloomy eyes, very white eyebrows, mustache and forelock.

What is he fighting for? For the liberation of the Zaporozhye Sich, for independence.

Way of fighting. Hostilities.

With what result? With deplorable. Everyone died.

What is it fighting against? Against the oppressor Poles, the foreign yoke, police despotism, old-world landowners and court satraps.

4. Stepan Paramonovich Kalashnikov

“Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, the young guardsman and the daring merchant Kalashnikov”

Hero. Stepan Paramonovich Kalashnikov, merchant class. Trades silks - with varying success. Moskvich. Orthodox. Has two younger brothers. He is married to the beautiful Alena Dmitrievna, because of whom the whole story came out.

Year of creation. 1838

What's the point? Lermontov was not keen on the theme of Russian heroism. He wrote romantic poems about nobles, officers, Chechens and Jews. But he was one of the first to find out that the 19th century was rich only in the heroes of its time, but heroes for all times should be sought in the deep past. There, in Moscow, Ivan the Terrible was found (or rather, invented) a hero with the now common name Kalashnikov. The young guardsman Kiribeevich falls in love with his wife and attacks her at night, persuading her to surrender. The next day, the offended husband challenges the guardsman to a fist fight and kills him with one blow. For the murder of his beloved guardsman and for the fact that Kalashnikov refuses to name the reason for his action, Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich orders the execution of the young merchant, but does not leave his widow and children with mercy and care. Such is royal justice.

What it looks like.

“His falcon eyes are burning,

He looks intently at the guardsman.

He becomes opposite to him,

He pulls on his combat gloves,

He straightens his mighty shoulders.”

What is he fighting for? For the honor of his woman and family. Neighbors saw Kiribeevich’s attack on Alena Dmitrievna, and now she cannot be seen honest people. Although, going into battle with the oprichnik, Kalashnikov solemnly declares that he is fighting “for the holy mother truth.” But the heroes sometimes distort.

Way of fighting. Fatal fist fight. Essentially a murder in broad daylight in front of thousands of witnesses.

With what result?

“And they executed Stepan Kalashnikov

A cruel, shameful death;

And the little head is mediocre

She rolled onto the chopping block covered in blood.”

But they buried Kiribeevich too.

What is it fighting against? Evil in the poem is personified by the guardsman with the foreign patronymic Kiribeevich, and also a relative of Malyuta Skuratov, that is, the enemy squared. Kalashnikov calls him “son of Basurman,” hinting at his enemy’s lack of Moscow registration. And this person of Eastern nationality delivers the first (aka the last) blow not to the merchant’s face, but to the Orthodox cross with relics from Kyiv, which hangs on the brave chest. He says to Alena Dmitrievna: “I am not some kind of thief, a forest murderer, / I am a servant of the Tsar, the terrible Tsar...” - that is, he hides behind the highest mercy. So heroic deed Kalashnikov is nothing more than a deliberate murder motivated by national hatred. Lermontov, who himself participated in the Caucasian campaigns and wrote a lot about the wars with the Chechens, was close to the theme of “Moscow for Muscovites” in its anti-Basurman context.

5. Danko “Old Woman Izergil”

Hero Danko. Biography unknown.

“In the old days, there lived only people in the world; impenetrable forests surrounded the camps of these people on three sides, and on the fourth there was the steppe. These were cheerful, strong and brave people... Danko is one of those people..."

Year of creation. The short story “Old Woman Izergil” was first published in Samara Gazeta in 1895.

What's the point? Danko is the fruit of the uncontrollable imagination of the same old woman Izergil, whose name is given to Gorky’s short story. A sultry Bessarabian old woman with a rich past tells a beautiful legend: during Ona’s time there was a redistribution of property - there was a showdown between two tribes. Not wanting to stay in the occupied territory, one of the tribes went into the forest, but there the people experienced mass depression, because “nothing - neither work nor women, exhausts the bodies and souls of people as much as sad thoughts exhaust.” At a critical moment, Danko did not allow his people to bow to the conquerors, but instead offered to follow him - in an unknown direction.

What it looks like.“Danko... a handsome young man. Beautiful people are always brave.”

What is he fighting for? Go figure. In order to get out of the forest and thereby ensure freedom for his people. It is unclear where the guarantee is that freedom is exactly where the forest ends.

Way of fighting. An unpleasant physiological operation, indicating a masochistic personality. Self-dismemberment.

With what result? With duality. He got out of the forest, but died immediately. Sophisticated abuse of one’s own body is not in vain. The hero did not receive gratitude for his feat: his heart, torn out of his chest with his own hands, was trampled under someone’s heartless heel.

What is it fighting against? Against collaboration, conciliation and sycophancy before conquerors.

6. Colonel Isaev (Stirlitz)

A body of texts, from “Diamonds for the Dictatorship of the Proletariat” to “Bombs for the Chairman,” the most important of the novels is “Seventeen Moments of Spring”

Hero. Vsevolod Vladimirovich Vladimirov, aka Maxim Maksimovich Isaev, aka Max Otto von Stirlitz, aka Estilitz, Bolzen, Brunn. An employee of the press service of the Kolchak government, an underground security officer, an intelligence officer, a history professor, exposing a conspiracy of Nazi followers.

Years of creation. Novels about Colonel Isaev were created over 24 years - from 1965 to 1989.

What's the point? In 1921, the security officer Vladimirov liberated the Far East from the remnants of the White Army. In 1927, they decided to send him to Europe - it was then that the legend of the German aristocrat Max Otto von Stirlitz was born. In 1944, he saves Krakow from destruction by helping the group of Major Whirlwind. At the very end of the war, he was entrusted with the most important mission - to disrupt separate negotiations between Germany and the West. In Berlin, the hero carries out his difficult task, simultaneously saving the radio operator Kat, the end of the war is already close, and the Third Reich is collapsing to the song “Seventeen Moments of April” by Marika Rekk. In 1945, Stirlitz was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

What it looks like. From the party description of von Stirlitz, a member of the NSDAP since 1933, SS Standartenführer (VI Department of the RSHA): “A true Aryan. Character - Nordic, seasoned. Maintains good relationships with workmates. Fulfills his official duty impeccably. Merciless towards the enemies of the Reich. An excellent athlete: Berlin tennis champion. Single; he was not noticed in any connections that discredited him. Recognized with awards from the Fuhrer and commendations from the Reichsfuhrer SS..."

What is he fighting for? For the victory of communism. It’s unpleasant to admit this to yourself, but in some situations - for the homeland, for Stalin.

Way of fighting. Intelligence and espionage, sometimes the deductive method, ingenuity, dexterity and camouflage.

With what result? On the one hand, he saves everyone who needs it and successfully carries out subversive activities; reveals secret intelligence networks and defeats the main enemy - Gestapo chief Müller. However Soviet country, for whose honor and victory he is fighting, thanks his hero in his own way: in 1947, he, who had just arrived in the Union on a Soviet ship, was arrested, and by order of Stalin, his wife and son were shot. Stirlitz leaves prison only after Beria's death.

What is it fighting against? Against whites, Spanish fascists, German Nazis and all enemies of the USSR.

7. Nikolai Stepanovich Gumilyov “Look into the eyes of monsters”

Hero Nikolai Stepanovich Gumilev, symbolist poet, superman, conquistador, member of the Order of the Fifth Rome, maker of Soviet history and fearless dragon slayer.

Year of creation. 1997

What's the point? Nikolai Gumilyov was not shot in 1921 in the dungeons of the Cheka. He was saved from execution by Yakov Wilhelmovich (or James William Bruce), a representative of the secret order of the Fifth Rome, created in the 13th century. Having acquired the gift of immortality and power, Gumilyov strides through the history of the 20th century, generously leaving his traces in it. He puts Marilyn Monroe to bed, simultaneously building chickens for Agatha Christie, gives valuable advice to Ian Fleming, due to his absurd character, he starts a duel with Mayakovsky and, leaving his cold corpse in Lubyansky Proezd, runs away, leaving the police and literary scholars to compose a version of suicide. He takes part in a writers' convention and becomes addicted to xerion, a magical drug based on dragon blood that gives immortality to members of the order. Everything would be fine - the problems begin later, when evil dragon forces begin to threaten not only the world in general, but the Gumilyov family: his wife Annushka and son Styopa.

What is he fighting for? First for goodness and beauty, then he no longer has time for lofty ideas - he simply saves his wife and son.

Way of fighting. Gumilyov participates in an unimaginable number of battles and battles, masters hand-to-hand combat techniques and all types of firearms. True, to achieve special sleight of hand, fearlessness, omnipotence, invulnerability and even immortality, he has to throw in xerion.

With what result? Nobody knows this. The novel “Look into the Eyes of Monsters” ends without giving an answer to this burning question. All the continuations of the novel (both “The Hyperborean Plague” and “The March of the Ecclesiastes”), firstly, are much less recognized by fans of Lazarchuk-Uspensky, and secondly, and this is the most important thing, they also do not offer the reader a solution.

What is it fighting against? Having learned about real reasons disasters that befell the world in the 20th century, he fights primarily against these misfortunes. In other words, with a civilization of evil lizards.

8. Vasily Terkin

"Vasily Terkin"

Hero. Vasily Terkin, reserve private, infantryman. Originally from near Smolensk. Single, no children. He has an award for the totality of his feats.

Years of creation. 1941–1945

What's the point? Contrary to popular belief, the need for such a hero appeared even before the Great Patriotic War. Tvardovsky came up with Terkin during the Finnish campaign, where he, together with the Pulkins, Mushkins, Protirkins and other characters in newspaper feuilletons, fought with the White Finns for the Motherland. So Terkin entered 1941 as an experienced fighter. By 1943, Tvardovsky was tired of his unsinkable hero and wanted to send him into retirement due to injury, but letters from readers returned Terkin to the front, where he spent another two years, was shell-shocked and was surrounded three times, conquered high and low heights, led battles in the swamps, liberated villages, took Berlin and even spoke with Death. His rustic but sparkling wit invariably saved him from enemies and censors, but it definitely did not attract girls. Tvardovsky even appealed to his readers to love his hero - just like that, from the heart. After all, Soviet heroes do not have the dexterity of James Bond.

What it looks like. Endowed with beauty He was not excellent, Not tall, not that small, But a hero - a hero.

What is he fighting for? For the cause of peace for the sake of life on earth, that is, his task, like that of any liberator soldier, is global. Terkin himself is sure that he is fighting “for Russia, for the people / And for everything in the world,” but sometimes, just in case, he mentions the Soviet government - no matter what happens.

Way of fighting. In war, as you know, any means are good, so everything is used: a tank, a machine gun, a knife, a wooden spoon, fists, teeth, vodka, the power of persuasion, a joke, a song, an accordion...

With what result?. He came close to death several times. He was supposed to receive a medal, but due to a typo in the list, the hero never received the award.

But imitators found it: by the end of the war, almost every company already had its own Terkin, and some had two.

What is it fighting against? First against the Finns, then against the Nazis, and sometimes also against Death. In fact, Terkin was called upon to fight depressive moods at the front, which he did with success.

9. Anastasia Kamenskaya

A series of detective stories about Anastasia Kamenskaya

Heroine. Nastya Kamenskaya, Major of the Moscow Criminal Investigation Department, Petrovka’s best analyst, a brilliant operative, investigating serious crimes in the manner of Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot.

Years of creation. 1992–2006

What's the point? The work of an operative involves difficult everyday life (the first evidence of this is the television series “Streets of Broken Lights”). But Nastya Kamenskaya finds it difficult to rush around the city and catch bandits in dark alleys: she is lazy, in poor health and loves peace more than anything else. Because of this, she periodically has difficulties in relations with management. Only her first boss and teacher, nicknamed Kolobok, had unlimited faith in her analytical abilities; to others, she has to prove that she best investigates bloody crimes by sitting in her office, drinking coffee and analyzing, analyzing.

What it looks like. Tall, thin blonde, expressionless facial features. He never wears cosmetics and prefers discreet, comfortable clothes.

What is he fighting for? Definitely not for a modest police salary: knowing five foreign languages ​​and having some connections, Nastya could leave Petrovka at any moment, but she doesn’t. It turns out that he is fighting for the triumph of law and order.

Way of fighting. First of all, analytics. But sometimes Nastya has to change her habits and go out on the warpath on her own. In this case, acting skills, the art of transformation and feminine charm are used.

With what result? Most often - with brilliant results: criminals are exposed, caught, punished. But in rare cases, some of them manage to escape, and then Nastya does not sleep at night, smokes one cigarette after another, goes crazy and tries to come to terms with the injustice of life. However, there are clearly more successful endings so far.

What is it fighting against? Against crime.

10. Erast Fandorin

A series of novels about Erast Fandorin

Hero. Erast Petrovich Fandorin, a nobleman, the son of a small landowner who lost his family fortune at cards. He began his career in the detective police with the rank of collegiate registrar, managed to visit the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878, serve in the diplomatic corps in Japan and displease Nicholas II. He rose to the rank of state councilor and resigned. Private detective and consultant to various influential people since 1892. Phenomenally lucky in everything, especially in gambling. Single. Has a number of children and other descendants.

Years of creation. 1998–2006

What's the point? The turn of the 20th–21st centuries once again turned out to be an era that is looking for heroes in the past. Akunin found his defender of the weak and oppressed in the gallant 19th century, but in that professional sphere that is becoming especially popular right now - in the special services. Of all Akunin's stylizing endeavors, Fandorin is the most charming and therefore enduring. His biography begins in 1856, the action of the last novel dates back to 1905, and the end of the story has not yet been written, so you can always expect new achievements from Erast Petrovich. Although Akunin, like Tvardovsky before, since 2000 everyone has been trying to do away with his hero and write the last novel about him. "Coronation" is subtitled "The Last of the Romances"; “Death's Lover” and “Death's Mistress,” written after it, were published as a bonus, but then it became clear that Fandorin’s readers would not let go so easily. The people need, they need, an elegant detective who knows languages ​​and is wildly popular with women. Not all “Cops”, indeed!

What it looks like.“He was a very handsome young man, with black hair (of which he was secretly proud) and blue (alas, it would have been better if he had also been black) eyes, quite tall, with white skin and a damned, ineradicable blush on his cheeks.” After the misfortune he experienced, his appearance acquired an intriguing detail for ladies - gray temples.

What is he fighting for? For an enlightened monarchy, order and legality. Fandorin dreams of a new Russia - ennobled in the Japanese style, with firmly and reasonably established laws and their scrupulous implementation. About Russia, which did not go through the Russo-Japanese and the First World War, revolution and civil war. That is, about Russia, which could be if we had enough luck and common sense build it.

Way of fighting. A combination of the deductive method, meditation techniques and Japanese martial arts with almost mystical luck. By the way, there is also female love, which Fandorin uses in every sense.

With what result? As we know, the Russia that Fandorin dreams of did not happen. So globally he suffers a crushing defeat. And in small things too: those whom he tries to save most often die, and the criminals never end up behind bars (they die, or pay off the trial, or simply disappear). However, Fandorin himself invariably remains alive, as does the hope for the final triumph of justice.

What is it fighting against? Against the unenlightened monarchy, bombing revolutionaries, nihilists and socio-political chaos, which can occur in Russia at any moment. Along the way, he has to fight bureaucracy, corruption in the highest echelons of power, fools, roads and ordinary criminals.

Illustrations: Maria Sosnina

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Introduction

1. Reflection of the features of the Russian mentality in the fiction of the 19th century

2. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Fiction actively participates in modern life, influencing the souls of people, their culture and ideology. And at the same time, it is a mirror: on its pages, in the images and paintings it created, the spiritual development of society over many decades is captured, the feelings, aspirations and aspirations of the masses of different stages of the country’s historical past are expressed, and the mentality of the Russian people is embodied.

Since the task of our research is to trace how the features of the character and culture of the Russian people are reflected in Russian literature, we will try to find manifestations of the above-mentioned features in works of fiction.

However, little scientific literature is devoted to this issue, only a few scientists have seriously worked on this topic, although by analyzing our past and present and identifying the direction of our character and culture, it is possible to determine the right path along which Russia should move in the future.

The object of our research is the culture and character of the Russian people, its characteristics and distinctive features.

When writing this work, three main methods were used: analysis and synthesis of philosophical literature on this issue, analysis and synthesis of fiction of the 19th century, and analysis of historical events in Russia.

The purpose of this work is to study the characteristics and distinctive features of the character and culture of the Russian people through works of philosophical and artistic literature and historical events.

The purpose of this study is to trace how the features of Russian character and culture are reflected in Russian literature.

1. Reflection of the features of the Russian mentality in fiction of the 19th century

If we turn to N.V. Gogol, then in his poem “Dead Souls” one can observe the manifestation of all that scope and ignorance of proportion that is so characteristic of the Russian people. The composition of the work is based on the journey of the main character Chichikov across the endless Russian expanses. Chichikov's britzka, a Russian troika, "equipped" by the "Yaroslavl efficient man", turns into symbolic image the rapid, “wonderful movement of Rus' into an unknown distance.”

The writer did not know where the Rus' Troika was rushing, because Rus' is wide and vast. In chapters V and IX we observe landscapes of endless fields and forests: “...And a mighty space envelops me menacingly, reflecting with terrible force in my depths; my eyes were illuminated with an unnatural power: wow! what a sparkling, wonderful, unfamiliar distance to the earth! Rus'!.. “But in the images created by Gogol we see scope, breadth, and prowess. Manilov is extremely sentimental and dreamy, which prevents him from effectively managing the land.

Nozdryov clearly expressed irrepressible energy in real life, daring and a destructive tendency to participate in all sorts of “stories,” fights, drinking bouts: “Nozdryov was in some respects historical person. Not a single meeting he attended was complete without a story. Some kind of story would certainly happen: either the gendarmes would lead him out of the hall by the arm, or his own friends would be forced to push him out. If this doesn’t happen, then something will happen that won’t happen to anyone else: either he will be cut up at the buffet in such a way that he only laughs, or he will break out in the most cruel way...” Gogol speaks about Plyushkina as a phenomenon unusual for Russia: “I must say that such a phenomenon rarely occurs in Rus', where everything likes to unfold rather than shrink.” Plyushkin is distinguished by greed, incredible stinginess, stinginess to the extreme, so he seems to “shrink.” reveling in the full breadth of the Russian prowess of the nobility, burning through life, as they say,” “loves to turn around.” The desire to cross the boundaries of decency, the rules of the game, any norms of behavior is the basis of Nozdryov’s character. He says such words when he goes to show Chichikov the boundaries of his estates: “This is the border! Everything you see on this side is all mine, and even on this side, all this forest that is turning blue, and everything beyond the forest, it’s all mine. and that there are no boundaries for him - the clearest example of such a feature of the Russian mentality as the desire for scope. His generosity even goes beyond all boundaries: he is ready to give Chichikov all the dead souls that he has, just to find out why he needs them. .

Plyushkin goes to the other extreme: a liqueur, carefully cleaned of dust and boogers, and a cake brought by his daughter, somewhat spoiled and turned into crackers, he offers to Chichikov. And if we talk about landowners in general, then their inhumanity knows no bounds, just as Nozdryov knows no bounds in his revelry. Breadth, going beyond boundaries, scope can be seen in everything; the poem is literally saturated with all this.

The record of the Russian people found its clearest reflection in Saltykov-Shchedrin’s “History of a City.” The tribe of bunglers, in order to achieve some kind of order, decided to gather all the other tribes living in the surrounding area, and “it started with kneading the Volga with oatmeal, then dragging the calf to the bathhouse, then boiling porridge in a purse”... But nothing came of it. Boiling porridge in the purse did not lead to order, and head scratching also did not produce results. Therefore, the bunglers decided to look for a prince. There is a phenomenon of searching for a defender, intercessor, and ruler, which is so characteristic of the Russian people. The bunglers cannot solve their problems on their own, they can only throw hats at the Kosobryukhs. The desire for revelry prevailed and led to complete disorder in the tribe. They need a leader who will do everything for everyone. The wisest in the tribe say this: “He will provide us with everything in an instant, he will make soldiers for us, and he will build the proper prison” (the breadth of space still puts pressure on the residents of Foolov, and they want to somehow isolate themselves, as evidenced by this detail, like a prison). The Foolovites, who are the personification of the Russian people, relaxed in the presence of Mayor Brudasty, and then, “as soon as the Foolovites found out that they were left completely without a mayor, driven by the power of love for the authorities, they immediately fell into anarchy,” which was manifested in the smashing of windows in a fashionable establishment of a French woman, in throwing Ivashki from the roll and drowning the innocent Porfishki. fiction gogol mentality

However, the intensification of administrative activity in Foolov led to the fact that the residents “overgrown with hair and sucked their paws.” And they even somehow got used to it! This is already happiness: “We live like this without having a real life.” The woman of the city, Foolov, is the force that brings movement to the life of the city. Strelchikha Domashka - “she was the type of woman-khalda, swearing casually,” “she had extraordinary courage,” “from morning to evening her voice rang throughout the settlement.” Mayor Ferdyshchenko even forgot why he came to the field, what he wanted to tell the Foolovites when he saw Domashka, “acting in one shirt, in front of everyone, with a pitchfork in her hands.”

If we pay attention to the contenders for the position of mayor, we see from the description that each of them has a masculine trait: Iraidka, “of an unyielding character, courageous build,” Klemantinka “had high growth“, loved to drink vodka and rode horseback like a man,” and Amalia, a strong, lively German woman. It should also be noted that in the legend of the six mayors, for some time the government was in the hands of Clémentine de Bourbon, who was connected with France by some family relationship; the German Amalia Karlovna Shtokfish, the Polish Anelya Aloizievna Lyadokhovskaya. In the novel “Oblomov” by I.A. Goncharov we also find manifestations of the features of the Russian mentality. The clearest example passive person - Ilya Ilyich Oblomov. And the point is not whether he is just a slacker and a lazy person, who has nothing sacred, just sitting in his place, or whether he is a person of highly developed culture, wise and spiritually rich, he, however, does not show activity. Throughout almost the entire novel we see him lying on the sofa. He can’t even put on boots and a shirt himself, because he’s used to relying on his servant Zakhar. Oblomov was brought out of his state of “immobility and boredom” by his friend Andrei Stolz (again, a German). The passivity of the Russian people, called by Berdyaev “eternally feminine,” finds an outlet in Goncharov’s description of Ilya Ilyich: “in general, his body, judging by the matte, overly white color of his neck, small plump arms, soft shoulders, seemed too pampered for a man.” His lying on the sofa was occasionally relieved by the appearance of fellow revelers, for example, the ardent reveler and robber Tarantiev, in whom one can hear a echo of Gogol’s Nozdryov. Immersion in the depths of thought and spiritual life, distracting Oblomov from external life, presupposes a leader who will always guide the hero that Stolz becomes. Oblomov's passivity is also manifested in his love for Olga Ilyinskaya.

The letter that was written to her began with the fact that it was very strange for such a letter to appear, since Olga and Ilya Ilyich see each other a lot and an explanation could have been completed long ago. This indicates some timidity, passivity even in such a matter as love!.. It is from Ilyinskaya that the initiative comes. It is Olga who always brings Oblomov into conversations, she is some kind of engine of these relationships (like a real Russian woman, brave, strong and persistent), offering some meetings, walks, evenings, and in this we see an illustration of that feature of the mentality of the Russian people , which characterizes the position of women and men.

Another feature of the Russian mentality - Russian love - can be seen in this work. Oblomov, realizing that “they don’t like people like that,” did not demand from Olga reciprocal feelings for his love, he even tries to warn her against the mistaken choice of a groom in his person: “You are mistaken, look around!” This is the sacrifice of Russian love. You can also note another feature of the Russian mentality - duality, since Oblomov does not want to admit what is so unpleasant for him - the erroneous, false love of Olga Ilyinskaya - and can marry her to himself while she thinks that she loves, but we immediately encounter a characteristic of the Russian people inconsistency: he is afraid of hurting Olga by marrying her to him forever, and at the same time hurting himself because he loves the heroine and breaks off relations with her. The image of Agafya Pshenitsina also illustrates the passivity and sacrifice of Russian love: she does not want to disturb Oblomov with her feeling: “Agafya Matveevna makes no urgings, no demands.” Thus, using the example of Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov,” we traced how the following traits manifest themselves in literature: sacrifice and cruelty in love, intelligence and passivity, fear of suffering and inconsistency. The stories of Nikolai Semenovich Leskov “Chertogon” and “The Enchanted Wanderer” very clearly illustrate the above-mentioned features of the mentality of the Russian people.

In the first story "Chertogon" we can observe a ritual "that can only be seen in Moscow alone." Over the course of one day, a number of events happen to the hero of the story, Ilya Fedoseevich, which are narrated to the reader by his nephew, who saw his uncle for the first time and spent all this time with him. In the image of Ilya Fedoseevich, that Russian prowess is represented, that Russian scope, which is expressed by the proverb to walk like that. He goes to the restaurant (where he is always a welcome guest), and on his orders, all visitors are kicked out of the restaurant and they begin to prepare every single dish indicated on the menu for a hundred people, they order two orchestras and invite all the most eminent persons of Moscow.

The author lets the reader know that Ilya Fedoseevich sometimes forgets about moderation and can plunge into revelry by assigning to his hero the “half-grey, massive giant” Ryabyk, who “was in a special position” - to protect his uncle, in order to have someone to pay . The party was in full swing all evening. There was also forest cutting: my uncle cut down exotic trees displayed in the restaurant, since the gypsies from the choir were hiding behind them; “they were taken prisoner”: dishes were flying, the rumble and cracking of trees was heard. “Finally, the stronghold was taken: the gypsies were grabbed, hugged, kissed, each one stuck a hundred rubles for the “corsage”, and the matter was over...” The theme of the worship of beauty can be traced, as the uncle was fascinated by the gypsy charm. Ilya Fedoseevich and all the guests did not skimp on money, as they threw expensive dishes at each other and paid a hundred rubles here and there. At the end of the evening, Ryabyka paid for all this revelry instead of his uncle with a huge amount of money - as much as seventeen thousand, and his uncle just without any concern, “with a calmed and rejuvenated soul,” said to pay. The whole breadth of the Russian soul is evident, ready to live life through and not be limited by anything: for example, the requirement to lubricate the wheels with honey, which “is more interesting in the mouth.”

But also in this story there is a “combination of the difficult to combine” and that special Russian holiness, which requires only humility, even in sin: after such a revelry, the uncle cleans himself up in the hairdresser and visits the baths. Such a message as the death of a neighbor with whom Ilya Fedoseevich had been drinking tea for forty years in a row was not surprising. The uncle replied that “we will all die,” which was only confirmed by the fact that he walked like the last time, without denying anything and without limiting himself in anything. And then he sent to take the stroller to Vsepeta (!) - he wanted to “fall before Vsepeta and cry about his sins.”

And in his repentance, the Russian knows no limits - he prays so that it is as if the hand of God is lifting him by the tuft. Ilya Fedoseevich is both from God and from the demon: “his spirit is burning towards heaven, but his legs are still in hell.” In Leskov's story "The Enchanted Wanderer" we see a hero who, throughout the entire story, is a combination of mutually exclusive properties. Ivan Flyagin overcomes a difficult path, which is a circle in which we can observe all the above-mentioned features of the Russian mentality, the defining of which is duality. The entire work is built on a complete antithesis and the connecting link of the opposing elements is Flyagin himself. Let's turn to the plot. He, a praying son, protected by the Lord (which in itself contradicts the commission of some kind of sin), saves the count and countess, feels compassion for the murdered missionaries, but the death of the monk and Tatar is on his conscience; whatever the reason, he killed Grusha. Also, the inconsistency of the image lies in the fact that he loves a gypsy, whom he barely knows, Grushenka, and does not recognize his Tatar wives, although he lived with them for eleven years; he cares for someone else's child, but does not love his own legitimate children because they are not baptized. When Flyagin lived in the count's house, he kept pigeons, and the count's cat ate the eggs laid by the dove, so the hero decided to take revenge on her and cut off her tail with an ax.

This speaks to the inconsistency of his character - love for a bird (or a horse, since Flyagin’s work was connected with them) coexists with such cruelty towards a cat. Flyagin cannot resist making an “exit”, implying that he will not be there for a certain amount of time, since any such exit is not complete without visiting a tavern, if this is not the main reason at all... Here is an example of Russian ignorance of proportions: Flyagin is going with five thousand rubles from his master to a tavern, where, under the influence of some kind of magnetizer (by the way, speaking in French words, which emphasizes the knowledge of a Russian person under the influence of foreign influence), he is treated for drunkenness with vodka (!), as a result of which he gets drunk as hell in literally of this word and wanders into a tavern (again, the story contains gypsies, who in Russian fiction are a symbol of daring, scope, revelry, drunken fun and revelry), where the gypsies are singing.

With all his broad Russian soul, he begins to throw the lord’s “swans” at the gypsy’s feet, like the rest of the guests (it is no coincidence that “other guests” are used in the stories - Ilya Fedoseevich cut down trees with a late general, and Flyagin was constantly trying to outdo the hussar - so as these heroes are not isolated phenomena, they constitute the whole Russian people), infected with this captivating carefree fun of the gypsy tavern, first one at a time, and then a whole fan: “Why should I torture myself like this in vain! I’ll let my soul walk to its heart’s content.” It is interesting that on the way to the tavern, Flyagin goes into the church to pray so that the master’s money does not disappear, as if anticipating a loss of control over himself, and, by the way, manages to show the demon a figurine in the temple. Here, such features of the Russian mentality as leadership and worship of beauty are also manifested: Flyagin no longer controls, power over him belongs to the beautiful gypsy Grushenka, who captivated the hero with her unprecedented beauty. Flyagin says the following words about this: “I can’t even answer her: she did this to me right away! Right away, that is, when she bent over the tray in front of me and I saw how it was between the black hairs on her head, as if silver, the parting curls and falls behind my back, so I went crazy, and all my mind was taken away from me... “Here it is,” I think, “where the real beauty is, what nature calls perfection...” There is also Russian love in this story, which manifested itself in the murder of Grusha, who would forever be tormented by feelings for the prince and his betrayal: “I trembled all over, and told her to pray, and did not stab her, but took her and pushed her off the steep slope into the river...” Despite all those sins that the hero accomplished in his life, during the narration of this story he became a church minister. Flyagin walks the path of sin, but prays and repents of his sins, for which he becomes a righteous man. From the example of this image, we see that the angelic and the demonic can coexist in a Russian person. , how great is the amplitude of fluctuation - from committing a murder to becoming God's servant.

In the poem by N.A. Nekrasov can trace the features of the Russian mentality. The scope of the Russian soul is clearly presented here: “In the village of Bosovo, Yakim Nagoy lives, he works until he’s dead, he drinks half to death!..” Accustomed to turning around in everything, the Russian man forgets to pause here too. We can observe in the poem a manifestation of such a feature of the Russian mentality as admiration for beauty. During the fire, Yakim Nagoy ran first to save pictures with beautiful images bought for his son. We also note that people see their happiness in suffering! Although this contradicts another feature of the mentality - the fear of any suffering in general. Perhaps the people would like to avoid some “single” griefs, but when their whole life consists of only sad things, they learn to live with it and even find in it some kind of happiness that is understandable, probably only to the Russian people... in suffering, in agony! In the poem it is written like this: “Hey, peasant happiness! Leaky with patches, hunchbacked with calluses...” in the poem there are a lot of songs that reflect the mood of the people, which express the above-mentioned feature of the Russian mentality: “- Eat the prison, Yasha! Milk- then no! “Where is our cow?” - Take away my light! The master took her home for the offspring. This song is called cheerful. In the chapter about Savely, the Bogatyr of Svyatorus, we meet a peasant who suffered torture every year for non-payment of tribute, but was even proud of it, because he was a hero and protected others with his chest: “The arms are twisted with chains, the legs are forged with iron, the back... the dense forests have passed along it - they broke. And the chest of Elijah the prophet thunders along it - rides on a chariot of fire... The hero endures everything! There is a Russian woman, strong, hardy, brave - Matryona Timofeevna: “Matryona Timofeevna, a dignified woman, broad and dense, about thirty-eight years old. Beautiful; graying hair, large, stern eyes, rich eyelashes, stern and dark-skinned. She is wearing a white shirt, a short sundress, and a sickle over her shoulder.” She endures all the hardships of life, cruelty from her father-in-law and mother-in-law, from her sister-in-law. Matryona Timofeevna sacrifices herself for the sake of her beloved husband and endures his family: “The family was huge, grumpy... I ended up in hell from my maiden holiday!.. For the eldest sister-in-law, for the pious Martha, work like a slave; keep an eye on your father-in-law, if you fail, the innkeeper will lose redeem." And her husband Philip, the intercessor (the leading Russian follower; the governor and the governor’s wife, to whom Matryona Timofeevna went to resolve her trouble), act as a leader, in the role of intercessor in the poem, hit her, albeit only once: “Philip Ilyich I got angry, waited until I put the pot on the pole, and hit me on the temple!.. Filyushka also added... And that’s it!” Belief in omens and superstition, in fate in this poem is reflected in the fact that Matryona Timofeevna’s mother-in-law was always offended if someone acted, forgetting about omens; Even famine in the village happened because Matryona put on a clean shirt on Christmas Day. Savely said the following words: “no matter how you fight, stupid, what is written in your family cannot be avoided! Men have three paths: a tavern, a prison and hard labor, and women in Rus' have three nooses: white silk, the second - red silk, and the third - black silk, choose any!.." Another feature of the Russian mentality - holiness - is reflected in the following episodes of the poem. Grandfather Savely goes to the monastery after neglecting Demushka, in search of remission of sins. In the story of two great sinners, we again see Russian holiness. In Kudeyar, the robber chieftain, “God awakened his conscience.” For repentance of sins, “God took pity.” The murder of the sinful Pan Glukhovsky is a manifestation of full awareness of the sins once committed by Kudeyar, the murder of a sinner atones for sins, therefore the tree that Kudeyar had to cut with a knife fell itself as a sign of forgiveness: “Just now the bloody master fell with his head on the saddle, a huge tree collapsed , the echo shook the whole forest." It is no coincidence that we noted precisely the external manifestations of the Russian mentality. What explains this behavior of the heroes of the above-mentioned works can be found in Tyutchev’s lyrics and when considering the connection between the hero of Dostoevsky’s novel Mitya Karamazov and Apollo Grigoriev.

In Tyutchev’s lyrics one can observe how the features of the mentality of the Russian people manifest themselves. In many poems, the poet talks about contradictions, about absolutely opposite things that coexist simultaneously in the Russian soul.

For example, in the poem “O my prophetic soul!” illustrates the duality of the soul of the Russian person: “Let the suffering chest be agitated by fatal passions - the soul is ready, like Mary, to cling to the feet of Christ forever.” That is, again, the soul is a “dweller of two worlds” - the sinful world and the holy world. We again see a contradiction in the words of the lyrical hero: “Oh, how you are beating on the threshold of a kind of double existence!..” in the poem “Our Century” we note the combination of unbelief and faith in one person: “Let me in! - I believe, my God ! Come to the aid of my unbelief!..” The hero turns to God, therefore, the desire to believe and the desire to deny everything coexist in him, his soul constantly fluctuates between these two opposite sides. In the poem “Day and Night” we see confirmation that at the heart of the Russian soul there is always something darkly elemental, chaotic, wild, drunken: “and the abyss is exposed to us with its fears and darkness, and there are no barriers between us ..." We observe the cruelty and sacrifice of Russian love in the poem "Oh, how murderously we love...":

"Fate is a terrible sentence

your love was for her,

and undeserved shame

she laid down her life!

And what about the long torment?

like ashes, did she manage to save them?

Pain, the evil pain of bitterness,

pain without joy and without tears!

Oh, how murderously we love!

As in the violent blindness of passions

we are most likely to destroy,

what is dearer to our hearts!..”

Speaking about the Russian mentality, one cannot speak about such a person as Apollo Grigoriev. A parallel can be drawn between him and the hero of Dostoevsky’s novel Mitya Karamazov. Grigoriev was not, of course, in the full sense the prototype of Dmitry Karamazov, but, nevertheless, we see in the latter many characteristic Grigoriev traits and the connection between them seems quite close.

Mitya Karamazov is a man of nature. The minute dominates his life, dragging him along with it and constantly revealing two abysses. Delight and fall, Schiller and debauchery, noble impulses and base deeds alternately, or even together, burst into his life. Already these fairly obvious features indicate a mental situation very close to Grigoriev’s. It is precisely the collision of the ideal and the earthly, the need for higher existence with a passionate thirst for life can be seen both in the fate of Grigoriev and in the fate of Mitya. If we take as an example the attitude towards a woman and love, then for both of them it is like some point in life at which contradictions converge. For Mitya, the ideal of the Madonna somehow came into contact with the ideal of Sodom (two extremes), and he was unable to separate them. Grigoriev had that “ideal of the Madonna” seen in Murillo’s painting. In the Louvre, he prays to the Venus de Milo to send him “a woman - a priestess, not a merchant.” The frenzied Karamazov feeling can be heard in his letters almost as clearly as in Mitya’s hymns to Queen Grushenka. “To be honest: what have I not done to myself in recent times? four years. No matter what meannesses I allowed myself in relation to women, as if taking revenge on them all for the damned Puritan purity of one - and nothing helped... I sometimes love her to the point of baseness, to the point of self-humiliation, although she was the only thing that could raise me. But there will be...” Such duality, the incompatibility of the two sides of existence, tears at the soul of Apollo Grigoriev in its Karamazovian way. Submission to the unconscious elements does not yet bring internal integrity. He realized that he was releasing forces “wild and unbridled,” and already, while above These forces took away more and more power from him, he felt more and more acutely that he was not living as he should. Here are examples from his letters: “A whole period of dissolute and ugly life lay here like a layer, and from it I escaped as the same wild gentleman who is known. to you from all its good and bad sides... how I lived in Paris, it’s better not to ask about that. Poisonous melancholy, crazy - bad hobbies, drunkenness to the point of visions - this is life."

The two abysses of Apollo Grigoriev’s life became more and more clearly visible. He wrote about the duality of the Russian soul and tried to justify with it everything that happened to him. But the duality with his keen critical consciousness also turned out to be unbearable. From the end of his stay in Italy, there was a struggle in his soul, a struggle between life and death. He wrote: “For me, for example, no human efforts can either save or correct me. For me there are no experiences - I fall into eternal spontaneous aspirations... I thirst for nothing more than death... Neither of me nor of us has anything at all comes out and can’t come out.” He still continued to believe in life with an impenetrable Russian faith, which, in fact, is difficult to define as a life phenomenon - what is Russian faith? Grigoriev felt himself captured by the whirlwind principle and, in the name of his faith, surrendered to it to the end with that feeling that Alexander Blok later called the love of death. A terrible monument his last wandering was the poem “Up the Volga,” ending with a groan: “Vodka or what?..” up the Volga Grigoriev returned to St. Petersburg, where a debt prison and a quick death awaited him, a forty-year-old man, almost under the fence.

The rhythm of vortex movement is equally present in the lives of Apollo Grigoriev and Dmitry Karamazov. In Dostoevsky's novel this rhythm plays an almost decisive role. Despite the stops and turns in Mitya’s fate, the speed of movement is increasing, and life is rapidly carrying Mitya towards disaster. This rhythm finds its highest expression in the scene of desperate driving in the wet, when the passion for a woman fights in him with the passion of renunciation and shame for what was done depicts the only way out for the confused mind - suicide. “And yet, despite all the determination he had made, his soul was vague, vague to the point of suffering, and the determination did not give him peace... There was one moment on the way that he suddenly wanted... to take out his loaded pistol and end everything without waiting and dawn. But that moment flew by like a spark. And the trio flew, “devouring space,” and as they approached the goal, again the thought of her, of her alone, took his breath away more and more.”

And in the fall, Grigoriev finds delight and beauty, if there is no other way out, and finds the only true and beautiful solution to fall to the end, as the Russian scale allows. Just like Mitya: “Because if I’m going to fly into the abyss, I’ll do it straight, head down and heels up, and I’m even pleased that it’s in this humiliating position that I fall and consider it beauty for myself.” Apollo Grigoriev also traces the theme of gypsies in the cycle “Struggle” - a Hungarian gypsy woman. In him we finally see an accurate and comprehensive definition of the gypsy theme: “It’s you, the dashing spree, you are the fusion of evil sadness with the voluptuousness of the Badeyarka - you, the motive of the Hungarian!”

In general, Mitya and Apollo Grigoriev were always attracted by beauty, and perhaps because “beauty is a terrible and terrible thing,” a mysterious thing, a “divine riddle,” to guess which means to say goodbye to this light; “When you look into the abyss, you don’t want to go back, and it’s impossible.” But the desire to give an accurate, almost mathematical definition is not inherent in the poet... Yes, Grigoriev the scientist was not completely defeated by Grigoriev the poet and Grigoriev the scientist did not completely defeat Grigoriev the poet, leaving Apollo Grigoriev in a state bifurcation. Grigoriev the man, the Russian, the truly Russian man, won. Before us are different works by different authors, but they are united by some common features, traced here and there: breadth, scope, an unbridled desire to look into the abyss, to fall into it, and the desire of the soul for the light, for the divine, for the temple, she had just left the tavern. Flyagin, Ilya Fedoseevich, Oblomov, Yakim Nagoy, Tarantiev, Nozdrev - this is a whole gallery of images illustrating the features of the Russian mentality. Oscillation from one extreme to another - from the tavern to the temple for Ilya Fedoseevich, from the temple to the tavern for Ivan Flyagin - closes the path of the Russian person in an endless circle, in which other features of the mentality of the Russian people, such as knowledge, passivity, worship, manage to manifest themselves. beauty, holiness, etc. The interaction of all these traits confirms that we have not listed some independent and isolated traits that appear among the Russian people, we have named the traits of the mentality, which by definition is a combination of these traits and something holistic, unified, where each element is in close connection with another.

2. Russian artistic culture of the second half of the 19th centuryA

Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century continues the traditions of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol. There is a strong influence of criticism on the literary process, especially the master's thesis of N.G. Chernyshevsky "Aesthetic relations of art to reality." His thesis that beauty is life underlies many literary works of the second half of the 19th century.

This is where the desire to reveal the causes of social evil comes from. The main theme of works of literature and, more broadly, works of Russian artistic culture At this time, the theme of the people, its acute social and political meaning, becomes.

In literary works, images of men appear - righteous people, rebels and altruistic philosophers.

Works by I.S. Turgeneva, N.A. Nekrasova, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky's works are distinguished by a variety of genres and forms, and stylistic richness. The special role of the novel in literary process as phenomena in the history of world culture, in artistic development of all humanity.

"Dialectics of the soul" became important discovery Russian literature of this period.

Along with the appearance of the “great novel,” small narrative forms of great Russian writers appear in Russian literature (please look at the literature program). I would also like to note the dramatic works of A.N. Ostrovsky and A.P. Chekhov. In poetry, N.A.’s high civic position is especially highlighted. Nekrasov, soulful lyrics by F.I. Tyutchev and A.A. Feta.

Conclusion

Solving the assigned tasks, studying materials on this topic, we came to the conclusion that the Russian mentality has the following features and distinctive features: ignorance of proportion, breadth and scope (illustrations are such heroes of works of fiction as the “wasting life” reveler Nozdryov from Gogol’s poem , the reveler and robber Tarantyev from Oblomov, Ilya Fedoseevich, ordering dinner from the most expensive dishes for a hundred people and arranging the cutting of exotic trees in a restaurant, Ivan Flyagin, getting drunk in a tavern and squandering five thousand rubles in a night in a lordly tavern); knowledge and irresistible faith (this trait is clearly reflected in the “History of a City” by Saltykov-Shchedrin: without the prince there was no order, and the residents of the city of Foolov threw off Ivashki and drowned the innocent Porfishek, believing that a new city chief would come and will arrange their life, bring order); passivity (an example of a passive person is Ilya Ilyich Oblomov, who cannot deal with economic affairs, and even cannot be active in love); a Russian man is a generator of ideas, a Russian woman is the engine of Russian life (Olga Ilyinskaya orders Oblomov to read books and then talk about them, calls him for walks and invites him to visit, she feels love when Ilya Ilyich is already thinking about what she will do in the future meet your true other half); cruelty and sacrifice in Russian love (In the story “The Enchanted Wanderer,” Ivan Flyagin kills Grushenka, the one he loves, and Ilya Ilyich Oblomov breaks up with Olga, although he loves); admiration for beauty (Yakim Naga in Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” During a fire, he ran to save the pictures that he had once bought for his son, since they depicted something very beautiful. The reader does not know what exactly was in the pictures, but the author makes it clear that people are drawn to beauty with irresistible force, they are attracted by beauty); holiness (Ilya Fedoseevich from Leskov’s story “Chertogon” allows himself to drunkenly cut down trees, break dishes in a restaurant and chase gypsy girls from the choir and at the same time repent for all this in the temple, where, by the way, as in the restaurant, he is a regular) ; duality, inconsistency, combination of the difficult to combine (Mitya Karamazov and Apollon Grigoriev constantly fluctuate between delight and fall, find happiness in grief, rush between a tavern and a temple, want to die from love, and when dying, they talk about love, look for an ideal and immediately surrender earthly hobbies, desire a higher heavenly existence and combine this with an irresistible thirst to live).

Bibliography

1. Gachev G.D. Mentality of the peoples of the world. M., Eksmo, 2003.

2. Likhachev D.S. Thoughts about Russia: St. Petersburg: LOGOS Publishing House, 2001.

3. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1997.

4. Likhachev D.S. Three foundations of European culture and Russian historical experience // Likhachev D.S. Selected works on Russian and world culture. St. Petersburg, 2006. P. 365.

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Russian character... There are so many legends and stories about him. Are there many such people, are they Russian or not? I think that there are many such people and that even people of other nationalities can be called a person with Russian character. All this is because “Russian character” is an expression, a phraseological unit, which means that a person is morally very strong, resilient, can endure a test of any complexity and not “break.” I believe that few people have a Russian character, but there are still such people.

Let's look at people with such a character using examples from literature and life. For example, the heroes, about whom legends were made and films and cartoons were made, had a resilient and strong character, never gave up, did everything for the good of society, and therefore had a “Russian character”.

Also, the main character of Boris Polevoy’s work “The Tale of a Real Man” has a “Russian character”. Alexey Meresyev was left without feet in battle, which immediately deprived him of further service in the armed forces. But the main character did not give up, every day he trained, learned to walk, dance, and fly an airplane again. He had a “Russian character”, which is why he found the strength to continue working on himself. After some time, he fully recovered and returned to the ranks of the armed forces.

Also in the story “Russian Character”, which was written by Alexei Tolstoy, a person with a truly “Russian character” is described. Egor Dremov was seriously wounded during the battle, his face was completely disfigured that even his parents did not recognize him by his appearance. So Yegor Dremov, after recovery and undergoing operations, returned to service. Main character he didn’t give up, made great efforts to recover and he succeeded. After everything he had experienced, Yegor Dremov came home, but did not tell his parents that he was their son. He didn’t want to bring pain to his parents and his girlfriend, but his loved ones still recognized him and accepted him for who he is. Yegor Dremov is a man with a truly “Russian character”, because he endured all the difficulties and fought against them.

Thus, drawing a conclusion from all of the above, I would like to add that a person with a “Russian character” can not only be Russian, he can have any nationality, because what is more important is what qualities he possesses. If a person is truly courageous, morally strong, hardy, brave, courageous, valiant, kind, honest and sympathetic, then he can be called a person with a “Russian character”. If a person is not afraid to be responsible for his actions, if he can always help everyone, if he is smart, then we can say that he has a “Russian character.” If a person respects people and behaves decently, then he can be called a person with Russian character. Thus, the title of a person with “Russian character” must be earned, and then also lived up to it.

Russian national character

The Russian national character has always been quite unique and individual. It is very diverse, which is associated with a large number of difficulties and trials that the Russian people have had to experience throughout their time. Thanks to all this, the Russian character is characterized by masculinity, perseverance, a sense of duty and love for the homeland. This is confirmed in numerous classical works. Russian writers and poets.

The main component of the Russian national character is mentality. First, let's figure out what mentality is. Mentality is a complex of emotional and cultural values ​​belonging to one nation or people. It follows from this that every country and every people has its own mentality, and Russia is no exception.

Perhaps every foreigner knows that Russian people are the most friendly and hospitable, but we know that this is not entirely true. Only here can responsiveness coexist with indifference, and goodwill with rudeness. Most psychologists around the world associate this with serfdom, autocracy and famine, which, in their opinion, never existed in the West. But as you know, this is not at all the case, because they constantly create the impression that everything is good and beautiful there, and that it has always been and will always be so.

According to one American psychologist, Nicholas Bright, this character of the Russian people was formed thanks to the idea of ​​collective empathy, as a result of which our people were able to maintain unity and survive all the difficulties that our people faced.

What actually is the Russian folk character in this dualism? The sincerity of our character lies in the fact that we do not hide our emotions and feelings. If you are having fun, then to the fullest, and if you are angry, then so that everyone can hear. Also, laziness for us is a normal phenomenon, based on which we always blame someone else (the state, the authorities or magnetic storms). If we need to take responsibility, then this is not about us; in most cases, we will shift it to someone else. Russian people sometimes think “that even the apples in the neighbor’s garden are better” and at the same time we ourselves don’t want to move on. In addition to everything said above, I would like to add that we can argue that living in Russia is bad, but at the same time we will stand up as a wall for our state if all this comes from the mouth of a foreigner.

Essay on Russian character

The character of any person is revealed in the most difficult life circumstances. Therefore, using the example different heroes writers show the true Russian character in many of their works.

The most terrible and terrible events occur in the destinies of people during the war. It is precisely at this moment that people’s character manifests itself, some lose heart, and some give their lives for their homeland.

Many pilots, facing certain death, directed their planes at the enemy, knowing that after the collision they would die.

It is precisely in such actions that the strength of the Russian character is visible, this is heroism, selflessness and boundless courage and bravery. For the sake of a common cause, for the sake of victory over a common enemy, all the inhabitants of our country united and stood until their last breath.

As a result, the long-awaited victory and the expulsion of the German invaders from our land. Using the example of the hero Yegor Dremov, writer A.N. Tolstoy shows true character Russian soldier.

During the Battle, Yegor was wounded and received terrible scars on his face; the surgeon was unable to restore the soldier’s former appearance. This circumstance did not break the soldier; he answered his general that he was ready to go into battle again.

When Yegor was in the area of ​​his native land, he came to his village, but did not go to his parents, for fear of scaring and upsetting his mother. After their regiment moved on, Yegor received a letter about his mother. She wrote that she loved him and the most important thing was that he was alive.

Unbroken character, courage, perseverance and fortitude, these are the character traits we see in this hero. Another example of dedication and devotion to the homeland, the hero Andrey Sokolov, from the work of Sholokhov.

He was called up to war, served honestly and selflessly, when he saw a traitor in his ranks, he destroyed this man. While in German captivity Andrei behaved with dignity, which earned him the respect of the German soldiers. When Andrei got out of captivity, he learned that he had neither a family nor a home.

This is so tragic and unbearable, but the hero does not give up and continues to fight. And when he comes across a boy who has lost his family and home, he decides to keep it for himself. This act shows compassion for people.

The example of such people shows the strength of the Russian character, this strength of courage and courage can be seen in many works of Russian writers.

Since ancient times, people have admired the power of nature and were completely dependent on any natural influences. Now the situation is completely different, but does nature cease to amaze us with its power?