Humans and apes are approximately 98 percent genetically similar, but even the external differences between them are more than obvious. Monkeys hear, see differently and physically develop faster.
Structure
Many features that distinguish humans from apes are immediately noticeable. For example, upright walking. Despite the fact that gorillas can easily move on hind legs, for them this is an unnatural process. For humans, ease of movement in an upright position is provided by a flexible lumbar deflection, arched foot and long straight legs, which monkeys lack.
But between man and ape there are distinctive features, which only zoologists can tell about. For example, experts note that some of the characteristics make a person closer to marine mammals than to primates - these are a thick layer of fat and skin rigidly attached to the muscular frame.
There are significant differences in the vocal capabilities of humans and monkeys. Thus, our larynx occupies a much lower position in relation to the mouth than that of any other primate species. The resulting common “tube” provides a person with exceptional speech resonator capabilities.
Brain
Almost three times the volume of the human brain more brain monkeys - 1600 and 600 cm3, which gives us an advantage in the development of mental abilities. The monkey brain lacks the speech centers and association areas that humans have. This gave rise not only to our first signaling system(conditional and unconditioned reflexes), but also the second, responsible for speech forms of communication.
But more recently, British scientists have discovered a much more noticeable feature in the human brain that is missing in the monkey brain: the lateral frontal pole of the prefrontal cortex. He is the one responsible for strategic planning, task differentiation and decision making.
Hearing
Human hearing is particularly sensitive to the perception of sound frequencies - in the range of approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz. But some monkeys have a greater ability to distinguish between frequencies than humans. For example, Philippine tarsiers can hear sounds with frequencies up to 90,000 Hz.
True, the selective ability of human auditory neurons, which allow us to perceive differences in sounds that differ by 3-6 Hz, is higher than that of monkeys. Moreover, people have a unique ability to relate sounds to each other.
However, monkeys can also perceive a number of repeated sounds different heights, but if this row is shifted up or down several tones (change the key), then the melodic pattern will be unrecognizable to the animals. It is not difficult for a person to guess the same sequence of sounds in different keys.
Childhood
Newborn children are absolutely helpless and completely dependent on their parents, while baby monkeys can already hang and move from place to place. Unlike apes, humans need a much longer time to mature. So, for example, a female gorilla reaches sexual maturity by the age of 8, given that her gestation period is almost the same as that of a woman.
Newborn children, unlike baby monkeys, have much less developed instincts - a person acquires most life skills during the learning process. It is important to note that a person is formed in the process of direct communication with his own kind, while a monkey is born with an already established form of its existence.
Sexuality
Due to innate instincts, a male monkey is always able to recognize when a female is ovulating. Humans lack this ability. But there is a more significant difference between people and monkeys: this is the occurrence of menopause in humans. The only exception in the animal world is the black dolphin.
Humans and apes also differ in the structure of their genital organs. Thus, not a single ape has a hymen. On the other hand, the male genital organ of any primate contains a grooved bone (cartilage), which is absent in humans. There is another characteristic feature regarding sexual behavior. Face-to-face sexual contact, so popular among humans, is unnatural for monkeys.
Genetics
Geneticist Steve Jones once noted that “50% of human DNA is similar to bananas, but that doesn’t mean we’re half bananas, either from head to waist or from waist to toe.” The same can be said when comparing a person with a monkey. The minimal difference in the genotype of humans and monkeys - approximately 2% - nevertheless creates a huge gap between the species.
The difference includes about 150 million unique nucleotides, which contain about 50 million individual mutation events. Such changes, according to scientists, cannot be achieved even on an evolutionary time scale of 250 thousand generations, which once again refutes the theory of human origins from higher primates.
There are also significant differences between humans and apes in the set of chromosomes: while we have 46, gorillas and chimpanzees have 48. Moreover, human chromosomes contain genes that are absent in chimpanzees, which reflects the difference between the immune system of humans and animals. Another interesting statement by geneticists is that the human Y chromosome differs from a similar chimpanzee chromosome as much as it differs from the chicken Y chromosome.
There is also a difference in the size of the genes. When comparing the DNA of humans and chimpanzees, it was found that the monkey genome is 12% larger than the human genome. And the difference in the expression of human and monkey genes in the cerebral cortex was 17.4%.
A genetic study by scientists from London revealed possible reason, according to which monkeys are not able to speak. So they determined that the FOXP2 gene plays an important role in the formation of the speech apparatus in humans. Geneticists decided on a desperate experiment and introduced the FOXP2 gene into chimpanzees, in the hope that the monkey would speak. But nothing like this happened - the area responsible for speech functions in humans regulates the vestibular apparatus in chimpanzees. The ability to climb trees during evolution turned out to be much more important for the monkey than the development of verbal communication skills.
Man has his own characteristics that qualitatively distinguish him from animals, including our closest relatives - apes.
1. Upright posture, thanks to which the spine is straightened, the cranium can develop in all directions, which creates the possibility of a significant increase in brain volume; hands are freed, which allows you to make and use tools.
2. The human hand differs from the forelimb of primates in greater mobility, better opposability of the thumb; strengthening the palmar region.
3. There is a difference in the structure of the brain, which consists mainly in a lower packing density of neurons in the cortex, in more dendrites, in a larger number of cortical neurons with short axons and more(per unit volume of cortex) neuroglial cells. The ratio of the absolute number of neurons in the human cerebral cortex and the monkey cerebral cortex is 1.4:1.0.
4. Although the structure of genes is the same for us and for monkeys, there is a difference in a characteristic called “gene expression,” in other words, this is their activity, the rate at which new proteins are born through them. It turned out that in the human brain this expression is 5 times higher than in monkeys.
There is an opinion that at some ancient stage in the evolution of primates, the human ancestor received an unexpected advantage in the form of “fast” brain genes. In other words, his brain began to evolve 5 times faster. Why none of the other animals received such a gift is anyone's guess, since it is impossible to answer this question. How we are so different is already more or less clear, but it is not at all clear why such a difference arose.
5. Only a person has speech and is capable of transmitting information not related to the present moment. There is an area in the human brain that controls the conceptual side of speech. And man is the only primate that, due to the low position of the larynx, is capable of articulate speech.
Meanwhile, judging by modern data, the closest relatives of humans - chimpanzees, bonobos and gorilla - understand symbols, operate with them, combine signs, creating new meanings. Pygmy chimpanzees are especially successful in this. For example, a bonobo named Kenzi has learned to communicate using symbols, perceives words by ear without special training, quickly establishes a connection between a drawn symbol and its verbal expression, and understands the meaning of simple sentences. Perhaps, under natural conditions, bonobos are capable of transmitting information using symbols. A group of American and Japanese primatologists recently discovered that members of the same community, breaking into groups, leave each other real messages in the form of symbols: sticks stuck in the ground, branches laid on a path, plant leaves oriented in the right direction. Thanks to such marks, relatives can determine the direction of movement of the group ahead. These marks are more often found at forks or in places where it is impossible to leave marks on the ground - when crossing a stream, in a wetland, etc. This is what people would do in similar situations.
6. There are significant differences in the psyche of animals and human psyche:
A person operates with images and concepts, the content of which is free from the limitations of space and time and can relate to imaginary events that never exist anywhere, i.e. his thinking is abstract-logical, in contrast to the concrete-figurative thinking of animals;
Man has a cognitive ability based on penetration into the structure of the world and the construction of models of the world;
A person can how to comply with existing moral standards behavior, and destroy and self-destruct;
Only man has self-awareness and self-reflection, manifested in the ability to contemplate his own existence and be aware of death.
7. Man, unlike animals, does not inherit forms of activity along with structural and anatomical organization bodies. Forms of activity are transmitted to him indirectly, through the forms of objects created by human labor. In addition, a person knows how to make tools and is capable of long-term concentration of attention, which is necessary for work.
Thus, the qualitative differences between modern man - the embodiment of the highest stage of the development of matter, the bearer of it social form, an intelligent being with consciousness - and the most advanced modern apes are obvious. It turns out to be much more difficult to draw a line between the first hominids and their animal ancestors in the “vertical aspect”. To do this, let's try to find out what the chain of our ancestors looks like.
End of work -
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Training and metodology complex
ANTHROPOLOGY Direction of training 030300 - Psychology Graduate qualification: Bachelor of Psychology Author: UMK Baklanov
Goals and objectives of the course
Training course in the discipline “Anthropology” is aimed at students of psychological faculties of higher educational institutions.
The main goal of the course is to develop in students
The place of discipline in the structure of OOP To successfully master the discipline, you need a solid knowledge of human anatomy, general biology, chemistry and physics within school curriculum
. Anthropology occupies a borderline position in the system
Requirements for the results of mastering the discipline The graduate must have the following general cultural competencies (GC): · ability and readiness to: - understand modern concepts
pictures of the world based on
A. By type of training sessions
DAY DIVISION No. Name of sections and topics Total hours Lectures Practical.
classes Sam.
R
Educational and methodological support of the discipline 1.5.1 References: a) basic literature for the course “Anthropology”: 1. Kharitonov V.M., Ozhigova A.P., Godina E.Z. Anthropology. – M., 2008. Interactive teaching methods Interactive teaching methods are the most
modern form
active methods
, focused on broader interaction of students not only with the teacher, but also with each other, and that
Guidelines for the teacher is a specific pedagogical means of organization and management independent activity students in the educational process.
Independent work can be
Note-taking of educational literature
Present a summary in the form of answers to questions about the book: Khomutov A.E., Kulba S.N. Anthropology. Ed. Phoenix, 2008. Questions for note-taking: Features of the building
Abstract topics
· Stages of the formation of anthropology in Russia.
· The significance of the works of K.M. Baer in the development of knowledge about man.
· Scientific and organizational activities of A.P. Bogdanov and D.N.
Requirements for the level of mastery of the program and forms of current, intermediate and final control 4.1 Requirements for the level of mastery of the content of the discipline: A student who has studied this discipline must have an idea of: - about significant archaeological Forms of final knowledge control - test
Questions for testing (final testing): The main personalities in the history of the development of anthropology. Initial and
modern definitions
antr
The subject of anthropology as a science. General outline of the history of anthropology
Anthropology is the science of the origin and evolution of the physical organization of man and his races; - the science of man (from the Greek anthropos - man).
Background to the development of h science
Anthropology as a complex of natural, mental and social knowledge about man
The unification of the social and biological in man and their irreducibility to each other determines, on the one hand, the need to integrate all scientific information about man in general anthropology, on the other
The concept of anthropogenesis. History of discoveries
The stage of evolutionary processes of the origin and formation of man is designated by the concept of anthropogenesis.” Anthropogenetic knowledge is heterogeneous General characteristics of primates In human embryonic development there are features characteristic of all representatives of the chordate phylum: notochord, neural tube, gill slits in the pharynx. Development of the spinal column
Similarities between humans and primates
Data from comparative anatomy and physiology of humans and animals show the similarity of humans with mammals in both
in general terms
Archanthropes are known from numerous finds in various parts of the Old World. The first of these finds was made back in 1891 by E. Dubois,
Neoanthropes. The emergence of Homo sapiens
The neoanthropic stage corresponds to humans modern look(reasonable man - homo sapiens). The most ancient neoanthropes, called Cro-Magnons (after the place of the first
Hominization criteria
Line of human evolution: Homo skilled (Australopithecus), who already knows how to make tools; hunting becomes an organized process, shelters are built,
Anthropogenesis concepts
Hominization (from Latin homo - man) is the process of humanization of an ape-like ancestor from the appearance of the first specifically human characteristics before the emergence of the human species, intelligent
Race as a biological category of community
Races are groups of people that have historically developed in certain geographical conditions and have certain common hereditarily determined morphological and physical characteristics.
Population concept of races
Only later Mesolithic finds indicate the formation of racial characteristics in humans. Mesolithic skulls are known from the territory North America age 8-10
Population and geographic variability
There are different views on how and when racial differences emerged. According to many scientists, in particular M. Wolpoff, only archaic people
Constitutional typologies
Individual characteristics also include the constitution (morphology, anatomy) of the body. The doctrine of the human constitution has a long history. There is no consensus about it among experts. In the world
Temperament as an integrative characteristic of individual human properties
Temperament (from the Latin temperamentum - the proper balance of traits; from tempero - mix in the proper ratio) - a characteristic of an individual from the dynamic characteristics of his mental activity
Constitution and temperament
Kretschmer and Sheldon, with their clinical studies in the first case and psychological studies in the second, proved the clear conjugation of bodily (somatotype) and psychodynamic (temperament) properties.
Psychological aspects of the constitution
It is generally accepted that the constitution serves as a derivative of biological principles in a person, and personality - as a derivative of social ones. A person’s personality does not appear in an “empty place”, but in a place prepared for its perception.
Age-related individual characteristics of a person and their changes
Concept age characteristics of a person is associated with a description of changes over time in his biological properties, his natural organism. In this sense, they talk about biological age
Patterns of growth and development
The main laws of growth and development include: irreversibility, gradualism, cyclicity, heterochrony (different times), endogeneity, individual diversity.
Sexual dimorphism and age-sex changes
Dimorphism is the fundamental division of human organic properties into two qualitatively different shapes: male and female. Sexual dimorphism is a physical difference between the sexes due to
Formation of gender identity
The formation of a person’s gender identity is one of the directions of human socialization. The process of such socialization is that many basic differences
Based on Darwin's theory, the ancestor of man is the monkey. Man and monkey have common origin, but as a result of different directions of development, today they differ so significantly.
Monkey- a representative of the order of anthropoid primates. Its main habitat is the crowns of trees.
Human is a subject capable of influencing environment. He is active, independent, his decisions are strong-willed and deliberate.
Let's look at the main differences between humans and monkeys:
Physical structure
The human spine is characterized by forward bending and backward bending. Humans, unlike apes, have wider pelvic bones and a more voluminous chest. He has an arched foot, which prevents shaking of internal organs when moving. All limbs are harmoniously related to the body.
Thanks to thumb on the hand is contrasted with the rest, a person is able to perform more operations with his hands than a monkey.
The spine of monkeys has the shape of an arc. Almost all species of monkeys, even from a distance, do not resemble humans in their structure, with the only exception being chimpanzees. The monkey's body is covered with fur, its arms are excessively long, and its legs lack calves. The front of the skull protrudes strongly forward.
Structure of teeth
Adapting to Features outside world, the way people eat has changed significantly . The need to use fangs disappeared, and they gradually began to decrease in size and volume, and the spaces intended for closing the fangs in primates disappeared.
The shape, inclination and surface of other teeth have changed. The front teeth in humans are somewhat rounded, the lateral ones expand outward. Since the teeth changed, the overall appearance of the skull also underwent some changes.
The ape's jaw is similar to a human's, but is easily identified by the presence of fangs and a U-shaped dental arch.
Brain state
The human brain is larger in volume than the brain of a monkey, which puts it in a special position relative to other primates. In addition, the number of nerve cells and their location are also different.
A person has two signaling systems, with the help of which he can create images, make plans for the future and subsequently implement them.
Way to travel
In the course of evolution, man acquired the ability to move on his lower limbs, straightening his back. This made it possible to free my hands. Now they were involved in the labor process, during which dexterity and skill were developed.
The main method of movement of primates is walking on all fours and climbing. There are some species of monkeys that partially practice upright walking, such as gorillas. However, their stay in a horizontal position is not long; from time to time, when moving, they rely on back side palms.
Conclusions website
- The human brain is larger in size and more developed.
- Man has the ability to walk upright.
- There is no hair on the human body, and the arms are shorter than the legs.
- In addition to the first signal system, a person has a second one.
- Man has consciousness.
Apes (anthropomorphids, or hominoids) belong to the superfamily of narrow-nosed primates. These, in particular, include two families: hominids and gibbons. The body structure of narrow-nosed primates is similar to that of humans. This similarity between humans and apes is the main one that allows them to be classified as one taxon.
Evolution
Apes first appeared at the end of the Oligocene in the Old World. This was approximately thirty million years ago. Among the ancestors of these primates, the most famous are primitive gibbon-like individuals - propliopithecus, from the tropics of Egypt. It was from them that Dryopithecus, Gibbon and Pliopithecus arose. In the Miocene, there was a sharp increase in the number and diversity of species of apes that existed at that time. At that time, there was an active spread of Dryopithecus and other hominoids throughout Europe and Asia. Among the Asian individuals were the predecessors of orangutans. In accordance with the data of molecular biology, humans and apes split into two trunks about 8-6 million years ago.
Fossil finds
The oldest known anthropoids are Rukvapithecus, Camoyapithecus, Morotopithecus, Limnopithecus, Ugandapithecus and Ramapithecus. Some scientists are of the opinion that modern apes are descendants of Parapithecus. But this point of view has insufficient justification due to the paucity of the remains of the latter. As a relict hominoid we mean mythical creature- big Foot.
Description of primates
Apes have a larger body than that of apes. Narrow-nosed primates do not have a tail, ischial calluses (only gibbons have small ones), or cheek pouches. Characteristic feature hominoids is the way they move. Instead of moving on all their limbs along the branches, they move under the branches mainly on their arms. This method of movement is called brachiation. Adaptation to its use provoked some anatomical changes: more flexible and longer arms, a flattened chest in the anteroposterior direction. All apes are able to stand on their hind limbs, freeing their forelimbs. All types of hominoids are characterized by developed facial expressions, the ability to think and analyze.
Difference between humans and apes
Short-nosed primates have significantly more hair, which covers almost the entire body, with the exception of small areas. Despite the similarity in structure between humans and apes, the muscles of humans are not as well developed and are significantly shorter in length. At the same time, the legs of narrow-nosed primates are less developed, weaker and shorter. Apes move easily through trees. Often individuals swing on branches. During walking, all limbs are usually used. Some individuals prefer the “walking on their fists” method of movement. In this case, the body weight is transferred to the fingers, which are gathered into a fist. Differences between humans and apes also manifest themselves in the level of intelligence. Despite the fact that narrow-nosed individuals are considered one of the most intelligent primates, their mental inclinations are not as developed as those of humans. However, almost everyone has the ability to learn.
Habitat
Apes inhabit the tropical forests of Asia and Africa. For all existing species Primates are characterized by their habitat and way of life. Chimpanzees, for example, including dwarf ones, live on the ground and in trees. These representatives of primates are distributed in almost all types of African forests and open savannas. However, some species (bonobos, for example) are found only in the humid tropics of the Congo Basin. The eastern and western lowland gorilla subspecies are more common in humid African forests, while representatives of the mountain species prefer temperate forests. These primates rarely climb trees due to their massive size and spend almost all their time on the ground. Gorillas live in groups, and the number of members changes constantly. Orangutans, on the contrary, are loners, as a rule. They inhabit swampy and humid forests, climb trees well, and move from branch to branch somewhat slowly, but quite deftly. Their arms are very long - reaching all the way to their ankles.
Speech
Since ancient times, people have sought to establish contact with animals. Many scientists have studied the issues of teaching speech to great apes. However, the work did not produce the expected results. Primates can only produce isolated sounds that bear little resemblance to words, and lexicon generally quite limited, especially in comparison with talking parrots. The fact is that narrow-nosed primates lack certain sound-producing elements in the oral cavity in organs corresponding to humans. This is what explains the inability of individuals to develop skills in pronouncing modulated sounds. Monkeys express their emotions in different ways. So, for example, a call to pay attention to them is with the sound “uh”, passionate desire is manifested by panting, threat or fear is manifested by a piercing, sharp cry. One individual recognizes the mood of another, looks at the expression of emotions, adopting certain manifestations. To convey any information, facial expressions, gestures, and posture are the main mechanisms. Taking this into account, the researchers tried to start talking to monkeys using the same method used by deaf and mute people. Young monkeys learn signs quite quickly. After a fairly short period, people were able to talk with animals.
Perception of beauty
The researchers noted, not without pleasure, that monkeys love to draw. In this case, primates will act quite carefully. If you give a monkey paper, a brush and paints, then in the process of depicting something, he will try not to go beyond the edge of the sheet. In addition, animals are quite skillful in dividing the plane of paper into several parts. Many scientists consider the paintings of primates to be strikingly dynamic, rhythmic, full of harmony in both color and form. More than once it was possible to show the work of animals at art exhibitions. Researchers of primate behavior note that monkeys have an aesthetic sense, although it manifests itself in a rudimentary form. For example, watching animals living in the wild, they saw how individuals sat on the forest edge during sunset and watched in fascination.
