Russia as a civilization. General characteristics of Russian civilization Characteristic features of Russian civilization

Civilizations are closed societies characterized by a set of certain characteristics that allow them to be classified. The scale of criteria is quite flexible, but two of them remain stable - religion and the form of its organization, as well as “the degree of distance from the place where the society originally arose.”

According to many historians, there were not one, but two Russian civilizations.

From the 9th (or 6th) to the end of the 13th century. “Russian-European” (or “Slavic-European”) civilization, and from the beginning of the 14th century. - “Eurasian” (or “Russian”).

There is a theory that in the Russian lands at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. A new civilization, Russian, is beginning to take shape.

The peculiarity of the development of Russian civilization, like many others, was that its formation and formation took place in a certain spiritual and valuable religious form, under the powerful influence of Orthodoxy and the Russian Orthodox Church. She showed the ability to transform social life on the basis of Christianity and thereby determine all spheres of the culture of the people and the way of life of people. At the same time, for example in the 20th century, Russian civilization also progressed in a non-religious, atheistic form. Nowadays, the full-fledged civilizational development of Russia is unthinkable without overcoming the sociocultural, spiritual and moral crisis and clarifying the role of Orthodoxy in shaping the past, present and future of Russian civilization

The North-Eastern (Moscow) statehood becomes the civilizational basis of Russia, forming new standards and values ​​in society in the context of the fight against the Tatar-Mongols.

Traditional society is giving way to a new, mobilization one. At the same time, according to the concept of L. Gumilyov, the genesis of a new Russian ethnos, and then a Russian superethnos, begins. According to the observations of some researchers, the central moment in the process of formation of Russian civilization was the socio-ecological crisis of the 16th century. Associated with it was the transition from the fragmentation of society and culture into two parts - semi-pagan peasants, forest dwellers and the Christian-Orthodox world: princes, churches, townspeople - to a unified Russian society.

There is also a theory of Moscow civilization. It says that the Kiev civilization ceased to exist in the 13th century. as a result of the Tatar-Mongol invasion. In the XIV century. with the formation of the Moscow state, the “daughter” Muscovite Rus' began to take shape, which became the basis of the Russian (“Eurasian”) civilization.

The periodization of Russian civilization is divided into 4 stages: Stage I - Kievo-Novgorod Rus (IX to XII centuries); Stage II is Muscovite Rus'; Stage III – Russian Empire XVIII – XX centuries; Stage IV begins at the beginning of the 20th century, in the 1920s, and continues to this day.

The development of the Russian state is also divided into stages: I (IX - XIII centuries) Education and formation of the ancient Russian state; II (XIII - mid-XV century) Specific fragmentation in Rus'; III (Second half of the 15th - 17th centuries) Unification of Russian principalities into a single state, expansion of Russian lands; IV (XVIII - early XX century) Russian Empire; V (Late 10s - late 80s of the XX century) Soviet state; VI (Early 90s - XX - present) New Russia (conventional name).

Let us briefly describe each of their stages.

Stage I— Kievo-Novgorod Rus' (IX to XII centuries)

During these years, the Old Russian state was the strongest power in Europe. During these years, the Old Russian state was the strongest power in Europe. Our northern neighbors called Rus' - Gardariki, Country of Cities. These cities conducted brisk trade with the East and West, with the entire civilized world of that time. The peak of Rus''s power at this stage was the mid-11th century - the years of the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. Under this prince, Kyiv was one of the most beautiful cities in Europe, and the Kiev prince was one of the most authoritative European sovereigns. German princes, the Byzantine emperor, and the kings of Sweden, Norway, Poland, Hungary, and distant France sought marriage alliances with Yaroslav’s family. But after the death of Yaroslav, his grandchildren began to fight for power and the power of Rus' was undermined.

The 13th century was marked by a crisis associated with the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols from the East and the Crusaders from the West. In the fight against enemies, Rus' identified new urban centers, new princes. Thus began the next stage in the development of our civilization .

Stage II- This is Moscow Rus'.

It begins at the beginning of the 14th century, when the Moscow Principality began to strengthen in the North-East of Rus' and on its basis a unified Russian state was created.

At this time, Russia freed itself from the Horde yoke, accepted the legacy of Byzantium and became the dominant Orthodox power in the world. In the 16th century, under Ivan the Terrible, the territory of Russia increased several times.

At the beginning of the 17th century, a civilizational crisis occurred in connection with the suppression of the ruling Rurik dynasty. The result was the rise to power of a new dynasty - the Romanovs. After a period of its strengthening, a new stage of Russian civilization began.

Stage III– Russian Empire (XVIII – XX centuries)

With the coming to power of Peter the Great and thanks to his reforms, Russia becomes as powerful a state as Great Britain and France, which at that time were the leading powers of Europe.

The real peak of this stage is the end of the 18th century, when, after the wise reign of Peter I, Catherine I, Elizabeth Petrovna, under Catherine II, Russia, which won the wars with Turkey, dividing Poland with Austria and Prussia, completely opened its way to Europe.

Stage IV The civilizational development of Russia begins at the beginning of the 20th century, in the 1920s.

It continues to this day. This is the stage of dynamism, that is, the rapid development of the state and society.

On average, each stage of development of our civilization lasts 400 years. Russian civilization is at the initial stage of the fourth stage of its development, which gives hope that Russia will overcome the difficulties it entered into with the collapse of the USSR.

What awaits Russia in the future? Russian civilization developed very brightly, with its ups and downs. Our entire history passes through crises.

Today Russia is in the 80th year of the fourth stage of development, then according to various theories and points of view (and their opinions are optimistic), Russia should rise again in Europe and the world, regain its former power, as it befits it, as a great civilization.

During the Middle Ages, first Rus', and then Russia, began to enter the world historical process. The question naturally arises: to what type of civilization can it be attributed to?? The solution to this issue is of great importance for the methodology of studying the history of Russia. But this is not just a historical and scientific, but a socio-political and spiritual and moral problem. This or that solution to this problem is associated with the choice of the development path of our country and the determination of the main value guidelines. Therefore, the discussion on this issue has not stopped throughout Russian history. In our opinion, there is no need to reproduce the entire course of this discussion. When presenting relevant topics, we will touch on this issue. Now it is necessary to fix the main fundamental positions.

The main question of this discussion is how the heritage of Eastern and Western civilizations compare in the history of Russia? To what extent is Russian civilization original? Historians, publicists and public figures answer these questions from the heights of their time, taking into account the entire previous historical development of Russia, as well as in accordance with their ideological and political guidelines. In historiography and journalism of the XIX-XX centuries. the polar solution to these issues was reflected in the position of Westerners and Slavophiles.

Westerners or “Europeanists” (V.G. Belinsky, T.N. Granovsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and others) proposed to consider Russia as an integral part of Europe and, therefore, as an integral component of Western civilization. They believe that Russia, although with some lag, developed in line with Western civilization.

Many characteristics of Russian history speak in favor of this point of view. The absolute majority of the Russian population professes Christianity and, therefore, is committed to the values ​​and socio-psychological attitudes that underlie Western civilization. The reform activities of many statesmen: Prince Vladimir, Peter I, Catherine II, Alexander II are aimed at including Russia in Western civilization.

There is another extreme position, whose adherents try to classify Russia as a country with an eastern type of civilization.

Supporters of this position believe that those few attempts to introduce Russia to Western civilization ended unsuccessfully and did not leave a deep mark on the self-awareness of the Russian people and their history. Russia has always been a type of Eastern despotism. One of the most important arguments in favor of this position is the cyclical nature of Russian history: the period of reforms was inevitably followed by a period of counter-reforms, and the reformation - counter-reformation. Supporters of this position also point to the collectivist nature of the mentality of the Russian people, the absence in Russian history of democratic traditions, respect for freedom, personal dignity, the vertical nature of socio-political relations, their predominantly submissive overtones, etc.

But the largest movement in the historical and social thought of Russia is the ideological and theoretical movement that defends the idea of ​​Russia's uniqueness. Supporters of this idea are Slavophiles, Eurasians and many other representatives of the so-called “patriotic” ideology. Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov, F.F. Samarin, I.I. Kireevsky and their followers) associated the idea of ​​​​the originality of Russian history with the exclusively unique path of development of Russia, and, consequently, with the exceptional originality of Russian culture . The initial thesis of the teachings of the Slavophiles is to affirm the decisive role of Orthodoxy for the formation and development of Russian civilization. According to A. S. Khomyakov, it was Orthodoxy that formed “that primordial Russian quality, that “Russian spirit” that created the Russian land in its infinite volume.”

The fundamental idea of ​​Russian Orthodoxy, and, consequently, of the entire structure of Russian life, is the idea of ​​conciliarity. Conciliarity is manifested in all spheres of Russian life: in the church, in the family, in society, in relations between states. According to the Slavophiles, conciliarity is the most important quality that separates Russian society from the entire Western civilization. Western peoples, moving away from the decisions of the first seven Ecumenical Councils, distorted the Christian symbol of faith and thereby consigned the conciliar principle to oblivion. And this gave rise to all the flaws of European culture and, above all, its mercantilism and individualism.

Russian civilization is characterized by high spirituality, based on an ascetic worldview, and a collectivist, communal structure of social life. From the point of view of the Slavophiles, it was Orthodoxy that gave birth to a specific social organization - the rural community, the “world”, which has economic and moral significance.

In the description of the agricultural community to the Slavophiles, the moment of its idealization and embellishment is clearly visible. The economic activity of the community is presented as a harmonious combination of personal and public interests, and all members of the community act in relation to each other as “comrades and shareholders.” At the same time, they still recognized that in their contemporary community structure there were negative aspects generated by the presence of serfdom. Slavophiles condemned serfdom and advocated its abolition.

However, the Slavophiles saw the main advantage of the rural community in the spiritual and moral principles that it instills in its members: the willingness to stand up for common interests, honesty, patriotism, etc. In their opinion, the emergence of these qualities in community members does not occur consciously, but instinctively, by following ancient religious customs and traditions.

Based on the principle that the community is the best form of social organization of life, the Slavophiles demanded that the communal principle be made comprehensive, that is, transferred to the sphere of urban life, to industry. The communal structure should also be the basis of state life and be capable, in their words, of replacing “the abomination of administration in Russia.”

Slavophiles believed that as the “communal principle” spreads in Russian society, the “spirit of conciliarity” would become increasingly stronger. The leading principle of social relations will be the self-denial of each for the benefit of all.” Thanks to this, the religious and social aspirations of people will merge into a single stream. As a result, the task of our internal history will be completed, defined by them as “the enlightenment of the national communal principle with the communal, church principle.”

Slavophilism is based on the ideology of pan-Slavism. Their idea of ​​the special fate of Russia is based on the idea of ​​exclusivity, the specialness of the Slavs. Another important direction that defends the idea of ​​Russian identity is Eurasianism (P.A. Karsavin, I.S. Trubetskoy, G.V. Florovsky, etc.). Eurasians, unlike the Slavophiles, insisted on the exclusivity of Russia and the Russian ethnic group. This exclusivity, in their opinion, was determined by the synthetic nature of the Russian ethnos. Russia represents a special type of civilization, which differs from both the West and the East. They called this special type of civilization Eurasian.

In the Eurasian concept of the civilizational process, a special place was given to the geographical factor (natural environment) - the “place of development” of the people. This environment, in their opinion, determines the characteristics of various countries and peoples, their identity and destiny. Russia occupies the middle space of Asia and Europe, approximately outlined by three great plains: East European, West Siberian and Turkestan. These huge flat spaces, devoid of natural sharp geographical boundaries, left their mark on the history of Russia and contributed to the creation of a unique cultural world.

A significant role in the argumentation of the Eurasians was assigned to the peculiarities of the ethnogenesis of the Russian nation. The Russian ethnic group was formed not only on the basis of the Slavic ethnic group, but under the strong influence of the Turkic and Finno-Ugric tribes. Particular emphasis was placed on the influence on Russian history and Russian self-awareness of the eastern “Turanian”, predominantly Turkic-Tatar element associated with the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

The methodological guidelines of the Eurasians were largely shared by the prominent Russian thinker N.A. Berdyaev.

One of the most important characteristics of Russian folk individuality, according to Berdyaev, is its deep polarization and inconsistency. “The inconsistency and complexity of the Russian soul,” he notes, may be due to the fact that in Russia two streams of world history collide and come into interaction: East and West. The Russian people are not a purely European and not a purely Asian people. Russia is a whole part of the world, a huge East-West, it connects two worlds. And two principles have always struggled in the Russian soul, eastern and western” (Berdyaev N.A. Russian idea. The main problems of Russian thought of the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the collection “On Russia and Russian philosophical culture. Philosophers of the Russian post-October diaspora.”

ON THE. Berdyaev believes that there is a correspondence between the immensity, the boundlessness of the Russian land and the Russian soul. In the soul of the Russian people there is the same immensity, boundlessness, aspiration to infinity, as in the Russian plain. The Russian people, Berdyaev argues, were not a people of culture based on ordered rational principles. He was a people of revelations and inspirations. Two opposing principles formed the basis of the Russian soul: the pagan Dionistic element and ascetic-monastic Orthodoxy. This duality permeates all the main characteristics of the Russian people: despotism, hypertrophy of the state and anarchism, freedom, cruelty, a tendency to violence and kindness, humanity, gentleness, ritual belief and the search for truth, individualism, heightened consciousness of the individual and impersonal collectivism, nationalism, self-praise and universalism, pan-humanity, eschatological-messianic religiosity and external piety, the search for God and militant atheism, humility and arrogance, slavery and rebellion. These contradictory features of the Russian national character predetermined, according to Berdyaev, all the complexity and cataclysms of Russian history.

It should be noted that each of the concepts that define Russia’s place in world civilization is based on certain historical facts. At the same time, these concepts clearly show a one-sided ideological orientation. We would not like to take the same one-sided ideological position. We will try to give an objective analysis of the course of historical development of history in the context of the development of world civilization.

The formation of Russian civilization.

1.Natural and geographical factors in the formation of civilization

The main natural factor in the Slavic settlement zone was its continental character.

The sea played a smaller role in the history of the country than the vast, poorly developed expanses of the Eurasian continent. Russia's access to the sea occurred mainly in the 18th and 20th centuries. The Russians failed to create a colonial overseas empire like England's. But they mastered and populated a sixth of the land from the Baltic to the Far East. No other nation has such a compact settlement zone.

This required incredible efforts from the Russian people to colonization lands, which constituted a kind of geographical “core” of Russian history.

What the territories developed by the Russians have in common is the relative uniformity of natural factors, which determined the uniformity of economic activity in all zones.

This distinguished the conditions of activity of the Russian people from others. In Western Europe, the abundance of mountains and hills, the strong dismemberment of the terrain, favored the specialization of the economy and contributed to the exchange of goods between the inhabitants of the mountains and valleys.

In Russia, the monotony of the landscape created weak internal prerequisites for economic specialization and internal trade, which arose quite late. On the route of settlement of the Eastern Slavs there were almost no peoples with an ancient high culture.

Contacts with the Byzantine Empire only partially contributed to the development of ancient Russian culture.

Ignorance of Latin, the language of theology and science, did not allow Russians to use the cultural values ​​of the West until the 18th century. Finally, Russia was constantly in contact with the Steppe and, until the 18th century, experienced the threat of devastating invasions of the steppe inhabitants. All this hampered its internal development and historical progress.

The features of the natural environment where Russians settled largely determined their national character and dominant values.

The population density of Western Europe, the intensity of exchange, and limited natural resources contributed to intensification economy, the desire for innovation. The large expanse of the settlement zone and the relatively low population density created in Russia the opportunity to maintain the required standard of living by bringing the natural resources of the land into economic circulation.

At best, traditional farming skills were transferred to new lands. All this gave rise to the Russians' habit of extensive, consumer attitude towards natural resources. A utopia arose about the inexhaustible wealth of the native land. The main ones turned out to be quantitative, and not qualitative criteria, number, not skill. Opposite trends developed mainly in cities and in a historically later period.

The working skills of the Russian population were seriously affected by climatic conditions.

In Europe, temperature fluctuations throughout the year due to the influence of the North Atlantic Gulf Stream are 10-20 degrees per year. Russia, including its European part, lies in the zone of action of the Siberian anticyclone, during which temperature fluctuations are more significant - up to 35-40 degrees per year.

January temperatures in Europe are on average 10 degrees higher than in the center of Russia. This makes it possible to engage in agriculture, including farming, for most of the year, for example, growing winter varieties of vegetables.

The peasants there have virtually no off season, which accustoms them to systematic work. The spring and autumn periods are longer here. Than in Russia. There is no need to complete sowing as soon as possible and hastily remove the grain before it goes under the snow. it also teaches leisurely systematic work.

In Russia, deep soil freezing (40 cm.

in the center of the country) and a short spring turning into a hot summer force the peasant, after the household chores of the winter, to quickly switch to agricultural work - plowing, sowing, on the speed of which his well-being throughout the year depends.

Summer is a period of suffering, ultimate voltage strength for the Russian peasant. This developed in him the ability to “give his best” and carry out a huge amount of work in a short period of time. But the time of suffering is short. There is snow in Russia for 5-6 months. Therefore, the main form of attitude towards work is leisurely passive. This situation is reflected in the proverb: “A Russian man harnesses for a long time, but goes quickly.”

True, it should be noted that the lack of desire for high quality work was also associated with social relations in the country, with a serf labor.

In those zones where it did not exist, in the North and Siberia, the values ​​of constant and high-quality labor were higher than in the center.

Leisurely — a passive attitude towards work and life developed in a person another value - patience, which became one of the traits of the national character.

It is better to “endure” than to do anything, to change the course of life. This manifests not only a lack of initiative, but a fundamental reluctance to stand out among others with one’s activity. This behavior is justified by the nature of the work and settlement of Russian peasants. The development of forests that covered most of the country's territory, cutting down and uprooting trees, and plowing the land required the collective labor of several families.

Working in a team, people acted uniformly, striving don't stand out among the others. This made sense. The cohesion of the team was more important than the effectiveness of each of its members. Subsequently, the peasants were pushed in the same direction by the communal equalizing land tenure.

As a result, individualism has developed poorly, forcing people to strive for initiative, increasing labor efficiency and personal enrichment. Its appearance is associated with later processes in Russian society and the influence of European values.

However, the same collectivism was the basis of the sincerity of relationships between people, reckless manifestations of nobility and mutual sacrifice, the breadth of the soul of the Russian person, which was also a form of “indiscretion.”

The focus on the needs of the collective instilled in the Russian people that they, for the most part, turned out to be alien to petty everyday prudence.

The ideal of a peasant was the ability to deny himself many things for the sake of interests common cause. Life was perceived as the fulfillment of duty, the endless overcoming of difficulties.

Worldly wisdom taught that circumstances are more often against a person than on his side. This formed such traits in the Russian people as perseverance and resourcefulness in achieving goals. The fulfillment of the plan was considered as a rare success, a gift of fate, and then the usual asceticism of everyday life was replaced by the revelry of the holiday, to which the entire village was invited.

The transition from such a bright, original type of personality in the 18th century to a more Europeanized one among the educated strata of society was perceived by many as spiritual degradation.

In general, the space that Russia captured, with all its potential wealth, created great obstacles to the establishment of civilization and its development. And this is one of the reasons for the slow pace that determines the entire history of Russia.

Religious factors in the formation of civilization

Pagan worldview of the Slavs. The sense of the world of the ancient Slavs was determined by the cult of nature. The cult is naive, poetic, born of man’s closeness to nature, to the earth. Nature nourished the Slav and was his mother. With the first glimpses of consciousness, he idolized her.

The main natural element that struck the Slav was the element of heat and light, as a necessary condition for all development and life.

Therefore, the original god was Svarog - the deity of light and heat. Later it fragmented and Svarozhichi appeared.

The presence of light power was considered an auspicious time, as it was the power of life.

Everything in nature came to life. The absence of light power was a time of darkness and cold, hostile to any development and hostile to man, since at this time he needed more work and care for himself.

Therefore, the Slav associated with light, pure power - good, prosperity, happiness, and with dark power, evil spirit - evil, hostility, misfortune.

He made such a division regarding himself.

The Slavs imagined the world born from water. Pure and unclean forces participated in his creation. Pure power created beautiful things on earth, and unclean power spoiled them.

These two forces also took part in the creation of man.

There is such evidence: “Soton argued (i.e., argued) with God, who will create man in him? And the devil made a man, but God did not put his soul in him; Likewise, if (therefore when) a person dies, the body goes to the earth, and the soul goes to God.”

According to the verses from the Dove Book and ABCs, the human body is created from the earth, hair from grass, veins from roots, blood from sea water, bones from stone, breath from the wind, thoughts from the clouds, eyes from the sun; God himself put his soul into it.

The Slav also had the concept of the soul as a life-giving force, and this force is taken from the heavenly fire, which is sent by Dazhdbog, the grandfather of all seas. He strikes down unclean spirits with thunder and storm.

Before the creation of earth and man, the world consisted of two regions: the region of the sky, where Svarog reigned with his family, and the cold, dark region, where evil spirits ruled.

These kingdoms were separated by a boundless blue sea, with which the blue sky merged.

The sun constantly made its revolutions, illuminating the earth during the day and leaving it in darkness at night, warming it in spring and summer, and leaving it cold in autumn and winter.

Where did the Sun go?

The imagination of the Slavs created this mysterious country.

In the middle of the Okiyana-Sea on the island of Buyan there is the center of everything wonderful. Here, in this beautiful country lying in the East, the Sun lived in a bright house, here it retired at night and here it kept its life-giving power of fertility in the winter, when the kingdom of cold set in. Buyan Island was located among the boundless ocean.

True, how and when Buyan Island was created, legends are silent.

On Buyan there is “Alatyr - a stone, unknown to anyone, under which a mighty power is hidden, and there is no end to the power,” says the conspiracy. This stone, alatyr, is white, flammable, and burns without being consumed, as if the creative power is constantly being born and does not degenerate.

On the same island of Buyan, where there is eternal spring and life lurks in many embryos, death also sits in the form of the bird Yustritsa.

At sea on the island,

On the island on Buyan

The bird Justritsa is sitting;

She boasts - she boasts,

That I've seen everything

I ate a lot -

says a folk riddle meaning death.

So, in the East lies the island of Buyan, the center of all that is bright and good.

And in the West, according to Slavic ideas, lies a barren land of death, breathing cold and darkness, troubles. In the west, where the Sun sets, light and heat are destroyed. Hell lies in the West.

It consists of abysses, abysses, mountains of snow and iron, all life dies here. This is where fevers, spring diseases, cow death and the like come from.

Probably in connection with these ideas about two mysterious dwellings of different forces of nature, the Slavs believed in heaven and hell, as a dwelling for the souls of good and evil after their death.

The Slavs believed in their connection with nature.

Every forest, stream, well, even individual tree seemed to the Slavs to be animated. They were especially attracted by their power to old, large trees and spreading, densely-leaved oaks.

The Slavs revered fast, deep rivers; in all fairy tales, rivers speak human language. They worshiped huge stones and mountains, because it was not without reason that the fate of Russian heroes was placed in a mysterious connection with stone mountains.

Therefore, the gods of the Slavic pantheon personified the good and evil forces of nature, its wealth and secrets.

There were quite a lot of them. Initially, the Slavs worshiped Rod and Rozhanitsy. Immediately after the birth of a child, God Rod wrote about his appearance in his book, as if determining his fate. That’s why the expression “it was destined” still exists.

Pages: next →

123See all

1. Prerequisites formationRussiancivilization.

   Formation of the Old Russian state

   Abstract >> History

   1.Prerequisites formationRussiancivilization.

   Formation of the Old Russian state. Socio-economic…. On the other hand, interaction with more developed civilizations led to the borrowing of some socio-political...

2. Becoming and development Russiancivilization and states

   Abstract >> State and law

   ... the view that formation and development Russiancivilization and the state is going on in constant... and internal challenges are happening formation states 2. After the merger...

   social manifestations. Yes and Russiancivilization and the state starting from...

3. BecomingRussian federalism

   Abstract >> State and law

   ... is a development resource civilization, important in not...

   2001. No. 1. Valentey S. Economic problems formationRussian federalism // Federalism. 1999. No. 1. Voronin ... prerequisites and political and legal aspects formationRussian Federalism / Ed. A. …

4. BecomingRussian management

   Abstract >> Management

   …branch Department of General Humanitarian Disciplines Abstract BecomingRussian management Completed by: student M 341 TF ...

   type could only have arisen in the Western civilization" In Russia in the late 80s there was a delay...

5. BecomingRussian states in the 16th century (3)

   Abstract >> History

   ...self-awareness. However, the historical features of development Russiancivilization led to the formation of a despotic form of state... in history, containing key moments formationRussian states: changes in the centuries-old ways of internal...

I want more similar works...

Features of Russian civilization briefly 10th, 11th grade

Russian civilization is the civilization of Measure. We are stubbornly pulled either to the West or to the East, but we have confidently taken our own place in the world.

What is the difference between Russian civilization and others? First of all, this is the principle by which countries and peoples united in the process of globalization.

The West is showing a rather aggressive policy, expanding its zone of influence by oppressing or even destroying the aborigines. An example of this is the multimillion-dollar sacrifices during the “conquest of America,” and they did not stand on ceremony with the colonies, squeezing out resources like juice from an orange.

The origins of our Motherland had different moral principles.

It is here that the basic characteristics of mentality, moral, ethical, anthropological and moral attitudes have been preserved. Our people are aware of and distinguish between true and imaginary values.

Throughout its history, Russia has not destroyed any of the indigenous peoples who live on its territory. Many were given writing and education in general. They harmoniously fit into a multimillion-dollar, multinational civilization, enriching each other's culture. Infrastructure was being created.

The friendship of peoples was cultivated in line with mutual respect. The Russian concept of globalization is distinguished by goals and meaning of life.

Briefly 10th, 11th grade

• Report on the topic Reading

  Reading is the process of perceiving information indicated by symbols - letters.

  Reading is the ability to understand and comprehend texts, each of which is made up of several dozen letters and punctuation marks

• The role of outdated and bookish words in speech (journalistic and artistic)

  Obsolete words are units of language that have fallen out of active use. There are two types of obsolete words.

  Historicisms are words that have ceased to be used in speech due to the fact that the objects and concepts they call are no longer

• What is an ornithologist and what does he study?

  There are a lot of interesting professions and specialties in the world.

  Some are very popular and familiar to everyone. For example, teacher, driver, veterinarian.

• The meaning of the name Gulbika from the fairy tale Stepdaughter

  Gulbika is a Tatar and Bashkir name. Now this name is not often seen, but many are familiar with it thanks to the fairy tale The Stepdaughter

• Hitler's rise to power in Germany

  After the end of the First World War, this state found itself in a very unenviable and deplorable state.

  According to the Treaty of Versailles, it was infringed upon in many ways.

Features of Russian civilization.
When people talk about Russia in the world, they mean a civilization that is not similar to the Western and Eastern ones, into which the ways of life of the peoples inhabiting the Eurasian continent are conventionally divided. It is impossible to say for sure that Russia is developing according to any specific type. Various scientists at one time - the so-called “Westerners” and “Slavophiles” - proved the legitimacy of Russia’s attraction to one or another pole, but such a specific merger with any civilization did not happen.
There are two main differential aspects on which the concept of Russia as a special civilization is formed.

Firstly, the geographical factor plays an important role. The fact is that from the moment of its inception and development, the Russian state, no matter what it is called, no matter what formation it belongs to, has always balanced between East and West. That is, at first this state originated in the western part of Eurasia, then the territory gradually spread to the east. It is customary to divide Russia territorially in relation to the East and West along the Ural Mountains.

Hence the ideas about the state’s coat of arms: the creators of the emblem were forced to depict an eagle with two heads, so that each would look to the western and eastern sides, respectively.
Secondly, historically, Russia has been influenced by both Eastern and Western civilizations in different eras.

For example, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars on our land marked a long stage of life “under the East”. During troubled times, Russian soil was full of foreign invaders trying to undermine its strength and self-determination. Under Peter the Great, there was a significant bias towards choosing the Western path of development.

And so on until now.
However, even with such visible “throwing”, Russian statehood has established itself as a special civilization, which, like a sponge, has absorbed the features of all civilizations that influenced it at different times.

The Russian way of life fully corresponds to one of the definitions of the concept of “civilization” - a society frozen in a certain locus of space and time. The economic, material, spiritual subsystems of this society are unique in their own way. That is why modern Russian society remains one of the most special.

It is considered one of the most tolerant in the world, which is why hundreds of nationalities coexist within one state, respecting each other’s traditions and customs. Perhaps the term “multinational” is only suitable for Russia, which has been formed over its centuries-old history into a unique social civilizational complex.

download dle 12.1
The Legend of Voluntary Slavery

Familiarization with the concepts of local and global civilization. Definition of social consciousness as a set of views of society on various aspects of the structure of the world and social life. Consideration of the process of Russia's transition to feudal civilization.

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

“The pace of development of Russian local civilization within the framework of the global one”

Before you begin to discuss the topic of the development of Russian local civilization within the framework of a global one, you need to find out what local and global civilization are.

So, what is local and global civilization?

Local civilization expresses the cultural-historical, ethnic, religious, economic-geographical characteristics of an individual party, group of countries or peoples connected by a common historical destiny.

World global civilization- this is a stage in the history of mankind, characterized by a certain level of needs, abilities, occupations, skills and interests of a person, a technological and economic method of production, the structure of political and social relations and the level of the spiritual world.

As a local civilization, Russia has its own speed of development, which differs from the general sequence of development of global civilizations, but, in general, repeats it.

The analysis of society from the standpoint of the theory of global civilization is close to the formational approach formed within the framework of Marxism.

A subformation is understood as a historically specific type of society that arises on the basis of a specific method of material production. The leading role is played by the basis — a set of economic relations that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. The totality of political, legal, religious and other views, relations and institutions constitutes the superstructure .

One of the elements of the superstructure is public consciousness, i.e.

a set of views of a given society on various aspects of the structure of the world and social life.

This set of views has a certain structure. Views are divided into two levels.

First level consists of empirical (experienced) views of people on the world and their own lives, accumulated throughout the history of a given society, second- theoretical systems of ideas developed by professional researchers.

In addition, views are divided into groups depending on the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe issues being addressed. These groups of ideas are usually called forms of social consciousness. These forms include: knowledge about the world as a whole, about nature, about social life, legal knowledge, morality, religion, ideas about beauty, etc.

These ideas at the theoretical level appear in the form of scientific disciplines: philosophy, political science, legal sciences, ethics, religious studies, aesthetics, physics, chemistry, etc. The state and development of social consciousness are determined by the state of social being, i.e. the level of development of the productive forces of society and the character its economic basis.

During the transition period (VI - VIII centuries) tribal alliances were formed and disintegrated.

In the VI…IX centuries. - many tribal unions: Polyans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichi, Krivichi, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, etc. The time of formation and flourishing of medieval civilization was the 9th - 12th centuries. (Kievan and Novgorod Rus'). Economy - agriculture, cattle breeding (steppe), hunting and beekeeping (forest).

The first wave of medieval civilization reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054).

Kievan Rus - from the Dnieper and Vistula to the Don and Volga, from the Northern Dvina to the Taman Peninsula (Tmutarakan). The most important role in the development of ties was the adoption of Christianity, in 988. civilization social Russia society

Novgorod had closer ties with Western and Northern countries, and had more developed crafts, art and literacy.

In the 12th century. -the beginning of the decline of Kievan Rus. Feudal wars became more frequent. The state was weakened, disunited and found itself powerless before the Tatar-Mongols.

Since the 14th century A new cycle of Russian history began, the second stage of medieval civilization, with Moscow becoming its epicenter. Ivan Kalita led the fight for the gathering of Russian lands. The peak of this cycle is the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century. A special feature of Russia at that time was the strong role of the state.

However, this powerful state collapsed at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries.

Transitional period to the next historical cycle. During the Great Troubles (1601 -1603), a third of the state died from hunger.

The restoration process began with the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar (1613). The highest phase of this cycle of the 18th century. - from the Reforms of Peter I to the reign of Catherine II inclusive.

The gap between Russia and Western Europe has narrowed.

The 19th century in Russia became a period of crisis of feudalism and the beginning of the transition to industrial civilization.

Chronologically, industrial civilization in Russia covers the period from the 60s of the 19th century. (abolition of serfdom) until the end of the 20th century. (about a century and a half). Within this period, the following stages are distinguished:

1861-1916 - accelerated industrialization, establishment of capitalism, rise of science, culture and education.

The first signs of a national crisis (1905).

1917-1964 - a period of national crisis and an attempt to solve it within the framework of the socialist development option, regardless of the victims, at the cost of extreme tension.

But during this period, the country won the Patriotic War, and a powerful military-industrial power was created.

Since 1965, the final phase of industrial civilization ended with another crisis, the collapse of the USSR, a painful search for new ways, and a radical transformation of society.

Attempts at reformation and the decline of socialism—this is the main content of the third long-term cycle of industrial civilization in Russia, which began in 1964.

Russia has entered a transition period to a post-industrial civilization, rich in turmoil.

Russian civilization has moved from a class-based global civilization to a feudal one, skipping the ancient one. But in its development as a global civilization it went through all stages: the first crisis occurred in the 18th century, the end of the 19th century was the time of the highest point of the rise of civilization, the 40s of the 20th century were the time of the second crisis, the 70-80s were the time of rise, after which comes final crisis.

“Civilizations are entities that have a very long time span.

They are not “mortals,” especially if judged by the standards of our individual lives. This means that deaths, which, of course, happen and mean the collapse of basic foundations, affect them much less often than is sometimes imagined. ...Distinguished by their enormous, inexhaustible duration, civilizations constantly adapt to their fate and persist longer than any other collective reality.

In other words, civilizations go through political, social, economic and even ideological upheavals..."

Posted on Allbest.ru

The concept and structure of civilization

Dynamics of Russian local civilization.

abstract, added 01/03/2013

Features of modern civilization and global problems of our time

The concept of the world system and civilization.

The UN as a governing body of the world community. Problems of globalization of the world public space and features of modern civilization. Global problems of our time and their impact on reforms in Russia.

test, added 08/26/2011

On the implementation of the strategy for the development of the information society in the Russian Federation

Information society as a stage in the development of modern civilization, its main characteristics, stages of the development process.

UN Millennium Declaration. Okinawa Charter for the Global Information Society. Strategy and ways of its development in Russia.

presentation, added 07/25/2013

Technology as a sociocultural phenomenon

Science in the culture of technogenic civilization.

Culture shapes the personalities of members of society, thereby largely regulating their behavior. Traditional and technogenic civilizations. Specificity of scientific knowledge. The main distinguishing features of science.

course work, added 11/24/2008

Features of the transformation of Russian culture

The culture of Russian civilization is a complex, multi-level, contradictory formation that forms the arrangement of a large society in the vast geocultural space of Eurasia.

Consideration of contemporary or past problems in society.

test, added 07/17/2008

Concept of society

Narrow and broad understanding of society, its difference from nature.

Spheres (subsystems) of public life and their relationship with the economic, political, social and spiritual spheres. Social institutions. Main features of Eastern and Western civilization.

presentation, added 04/07/2014

The current stage of world civilized development

Modern civilizations.

Economic development of modern civilization. Civilization and social development. Modern civilization and political life. Effective control over lawmaking, law enforcement and human rights protection.

abstract, added 11/13/2003

Utopianism as a direction of social forecasting

Study of the phenomenon of utopia and utopian consciousness as important components of the process of rethinking the paths of further development and the basic values ​​of modern civilization.

Social utopianism: from myth to knowledge. System of utopian archetypes in Russia.

abstract, added 11/20/2012

Information society

Globalization and the main causes of the crisis of modern civilization. Human economic activity in the twentieth century. Major civilizations according to Huntington.

Academician N. Moiseev’s concept of “collective intelligence”. Major changes in the progress of mankind.

abstract, added 03/16/2011

Environmental movements in Russia

“Green” movement in modern Russia and its directions. Contrasting industrial-technocratic civilization with the project of an alternative and ecological social system. There is an urgent need for improved environmental legislation.

V. F. Shapovalov

Russia is an independent civilization, a country-civilization in the world community of civilizations.
One of its features is its location on two continents - Europe and Asia. Therefore, it has absorbed elements of both European culture and the cultures of the Asian region.
However, it would be wrong to classify it as a Eurasian civilization. In this regard, it should be recognized that the concept of the Eurasians, for all its merits, is insufficient. It does not take into account the fact that European and Asian elements merged in Russia into an indivisible UNITY and formed a new quality. This new quality is expressed in the concept of “Russian civilization”.

Russian civilization has historically been formed around its ETHNO-CONFESSIONAL CORE - the Russian (Old Russian) people and Orthodox Christianity. This core united around itself many peoples of various religious, racial and cultural backgrounds.

The main factors that determine the characteristic features and peculiarities of Russian civilization include natural and climatic conditions, multinationality and multiconfessionalism.

THE ETHNO-CONFESSIONAL CORE AND NATURAL-GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS predetermined the CULTURAL-GENETIC CODE of Russian civilization. The cultural-genetic code is understood as a special program, to a certain extent similar to the genetic program for the development of a living organism. At the same time, the analogy with genetics in this case is conditional.

The cultural-genetic code in no way rigidly predetermines the socio-political structure of civilization, nor its economic structure, although, undoubtedly, it influences them as part of a large set of factors.
To the greatest extent, it is stable within the framework of everyday life of people, within the framework of the “world of everyday life,” since everyday life occurs in close connection with the natural and climatic conditions of the geographical territory on which civilization is located. We must also take into account that everyday life, as a rule, consists mainly of communication among parents, close relatives, and acquaintances. A special role belongs to the family: it is the family, as the primary cell of society, that is the basis for preserving traditions and passing them on from generation to generation.

The cultural-genetic code is what MAKES a given civilization “WHAT IT IS”, preserves its own “I” - that is, thanks to which it REMAINS ITSELF - with all changes. Kievan-Novgorod Rus, Moscow Rus, Imperial Russia, Russia in the form of the Soviet Union, modern Russia are different historical forms of the same thing - Russian civilization. In other words, the cultural-genetic code forms the core of what is commonly called “national identity” as a country as a whole (in our case - Russia), and an individual, - without understanding and sensory perception of which, it is impossible to feel like a Russian, a Russian.

It should be noted that the national identity of Russia, based on the ethno-confessional core and cultural-genetic code, throughout almost the entire history of Russia has been constantly subject to external pressure, mainly from Western countries. Such pressure and attempts to break Russia’s cultural identity are due to many reasons, in particular, significant differences between Russia and the West, as well as conflicting geopolitical interests. In recent years, attempts to equate all countries to one standard, which the US leadership considers the only correct one, have noticeably intensified. However, there is every reason that Russia, like other countries, will find the strength, while maintaining its originality, to follow the path of scientific, technical and economic modernization.

According to N.A. Berdyaev, “there are similarities between natural geography and spiritual geography.”
The flat nature of the territory, the breadth and vastness of Russian open spaces, continentality, the severity of climatic conditions, with instability and changeability of weather - these and other factors have significantly influenced and continue to influence today (despite significant urbanization) on the mentality of Russians, regardless of their ethnicity or other affiliation .

The properties of the Russian mentality include BREADTH OF THOUGHT, BUSINESS MATERIALISM, HIGH VALUATION OF THE MILITARY SPIRIT AND MILITARY VALOR, as well as a penchant for humor, practical jokes, and jokes (“jocularity is in the nature of the Russian peasant” - A. S. Pushkin).

To clarify the concept of business materialism, we can cite the words of Confucius: “he who is skilled in words is not generous in deeds of mercy.” If we paraphrase the words of Confucius in the Russian way, we could say: “one who is skilled in words raises suspicions of lack of efficiency.” This will be an extremely brief formulation of the property of the Russian mentality, which could be called “business materialism.” This property is associated with a deep understanding that the essence of the matter cannot be reduced to words, that the root of being, its “truth” is not exhausted by verbal formulations, no matter how correct and perfect they may be.

Business materialism emphasizes the priority of focusing on a specific task, on a practically tangible result. Russian people do not like long and complicated, “abstruse” reasoning; they look for specific answers to specific questions in words and theories. “The word should be a blueprint for action,” - this is how one can summarize the feature of the Russian mentality, which we characterized as business materialism.
Important for the interpretation of civilization is, in particular, the concept of a social ideal.
At the initial stage, the social ideal of Russian civilization was the ideal of “Holy Rus'”. In later times, starting from the era of Peter I, the ideal of “Great Russia” became increasingly popular. At the same time, these two ideals are constantly present in the consciousness of the Russian person, either coming into conflict with each other, or mutually complementing each other.

The peculiarities of Russian civilization are associated primarily with its basic VALUES.

Such values ​​are, firstly, JUSTICE - understood as punishment for evil and reward for good, and secondly, BEAUTY in the strictly aesthetic sense - in contrast to the Western understanding of beauty, which is usually associated with expediency. Beauty is interpreted in Russia as a connection between external beauty and internal beauty. External beauty, in the absence of internal beauty, is perceived negatively.

The concept of LOVE plays a significant role in the culture of Russian civilization, often interpreted not only in terms of relationships between people, but also as a universal, cosmic force.

The role and meaning of love is especially clearly reflected in Russian classical literature and philosophy. Closely related to the concept of love are such concepts as mercy, compassion, helping the weak, caring “for the humiliated and insulted.” They also found their vivid expression in Russian classical literature and philosophy of the 19th century.

In Russian culture, various aspects of human life and activity are associated with love - knowledge, creativity, etc.

The role of Russian civilization in the world community is determined by its interest in ensuring global stability, since Russia has all the necessary internal conditions and sources of economic growth and political independence. For this reason, it is not interested in aggression towards other countries. For the same reason, Russia's internal stable development largely contributes to maintaining stability in the vast surrounding region, as well as in the world as a whole. As historical experience shows, the internal destabilization of Russia led as a consequence to destabilization - to wars and other upheavals - in vast areas beyond its borders.

Based on the books “Russian Studies”. M. 2001., “The origins and meaning of Russian civilization.” M. 2003.

General characteristics of Russian civilization

Objective knowledge of history is ensured by scientific methodology. Methodology– this system of principles and methods of historical research, which is based on the theory of historical knowledge.

Principles- ϶ᴛᴏ the main, fundamental provisions of science. They come from the study of the objective laws of history and are the result of this study. At the same time, in contrast to patterns, they are a logical category that exists only in consciousness. The main principles of historical research are objectivity, historicism, and social approach. Principle of objectivity obliges us to consider historical reality regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and preferences of the subject. To do this, it is extremely important for the historian to refuse to adjust facts to any theoretical scheme; from paying attention to some facts and ignoring others - those that contradict certain views. A scientist should not divide historical phenomena and events into “facts” and “facts”. It is extremely important for him to take into account all points of view - both those that correspond to the moods and views of the researcher, and those that contradict them. This principle requires comprehensive study, achieving maximum completeness and reliability of information. The principle of historicism requires considering any phenomenon of the past as concretely historical, as a phenomenon that appeared in a certain place and time, developing due to some specific reasons, being understood and assessed in a certain way by contemporaries and descendants, and having historical consequences. The principle of the social approach presupposes a certain “bias” of the historian, who necessarily reflects (due to the humanitarian nature of the science) in his research the interests of certain social groups. This makes even more obvious the critical importance of strictly following the other two principles above.

Method– a set of rules and procedures, techniques and operations that regulate the activities of a researcher and ensure the solution of a research problem. This is a concrete way of extracting new knowledge from historical facts. In addition to the so-called general scientific methods, which relate history to other areas of scientific knowledge (logical, classification and typologization, statistical analysis, idealization, induction and deduction, modeling, including mathematical, systems approach, structural and functional analysis, etc. .), historical science has specific research methods. Οʜᴎ are called ʼʼspecial historicalʼʼ. Special historical research methods include, firstly, historical-genetic method. According to him, historical phenomena are studied in the process of their development - from origin to destruction or current state. It involves a descriptive ascent from specific facts to general conclusions. This method is aimed at analyzing the dynamics of historical processes and allows us to identify cause-and-effect relationships and patterns of historical development. Second method - historical-comparative. It consists of comparing historical objects in time and space in order to identify similarities and differences between them. Synchronous (identical phenomena in different countries and time periods are compared) and diachronic comparison (when a phenomenon is compared with itself at different stages of development) are possible. Particularly valuable in science is typological comparison, which identifies common features in spatial groups of historical events and phenomena and homogeneous stages in their continuous-time development. Typologization, therefore, is a classification, ᴛ.ᴇ. qualitative analysis of the phenomenon. The third method is historical-systemic. This method considers a certain historical phenomenon as a system - a structural and functional set of interconnected elements. An analytical study of its structure involves identifying the basic features of the system, its system-forming elements, external and internal connections between elements. By examining the functions of the system, the historian reveals the place of the system in the hierarchy of realities, the functional connections of the system with the outside world. This method allows us to reveal the internal mechanisms of the functioning and development of major socio-historical phenomena.

Certain theory of historical science presupposes the presence of the most general approach to the question of the laws and driving forces of the historical process. Such approaches emerged gradually as historical science developed. Nowadays the dominant general theoretical approach is civilizational. Civilization– a large integral socio-cultural system, oriented in time and space, including various elements (mentality, economy, social organization, political system, spiritual values). These elements are characterized by originality and stability. The most important role in civilizational uniqueness is played by ʼʼ mentalityʼʼ – a certain way of perceiving reality. Historical science identifies two basic type of civilizations: eastern and western.

Historiographical (scientific-historical) discussions about the essence of Russia can mainly be reduced to four points of view: 1) Russia belongs to the eastern type of civilization; 2) Russia belongs to the Western type of civilization; 3) Russia belongs to a special civilizational type, combining elements of the Eastern and Western types of civilizations; 4) Russia is a mechanical mixture of civilizations belonging to different civilizational types.

The main elements of Russian civilization:

A) Mentality. Orthodoxy laid its foundation. Distinctive features of the domestic mentality are: "conciliarity"(collectivism), ʼʼnon-acquisitivenessʼʼ(lack of desire for profit), orientation towards spiritual values, openness to the influence of other civilizations.

B) Economics. The predominance of state and community-corporate ownership, the extensive nature of economic development. At the same time, some elements of a market economy and property, similar in its characteristics to private property, developed.

B) Social organization. Subordination of the individual to the collective and the state, but while maintaining some elements of individualism.

D) Political system. The unconditional predominance of power over society and the unlimited, sacred nature of power, but while maintaining some elements of the rule of law and civil society.

E) Spiritual values ​​- orientation towards achieving not pragmatic, but sacralized, spiritual values.

All these features were due to the extreme importance of survival in conditions of risky agriculture and harsh climate (collectivism); defending independence and solving geopolitical problems in the context of long, open borders and a hostile external environment (the predominance of power over society and the colossal role of the state); establishing relations with the ethnic groups included in the state (tolerance and openness).

General characteristics of Russian civilization - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “General characteristics of Russian civilization” 2017, 2018.

NATIONAL HISTORY

Educational and methodological manual

for IDZO students

UDC 94(47)(075.8).

Yu.A. Shestakov

Reviewers:

Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of the Department of “National History” of the Russian State Pedagogical University

ON THE. Kazarova

Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy and History, YURSUES

IN AND. Bondarev

O-826 Shestakov, Yu.A. Domestic history: educational and methodological manual / Yu.A. Shestakov. – Mines: YURGUES Publishing House, 2005. – 77 p.

In accordance with the program, the educational manual contains theoretical material that ensures the preparation of part-time students for exams in the course “National History”.

UDC 94(47)(075.8).

© South Russian State

University of Economics and Service, 2005

© Yu.A. Shestakov, 2005

Introduction

This manual is a outline of answers to exam questions for the course “National History”, offered to students of SURGUES and corresponding to the approximate course program and the state standard for this subject. For ease of use, it is built according to a hierarchical system: each item of the plan includes sub-items that reveal its content, the content of which, in turn, is revealed by other sub-items, etc. (according to scheme: 1); 1.; A); A.).

Question No. 1

General characteristics of Russian civilization.

The phenomenon of Russia: discussions about the essence of Russia

And the ways of its development

1) Civilization– a large integral socio-cultural system, oriented in time and space, including various elements (mentality, economy, social organization, political system, spiritual values). These elements are characterized by originality and stability. The most important role in civilizational identity is played by mentality- a certain way of perceiving reality. Historical science distinguishes 2 main “types of civilizations”: “Eastern” and “Western”.

2) Historiographical discussions about the essence of Russia can mainly be reduced to four points of view:

1. Russia belongs to the Eastern type of civilization.

2. Russia belongs to the Western type of civilization.

3. Russia belongs to a special civilizational type, combining elements of the Eastern and Western types of civilizations.

4. Russia is a mechanical mixture of civilizations belonging to different civilizational types.

3) Basic elements of Russian civilization:

1. Mentality. Orthodoxy laid its foundation. Distinctive features of the domestic mentality are: “conciliarity” (collectivism), “non-acquisitiveness” (lack of desire for profit), orientation towards spiritual values, openness to the influence of other civilizations.

2. Economics. The predominance of state and community-corporate ownership, the extensive nature of economic development. However, at the same time, some elements of a market economy and property, close in its characteristics to private property, developed.

3. Social organization. Subordination of the individual to the collective and the state, but while maintaining some elements of individualism.

4. Political system. The unconditional predominance of power over society and the unlimited, sacred nature of power, but while maintaining some elements of the rule of law and civil society.

5. Spiritual values ​​– orientation towards achieving not pragmatic, but “sacralized”, “spiritual” values.

They were determined by the need to survive in conditions of risky agriculture and harsh climate (collectivism), to defend independence and solve geopolitical problems in the conditions of long, open borders and a hostile external environment (the predominance of power over society and the colossal role of the state), to establish relations with those included in the state ethnic groups (tolerance and openness).

Question No. 2

Formation of the Old Russian state. Norman theory

1) The state is formed where and when the appropriate preconditions:

1. Economic: replacement of hoe farming with arable farming; widespread use of iron; developed crafts and trade; the emergence of quite numerous cities and urban populations. Among the Eastern Slavs by the end of the 9th century. the cutting is replaced by fallow and two-fields. About 20 cities and 64 crafts are known.

2. Social: the emergence in society of fairly pronounced social and property inequality, more or less clear social differentiation. Among the Eastern Slavs by the end of the 9th century. 4 social groups are known: “magi”, “princes”, “people”, “servants”.

3. Political: the formation of a special political system that immediately precedes the state - “military democracy”. Its characteristic features:

a) the formation of large tribal unions based not on tribal, but on territorial ties (14 such were known among the Eastern Slavs by the end of the 9th century);

b) the formation of a special structure for managing the tribe and alliance - they are headed by a military leader and ruler, chosen from among representatives of the most noble clans and families. He relies on the “squad” - professional warriors who are personally loyal to the ruler. There is a meeting of male warriors that chooses a ruler and decides the most important issues in the life of the tribe and the alliance. The tribe is subject to more or less regular tribute in favor of the military leader and his squad. Among the Eastern Slavs by the end of the 9th century. “princes”, “druzhina”, and “polyudye” are known;

c) the emergence of conglomerates (“confederations”) of tribal unions. Among the Eastern Slavs by the end of the 9th century. There are 2 known “confederations” - the “northern” led by Novgorod and the “southern” led by Kiev. On the basis of these prerequisites, an East Slavic state was supposed to arise, and it did.

2) Causes formation of the Old Russian state:

1. The main function of the state is to ensure, with the help of the apparatus of political power, the integrity of society and its proper functioning in conditions when this integrity, due to a number of conditions inherent in a civilized society, is violated. Thus, in connection with the emergence of property, social and property inequality arises, causing conflicts in society. Conflicts also arose between tribes due to population growth, unequal accumulation of wealth, and increased military activity. Consequently, some kind of organized political force was needed - a power that would resolve these contradictions. Therefore, the leaders and councils of the northern East Slavic tribes entered into an agreement with the “Varangians” (Scandinavian leaders - leaders of the best warriors in Europe). They invited three Varangian “princes” to “reign.” Soon Rurik (864-879) became the only ruler.

2. Institutions of organized coercion were also needed to ensure military and commercial public interests. Trade played a vital role in the economic life of the Slavs (especially the south), but trade routes (the mouth of the Dnieper and Volga) were in the hands of the Khazars, who also enslaved some of the East Slavic tribes. Therefore, the nobility of the “southern confederation” invited the Varangians and their squads to reign since the 30s. IX century However, the forces of the South were not enough. Therefore, the unification of both confederations into a single state of the Eastern Slavs took place. In 882, Rurik’s successor Oleg captured Kyiv by deception and moved the capital of the new Old Russian state there.

3) Thus, the invitation to reign of the Varangian “kings” became the organizational form into which the social, economic and political prerequisites for the formation of the state that already existed by that time organically merged. This conclusion takes the edge off the debate between supporters Norman(the state owes its existence to foreigners) and anti-Norman theory(foreigners have nothing to do with the formation of Rus') the origin of Kievan Rus, which has been going on for two and a half centuries.

Question No. 3

Question No. 4

Question No. 5

Political leadership.

Question No. 6

At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries.

Formation of the Russian state

1) At the end of XV - beginning. XVI centuries The unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of the Russian state as a geographical concept were completed. This happened under two rulers: Ivan III (1462-1505) and his son Vasily III (1505-1533). The lands were part of this state:

1. peacefully as the logical completion of the process of gradually strengthening the influence of Moscow there (Rostov (1464), Yaroslavl (1472), Ryazan (1521) principalities, Pskov land (1510));

2. by military annexation (Novgorod - 1478);

3. as a result of successful wars with Lithuania, which also claimed the status of the unifier of Rus' (Vyazma, Chernigov-Seversky lands, Smolensk - from 1494 to 1514).

2) During the same period, Russia gained its state sovereignty. In 1480, as a result of “standing on the Ugra River,” Rus' freed itself from the Horde yoke.

3) Under Ivan III and Vasily III, Russia is being formed not only as a country, but also as a state:

1. The Grand Duke of Moscow gradually rose to head the state apparatus. Ivan III (1462-1505) takes the title “by the grace of God, sovereign of all Rus'.” A magnificent court ceremony and special regalia of the monarch appear. The relations of vassalage of the boyars and princes in relation to the Grand Duke were replaced by relations of citizenship.

2. However, due to the underdevelopment of the administrative apparatus, the lack of an independent financial base and the preservation of the enormous political, military and economic power of large feudal lords, the monarch was forced to rely on them in the exercise of political power. Under the prince, there was a Boyar Duma of 5-12 “introduced” boyars and about 12 “outsiders”. The sovereign resolved all the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy together with the Duma.

3. As the territory of the state increased and socio-economic and political relations became more complex, the palace-patrimonial system of governance ceased to meet the needs of the emerging centralized state. Bureaucratic bodies were needed: with clear competence, a permanent staff of officials receiving salaries from the state, and formalized office work. They appeared at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. entitled orders(until the middle of the 16th century, about 10).

4. Local government was based (as before) on a feeding system. “Governors” (in counties) and “volostels” (in smaller administrative units - volosts) were appointed by the prince from among the boyars. They were weakly connected with the central government and poorly controlled by it. Therefore, the sovereigns tried to limit their power by “statutory charters”, which indicated their powers and the size of the “feed”; sharing their functions with other feeders; subordination of their activities to orders in Moscow. But all this without much success.

5. A single currency (ruble) was introduced in the Moscow State; single unit of taxation – “plow”; a single army consisting of detachments brought by boyars and landowners during wars; unified legislation (Code of 1497, limiting the possibility of peasant transition).

Question No. 7

Question No. 8

And Western European countries

1) The state in Russia was an autocracy, not limited by either law or society, relying mainly on service people (bureaucracy).

2) Policy in relation to society and the individual has essentially been reduced to strict regulation through violence, non-recognition by the authorities of individualism and private rights and interests.

3) The morality of society was based on Orthodox values ​​and influenced all aspects of society. She proclaimed:

1. loyalty to tradition;

2. the need for spiritual transformation of the individual in the spirit of Christian ideals (“spirituality”);

3. patience, suffering and denial, in this regard, of the need for progress;

4. “conciliarity” as a form of collectivism opposed to individualism;

5. the idea of ​​social equality.

4) Closely connected with the ethical views of society was their interpretation of the mission of the state, which differed from Western European views on this issue.

1. In Russia there was virtually no private property (the owner of the most important economic resources was the head of state) and legal autonomy of individuals or social groups.

2. Thanks to the state, the nation gained independence from the Horde and was able to defend it against a hostile environment in the conditions of long and open borders.

3. The Russian people became in the 16th century. At the head of the Orthodox world, therefore, the state had the messianic function of the only beacon of the “true faith.”

4. Orthodox doctrine focused on the supremacy of secular power over spiritual power (more precisely, their fusion in the personality of the sovereign). according to it, the salvation of the people could only be collective, state, led by the Orthodox sovereign.

As a consequence of all of the above - statism. This is the priority of the state and statehood. The interests of the state, the individual, and society were inseparably fused in Russia and were perceived by each member of society as their own. In the West, the state existed, among other things, as an instrument for the realization of public and personal interests. If in the West “estates” (groups of people differing in their hereditary legal status) were formed “from below” as a result of the need to defend their corporate interests (including through influencing state power), then in Russia it was mainly “from above” - by the state , in order to fulfill the tasks assigned to them by the state authorities.

Question No. 9

Question No. 10

Government controlled

Under Peter I (1682-1725), there was a modernization (renewal on a Western model or “Westernization”) of all aspects of Russian life, including the state apparatus.

Question No. 11

Question No. 12

Question No. 13

Question No. 14

Question No. 15

Question No. 16

Question No. 17

Question No. 18

"The apogee of autocracy." Reforms of Nicholas I

1) During the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855), the autocratic form of government reached its apogee. The emperor sought to rule in isolation from society, experiencing distrust in it caused by the Decembrist uprising. This led to the fact that the only support of his absolute power was the bureaucratic apparatus that tripled during the years of his rule, a modernized police force, a submissive church and a colossal army, which he used primarily to suppress liberation movements both within the country and abroad. The main goal of his reign was to fight the revolution, for which he tightened control over all spheres of public life by:

1. the creation of a new political police - the gendarmerie, which was subordinate to the III department of the Emperor's Own Chancellery. Its activities were aimed not only at identifying opponents of the regime, but also at preventing political crimes (for which surveillance, denunciations, and secret agents were used);

2. tightening of censorship. Any criticism of the regime and its representatives was unacceptable. A huge number of government institutions received censorship rights;

3. reactionary policy in the field of education. Education again became class-based (universities and gymnasiums for nobles; district schools for merchants and townspeople; parish schools for peasants). Subjects requiring independent thinking were excluded from the programs. Control over the education sector by government agencies was tightened. Numerous types of repression were provided for against violators of a very strict educational discipline;

4. creating your own ideological doctrine that substantiated the inviolability of autocracy - the “theory of official nationality” developed by S.S. Uvarov. She promoted “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality” as supposedly the fundamental “beginnings of Russian life.” They, according to the authors of the theory, meant the absence of a basis for social protest against absolutism - the people in Russia love the Tsar as a father, and this love is based on the solid foundation of Orthodoxy. This theory was introduced into the consciousness of society through educational institutions, the official press, literature, and theater.

2) However, Nicholas understood that it was impossible to strengthen the empire with restrictions and repressions alone. Therefore, he also carried out a number of reforms that made it possible to temporarily stabilize the socio-economic situation in the empire:

1. Codification of legislation carried out by M.M. Speransky. It made it possible to somewhat limit the arbitrariness of the bureaucracy, inevitable under an autocratic-bureaucratic regime. In 1830, a collection of all Russian laws published from 1649 to 1825 was compiled - the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire (45 books), and in 1832, on its basis - a collection of current law - “Code of Laws of the Russian Empire” (8 books ).

2. Reform of the state village (1837-1841), carried out by P.D. Kiselev. It made it possible to somewhat improve the situation of state peasants. Peasant self-government was introduced. Hospitals and veterinary centers appeared in the state village. Recruitment and land use were streamlined. In case of hunger strikes, the so-called “public plowing” was provided, the harvest from which would go to the public fund.

3. Financial reform (1839-1843), implemented by E.F. Kankrin. By maintaining a strict proportion between paper credit notes and silver, it was possible to achieve a budget deficit and strengthen the country's financial system. However, in general, the successes of Nicholas's domestic policy turned out to be very limited and short-lived. The reason for this is the preservation of the autocratic-bureaucratic system and serfdom. They slowed down the development of the country and, as a result, led to the sad end of Nicholas’s reign - the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War (1853-1856).

Question No. 19

Question No. 20

Question No. 21

Financial, educational, military reforms 1861-1874.

Liberal reforms in the 1860-1870s. were also carried out in other areas of government life that needed modernization.

1) Financial reform. It consisted of:

1. introduction of a unified state budget;

2. establishment of state control to verify its implementation;

3. establishing the transparency of the budget (its annual publication);

4. abolition of the state credit monopoly (the emergence of a network of non-state, commercial banks);

5. changes in the tax system - abolition of the most archaic types of taxes (poll tax, salt tax) and wine taxation, as well as the establishment of all-class taxation.

2) Educational reform. It consisted of:

1. establishment of the “Charter of 1863” broad university autonomy (self-government, election of leadership and teaching staff);

2. establishing the principle of all-class education;

3. the emergence of women's education (including higher education);

4. expanding the network of educational institutions;

5. the possibility of opening non-state educational institutions.

3) Military reform. It consisted of:

1. replacing the principle of recruiting the army - instead of recruiting from persons of unprivileged classes, who actually served for life, universal military service was introduced. Military service was now 6 and 9 years in the reserve (ground forces) or 7 and 9 years in the reserve (navy). This made it possible to quickly increase the size of the army in the event of the outbreak of war;

2. expansion of the network of military educational institutions that have become all-class.

3. improving the logistics of the army;

4. reforming the army management system (subordinating it to the Minister of War, establishing 15 military districts, abolishing corporal punishment, streamlining military justice).

Question No. 22

Question No. 23

Question No. 24

Economic and political crisis in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Features of the formation of Russian political parties

At the beginning of the 20th century. (1899-1904) a powerful economic and political crisis erupted in Russia, which was caused by numerous obstacles to the modernization of the country posed by the surviving remnants of feudalism:

1) The economic crisis was caused by:

1. In industry - the peculiarities of the development of Russian industry (see question No. 23) and the lag of the agricultural sector of the economy from the industrial sector. The crisis led to the acceleration of what had been unfolding since the end of the 19th century. process of industry monopolization. Difficulties in selling goods, falling securities and market prices - all this forced entrepreneurs to create monopolies, mainly in the form of “cartels” (agreements between entrepreneurs to regulate production volumes and prices for goods) and “syndicates” (agreements under which entrepreneurs lost their commercial independence ). In addition, the crisis led to a significant deterioration in the already difficult situation of the working class. The beginning of the century was marked by powerful outbursts of social protest - numerous strikes and walkouts (“Obukhov defense”, Baku and Rostov strikes). The peculiarities of these protests were their radical nature (up to armed clashes), along with economic demands (increasing wages, reducing working hours, etc.) and political ones (overthrowing the autocracy, providing democratic freedoms, etc.).

2. In agriculture - the features of the development of the agrarian sector of post-reform Russia (see question No. 23). It was accelerated by the onset of “agrarian overpopulation” and the fall in prices for agricultural products. This completely undermined the weak peasant economy. A wave of peasant uprisings swept across Russia (covering the central and Ukrainian provinces). There has been some politicization of the peasant revolts for “land and freedom.”

2) The political crisis was caused by the impossibility of maintaining intact the previous autocratic-bureaucratic methods of management in the new socio-economic conditions. Dissatisfaction with them became universal. The students rose up to fight. Even the protest of the liberal nobility and bourgeoisie began to take radical forms (the creation of secret organizations, the “banquet company”). As a result, a number of representatives of the highest bureaucracy (Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte, Chairman of the Council of Ministers P.D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky) suggested that Emperor Nicholas II (1894-1917) make at least minor concessions to “public opinion” - limit the monopoly nobility to power, introduce representatives from zemstvos into the highest bureaucratic bodies, and grant limited democratic freedoms. However, the monarch did not do this, thereby dooming Russia to a violent change in the political system - revolution.

3) This period of “politicization” of the main social groups also includes the process of the emergence of political parties in Russia (organizations of the most active representatives of certain social groups, whose goal is to realize the interests of these groups through participation in the exercise of political power). These are the RSDLP - 1898 and the AKP - 1902. In Russia, this process (compared to Western countries) had its own characteristics:

1. In Russia, parties appeared later.

2. First, the parties of the proletariat and peasantry (socialist) appeared, and then the bourgeois and noble parties (liberal, conservative and reactionary). This happened as a result of the monopoly of the nobility on power, the political weakness and inertia of the bourgeoisie, the unity and strength of the proletariat, the plight of the proletariat and the peasantry.

3. In Russia, illegal revolutionary parties first appeared, and then legal, parliamentary parties. This happened due to the fact that Russia was an absolute monarchy, where there was no parliament, democratic freedoms, and legal political struggle was impossible.

4. In Russia, the role of party organizers expressing the interests of various social groups was taken on by members of the intelligentsia dissatisfied with the regime.

Question No. 25

Question No. 26

Question No. 27

I Russian Revolution.

Question No. 28

Question No. 29

Question No. 30

Question No. 31

Question No. 32

Question No. 33

Question No. 34

Question No. 35

Question No. 36

The Second World War.

Question No. 37

Question No. 39

Final period

Question No. 40

Question No. 41

In the post-war period.

Question No. 42

Question No. 43

Question No. 44

Question No. 45

Question No. 46

August 1991 Collapse of the USSR.

New statehood

1) The resistance of the “old”, conservative party-state elite to the process of transition to market relations and liberal democracy of the Western type was stimulated by the threat of its complete loss of power as a result of the signing of a new union treaty (“Novogarevsky process”), scheduled for August 20, 1991. He in the interests of the republican elites, it was necessary to transform the federal union into a confederal one. Therefore, on August 19-21, 1991, power was seized by the self-proclaimed Emergency Committee, which included the ruling bureaucratic elite of the USSR. The Committee abolished democratic freedoms, declared illegal the existence of unconstitutional government bodies in the Union republics, and introduced a state of emergency in Moscow. In response to this, the leadership of the RSFSR qualified the actions of the State Emergency Committee as a coup d'etat and called for resistance to it, banned the CPSU, and announced the transfer of all power on the territory of the RSFSR into their own hands. The putsch was crushed.

2) However, it catalyzed the process of collapse of the USSR (caused by the loss of a common economic (state property), ideological (Marxism), political (totalitarianism and the sovereignty of the CPSU) base.

1. Frightened by the putsch, the republican elites, supported by society, refused to sign a new union treaty and declared the full sovereignty of their republics.

2. On December 8, 1991, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus announced the denunciation of the 1922 union treaty and the formation of the CIS (primarily to ensure a peaceful “divorce” of the former union republics).

3. Soon in Almaty they were joined by the leaders of 8 more republics.

4. A few days later, the USSR ceased to exist.

3) Sovereign Russia immediately faced the need to reform its political system. It took the form of a struggle between the President, relying on the administration elected by the population and the “power structures,” and the Soviets, relying on their sovereignty and autocracy throughout the country. If the draft of the new Constitution proposed by the President presented the future state structure of the country as an “ultra-presidential republic,” then the draft of the representative body boiled down to the slogan “all power to the Soviets.” The conflict was aggravated by the fact that the majority in the Soviets were supporters of a “regulated market economy”, and defenders of radical market reforms occupied places in the structures of presidential power. They tried to resolve the confrontation through resolutions, appeals to the population, and even a referendum. However, to no avail. Then President B.N. Yeltsin decided to resolve the “constitutional crisis” by force. In September 1993, he announced the dissolution of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Council and the holding of a referendum on the adoption of the presidential draft Constitution. Attempts by the supreme Soviet authorities at violent resistance were suppressed. On December 12, the draft of the new Constitution was approved in a referendum and came into force. Russia was proclaimed a democratic, federal, legal state with a republican form of government; separation of powers was provided for (a. Government, b. Federal Assembly, c. court system and Constitutional Court). However, the “presidential” power received real leverage over all three main branches of government.

Question No. 47

Economic reforms in modern Russia:

Question No. 48

Chechen problem

1) The collapse of the USSR gave rise to a number of crisis situations and complex problems in the field of interethnic relations in Russia. They manifested themselves most acutely in:

1. regions adjacent to areas of open conflict (Caucasus);

2. places where refugees are concentrated (Caucasus and Ciscaucasia);

3. territories with divided peoples (Dagestan, Ossetia);

4. areas where there is a sharp shortage of life support resources (North Caucasus, Far North);

5. metropolitan cities with difficult crime situations;

6. areas with excess labor resources (North Caucasus, Kalmykia).

7. An attempt to reduce the severity of interethnic problems through an agreement with local national elites was the Federal Treaty (March 1992). The subjects of Russia received real state-political autonomy, a significant amount of powers and the opportunity to participate in their distribution between the center and the subjects. However, the agreement laid down the principles of inequality among the subjects of the Federation and legal separatism, and Tatarstan, Bashkiria, and Chechnya signed it much later.

8. Since 1996, when the concept of national policy of the Russian Federation was adopted and its basic principles were developed (equality of subjects, prohibition of restricting the rights of citizens on the basis of nationality, preservation of the state unity of the Russian Federation, etc.), there has been a tendency to reduce manifestations of separatism in Russia .

2) The crisis of interethnic relations manifested itself with particular force in the Chechen Republic. In 1991, as a result of a coup d'etat and the establishment of an authoritarian regime based on violence against citizens, an “armed conflict” arose there. Its essence was a rebellion supported from outside by Islamic fundamentalists, with the goal of separating the North Caucasus from Russia and creating a Wahhabi confederation on its territory. In order to suppress “internal unrest”, eliminate hotbeds of terrorism and threats to the sovereignty and integrity of the Russian state and the security of the population of Chechnya, the Russian Federation sent its troops into its territory in 1994. This resulted in two Chechen wars:

1. The first (1994-1996) ended (as a result of the opportunistic interests of the authorities and the lack of proper political will) with the so-called “Khasavyurt agreements”. Their essence was the actual recognition of the independence of Chechnya. However, this only led to a further escalation of the conflict.

Features of Russian civilization.
When people talk about Russia in the world, they mean a civilization that is not similar to the Western and Eastern ones, into which the ways of life of the peoples inhabiting the Eurasian continent are conventionally divided. It is impossible to say for sure that Russia is developing according to any specific type. Various scientists at one time - the so-called “Westerners” and “Slavophiles” - proved the legitimacy of Russia’s attraction to one or another pole, but such a specific merger with any civilization did not happen.
There are two main differential aspects on which the concept of Russia as a special civilization is formed.
Firstly, the geographical factor plays an important role. The fact is that from the moment of its inception and development, the Russian state, no matter what it is called, no matter what formation it belongs to, has always balanced between East and West. That is, at first this state originated in the western part of Eurasia, then the territory gradually spread to the east. It is customary to divide Russia territorially in relation to the East and West along the Ural Mountains. Hence the ideas about the state’s coat of arms: the creators of the emblem were forced to depict an eagle with two heads, so that each would look to the western and eastern sides, respectively.
Secondly, historically, Russia has been influenced by both Eastern and Western civilizations in different eras. For example, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars on our land marked a long stage of life “under the East”. During troubled times, Russian soil was full of foreign invaders trying to undermine its strength and self-determination. Under Peter the Great, there was a significant bias towards choosing the Western path of development. And so on until now.
However, even with such visible “throwing”, Russian statehood has established itself as a special civilization, which, like a sponge, has absorbed the features of all civilizations that influenced it at different times. The Russian way of life fully corresponds to one of the definitions of the concept of “civilization” - a society frozen in a certain locus of space and time. The economic, material, spiritual subsystems of this society are unique in their own way. That is why modern Russian society remains one of the most special. It is considered one of the most tolerant in the world, which is why hundreds of nationalities coexist within one state, respecting each other’s traditions and customs. Perhaps the term “multinational” is only suitable for Russia, which has been formed over its centuries-old history into a unique social civilizational complex.