A family is a “small community of people”, the participants of which are connected by “everyday life, mutual assistance, moral and legal responsibility.”
The “Early” Family (Community of People) Had a Head (Patriarch) - the Father; Included His Descendants from the Number of Men with Their Wives and Children, as well as “household” Slaves (Example - The Family of the Son of Man Abrah A ma). “Later” Family – (This is) the Tribe (Shevet) of Each of the Sons (Including Their Descendants) (Son of Man) Jacob-Yisrael.
A Family Is Created Based on the Choice of a Mature (Body) Young Man And Consent of a Mature (Body) Young Woman. Creation of a Family is determined by the Age of the Husband (25 years or more) and Wife (20 years or more) And The age difference between their bodies is not less than 5 years (the man must be older than the woman). The stability of family relationships is determined by the level Moral Education and Husband and Wife And Awareness (by Each of Them) of Responsibility for the Creation of the Union (Association, Society). (Responsibility - (It is) a Clear Awareness of the Responsibility (Duty) of Performing (once) a Certain (SPECIFIC) Service And Willingness to Be Responsible for Personal Actions (during the Performance of Service).)
(“Responsibility is certainty, reliability, honesty in relation to oneself and others; this is the awareness and willingness to admit that the result (reaction) that you receive in the course of your actions and actions is the consequence of your actions (actions). Responsibility is not guilt is confidence. (Guilt is) not Realized Responsibility (not Fulfillment of Duty And Lack of Willingness to Be Responsible for Personal Actions) Responsibility (...) includes personal accountability and the ability to act within ethical standards for the benefit of yourself and those around you. Responsibility is the ability to explain and show how you achieved this result. Responsibility is the ability to influence the course of events. Responsibility is a set of actions (measures), the implementation of which allows an individual to safely achieve what he wants.” “According to the subject, responsibility is divided into individual and collective.” “In modern legal theory, responsibility is divided into two types - positive and negative. Positive responsibility arises from the obligation to perform positive, useful functions for society and is implemented in regulatory legal relations in which the obligated party is in a position of accountability and control, and negative responsibility - in connection with the commission of an offense by the offender, who is subject to appropriate legal sanctions for the crime that are unfavorable for him. him.")
A tribe is a “type” of an Ethnic Community (“a type of stable social” Community of People) and a “social organization” of a Primitive Society (Example - the Tribe of the Son of Man Jacob).
Rod – “organized” social order", United by Blood (- through Blood) Relationship; “series (line)” of Generations of Descendants Descending from One Ancestor (Example - Genus Mister Jacob-Yisrael, Consisting from the 12 Families (Tribes, Shevet) of His Sons ( V Volume Number Their Descendants); People of the Israel Family).
Nationality is “a historically established linguistic, territorial, economic and cultural community of people.”
Nation (from Latin natio - “tribe, clan”) is “a stable community of people formed in the process of historical formation on their territory of residence, on established economic ties, on literary language, on the peculiarities of culture and mental appearance (Character).”
It is made up of Tribes and Nationalities.
People – “the population of the country”; “the form of historically established” Communities of People (from Tribes, Nationalities, Nations).
More details- (For a Loyal and Responsive Person)
Ethnicity is a historically formed group of people. Ethnic - connection, belonging to any nation. Rod - 1st ethnic group pre-class society., having a common origin, a common language, customs, beliefs, etc. The economic basis of the clan was primitive communal property and equal distribution of products. A tribe is a larger community. It consisted of several clans, where, along with the property of the clan, there was also the property of the tribe. The top management appeared. Nationality is a form of community in which people living in the same territory are bound by the peculiarities of culture, norms of life, which are enshrined in customs and traditions. Nationality developed, as a rule, in slave-owning societies. Nation - stable set people who are connected by a common language, territory and community of economic life, as well as a feature of psychology enshrined in the characteristics of culture of a given people. Here we see clear differences between one people and another.
FAMILY - the smallest consanguineous group of people connected by a common origin (grandmother, grandfather, father, mother, children). In the course of further cultural and economic development tribes were transformed into nationalities, and those - at higher stages of development - into nations. A nationality is an ethnic community that occupies a place on the ladder of social development between tribes and a nation. Nations arise during the era of slavery and represent a linguistic, territorial, economic and cultural community. A NATION is an autonomous political grouping not limited by territorial boundaries, whose members are committed to common values and institutions. Representatives of one nation no longer have common ancestor And common origin. They don't have to have mutual language, religion, but the nationality that unites them was formed thanks to general history and culture.
National relations in the world are one of the most important and in some areas the most restless, causing wars, revolutions, etc. And along with them, of course, the ideology (justification) of these relations - nationalism - plays a huge role. It can be defined as worldwide praise of one’s people, country, religion, etc. Nations that do not have their own state sometimes strive to create one, and on the contrary, dominant peoples strive to suppress such desires.
In different places, certain indicators may come to the fore: religion, language, customs, etc. National relations lie in how these differences coexist; whether there is enmity, hatred, confrontation, or, on the contrary, peace, harmony, mutual understanding; do they look at a person first of all from the position of who he is by nationality, or, on the contrary, this is the last thing; How do they treat interethnic marriages, etc. Forms of support are also important national characteristics
Family is the most important element of social life. structures. The situation of the family shows the degree of its progress towards providing its citizens with real opportunities for social services. development. To strengthen the position of the family, the governments of many countries are adopting special measures. measures. They include various types of benefits and financial benefits, leave to care for small children, the creation of preschool children's institutions, and adaptation of working hours to the needs of families.
The concept and conditions for the emergence of political relations in society. Concept political power. The political system of society and its elements.
Politics arises where different interests arise. Politics is about the struggle for power.
Power is the imposition of the will of one subject on another or other subjects.
Power can be both formal and informal.
Types of power: material (economic), social, political.
Political system of society:
Political subject (individuals, party, nation, state)
Political relations (any relationship related to the struggle for power)
Political ideas(communist, fascist, monarch.)
Political culture (knowledge + money)
Political interests
Politics is the relationship between states, classes, nations, social. groups about power
The state, its essence, origin and functions performed in society.
State is a special organization of society, united by common social and cultural interests, occupying a certain territory, having own system management, security system and having internal and external sovereignty. The state is the core political system, occupying a central place in it. The theological theory of the origin of the state became widespread in the Middle Ages, in the works of Thomas Aquinas
According to representatives of this doctrine, the state is a product of divine will, due to which government- is eternal and unshakable, and depends mainly on religious organizations and figures. Therefore, everyone is obliged to obey the sovereign in everything.
The materialist (Marxist) theory of the origin of the state connects the emergence of the state with the emergence of private property, the split of society into classes and class contradictions. According to supporters of this theory, “the state is a product and manifestation of irreconcilable class contradictions.”
To the most well-known representatives The patriarchal theory of the origin of the state can be attributed to Confucius, Aristotle, etc. They substantiate the fact that people are collective beings, striving for mutual communication, leading to the emergence of a family. Subsequently, the development and expansion of the family as a result of the unification of people and an increase in the number of these families lead to the formation of a state.
The social structure of society is formed by large, more or less stable social associations of people and the relationships between them. These associations are formed under the direct influence of labor and the economic life of society as a whole.
In the socio-economic structure of society, a distinction is made between first and second order structures. The first-order structure includes large, historical social associations of individuals, called historical communities of people. In the second-order structure, classes are distinguished first of all.
Historical communities of people are large, stable associations that reveal common features life, material and spiritual culture, language, etc.
There are 3 types of historical communities of people.
1. Rod. Its basis is consanguinity. Economic relations appear here in the shell of family ties. This also includes a tribe as an association of several clans.
2. Nationality. Occurs in slave and feudal societies. The economic basis for the formation of a nationality is private labor and private property. Nationality develops as a result of the merger of different tribes, their loss of economic, territorial, linguistic independence and the formation on their basis of a common material and spiritual culture, a single territory, language, and later a state.
3. Nation. Nations are formed from people of different tribes and nationalities as a result of the socialization of production and the creation of a single market. A nation is characterized by a common economic life, territory, language, mental makeup, manifested in national character and culture. Its inherent economic community has a deeper and more universal character due to the dominance of capitalist commodity production with its inherent division and cooperation of labor, commodity-money relations. The nation is a product of the bourgeois era.
Nation and nationality
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of nation and nationality. Nationality is identified with ethnos, ethnic origin.
Ethnicity is a collection of people who have genetically determined and more or less pronounced common typical external characteristics, common culture, language, ethnic identity, common territory that this ethnic group perceives it as his country.
There are different concepts in understanding a nation:
Semyonov: civil concept of the nation. A nation is a collection of people living in a country.
Tishkov: instrumental concept. A nation is a concept that politicians came up with to solve their political problems. The nation is a means for the political mobilization of the population.
A nation is a historically stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, culture and mental makeup.
Previously, nation and nationality coincided, but with the development of economic relations and migration, these concepts separated. Main feature nations - a community of economic structure.
3 periods in the formation of nations.
1. The era of the formation of capitalism. At this time, the nationality turns into a nation.
2. The spread of capitalism from developed countries. This is due to colonial policy, when colonies were deprived of the opportunity to form their own nation.
3. Collapse of the colonial system. The former colonies gained independence, this completed the formation of nations.
2 trends in the development of nations under capitalism:
· the formation of nations, the awakening of national life
· strengthening ties between states breaks down national borders and makes them transparent.
There is such a thing as globalization.
National problems modernity
IN modern society there are many national problems.
Nationalism: tends to exaggerate national characteristics. There is a praise of the national, but at the same time disdain for other nations and nationalities.
Chauvinism is an extreme form of nationalism. Hatred of other nationalities, the desire to destroy other peoples as a species.
Nationalism is often combined with racism.
Cosmopolitanism: ignores all national characteristics, rejects their essential significance. This is a kind of imposition of one’s way of life on other countries.
But there is also such a concept as internationalism, which manifests itself in mutual respect for the national characteristics of any nationality.
There are 2 models of integration of multiethnic populations:
1. assimilation (integration) model: one state - one nation. People coming to a country can integrate into society if they internalize the national culture.
2. multicultural model. Leaves the right to national minorities to have their own national characteristics.
Russia's national problems arose in the 80-90s. Of course, even under tsarism the policy of inequality prevailed, but the problem was not so acute.
USSR: a voluntary association of equal peoples. But during Stalin's reign, the ethnic structure of the state was simplified through the resettlement of peoples.
Contemporary issues Russia:
1. unregulated ethnic migration, mainly due to the CIS countries, China, Korea).
2. indigenous problem small nationalities. They got the status autonomous okrugs, their population is dying from alcoholism.
There are also inter-ethnic contradictions between nationalities. There is also ethnophobia of Russians, for example, in the Baltic states.
Also a significant problem is the population decline, mainly due to Russians.
Marriage and family, family functions
Marriage is a historically determined, sanctioned, and socially regulated form of relationship between a man and a woman, establishing their rights and responsibilities towards each other and towards their children.
A family is a small social group based on marriage and consanguinity, the members of which are connected by common life, mutual responsibility and mutual assistance.
Family signs:
1. Consanguineous.
2. Unified economic framework.
3. Living together and sharing responsibilities in the family.
4. Special attitude and care of family members for each other.
Family functions:
1. Reproduction of the species.
2. Economic unit of society.
3. Educational.
4. Recreational (restorative).
In the modern world there are about 40 million families, i.e. 90% of people live in families.
There is also a tendency to simplify the family structure:
Spouse + 1 child.
12% of families live with relatives, 13% of single-parent families.
Interesting fact is that average age number of people getting married is growing. Also, 25% of families do not intend to have children, which inevitably leads to a decrease in the birth rate.
Compared to the 90s, the number of divorces has increased from 30% to 50% (Perm - 80%).
43% of children in the Perm region are born out of wedlock. The average birth rate per family is 1.2 children.
Out of 100 thousand people, 221 die from accidents, in Perm 318 out of 100 thousand, of which 54 are from alcohol, 55 are suicides.
But since 2000 There is a surge in the birth rate.
300 thousand children are considered missing, 3-6 million. street children.
Factors influencing the birth rate:
Economic
State aid level
Monthly benefit – 70 rubles per child.
Maternity benefit – 8000 rubles, for the 1st – 1500, for the 2nd – 3000.
There is a fairly high infant and maternal mortality rate due to medical care; by the way, 7 out of 10 pregnant women have an abortion.
Age and gender structure of society:
Women - men = 10 million people.
Life expectancy for men is 58 years, for women - 72, in Perm 56 and 67 years, respectively.
A terrifying fact: the number of deaths in the Russian Federation now doubles more people what is born. From 1991-2001 The population decline was 7.9 million. Human.
60 thousand suicides per year are observed in our country, by 2025. There will already be 125 million of us. people, and by 2050 - 100.
Historical communities of people - these are large, stable associations that reveal common features of life, material and spiritual culture, language, etc.
Genus. Its basis is consanguinity. Economic relations appear here in the shell of family ties. This also includes a tribe as an association of several clans. The first I.F.O. people is a genus - an organization of primitive society based on consanguinity, collective ownership of the means of production, common elements of primitive culture, language, traditions, etc. The need for a stable team of people capable of coordinated actions and continuous management of the economy was generated by the need to develop productive forces and maintain the existence of the clan. Primitive way production was best answered by the clan organization of people. At this stage of development of society, a production collective could be formed only on the basis of natural kinship and the clan, unlike the primitive herd, became such a stable collective.
Wider shape ethnic community, characteristic of the primitive communal system, is tribe, which, as a rule, consisted of several genera. Tribes were also based on tribal relations, consanguineous ties of people. A person’s belonging to a tribe made him a co-owner of common property and ensured participation in public life. Therefore, the tribe had the same characteristics as the clan. Each tribe had given name, territory, community of economic life, language, customs, morals, religious rites. It should be noted that tribal relations were widespread not only during the development of the primitive communal system. Many of the features inherent in such relationships have been preserved in one form or another in modern era among many peoples of Asia, Latin America and Africa.
Historical process the development of productive forces and production relations led to the destruction of tribal relations. The decomposition of the primitive and the emergence of class society contributed to the emergence of a new historical community of nationalities. Nationality as a community of people is formed with the emergence of private property relations. The development of private property, exchange, and trade destroyed former tribal ties and gave rise to a new division of labor and class stratification. The blood-related principle of uniting people gave way to territorial principle. The nationality consists of tribes close in origin and language. It is known, for example, that the German people were formed from various Germanic tribes, the Polish from Slavic ones, etc.
Nationality. Occurs in slave and feudal societies. The economic basis for the formation of a nationality is private labor and private property. A nationality is formed as a result of the merger of different tribes, their loss of economic, territorial, linguistic independence and the formation on their basis of a common material and spiritual culture, a single territory, language, and later a state. A nationality as a historically established community of people is characterized by such features as common territory , economic ties, common language and culture, etc. Having emerged in a slave-owning and feudal society, nationalities are preserved and even formed up to the present day.
But the history of society develops further, the development of material production leads to the fact that commodity production comes to replace natural economy, economic fragmentation is eliminated, economic and cultural ties between nationalities are strengthened. All this contributed to the fact that during the development of capitalist relations, a new historical community of people, a nation, emerged for which, along with other characteristics (common territory, language, customs, traditions, etc.), the main thing is a common economic space, a developed economy and culture. Nations are formed from many or several nationalities. Thus, it is well known that the Russian nation was formed from several Slavic peoples. The same can be said about many nations inhabiting various continents of the globe.
Nation - This is a historical community of people that has a common territory, language, culture and, most importantly, a common economy. Such historical communities of people as nationalities and nations play big role in the life of society, when they gain self-awareness and rally towards a specific goal. It is important to keep in mind that although the national liberation movement is one of the powerful factors social progress, but it not only does not push the class struggle into the background, but often acts in alliance with it. Nations are formed from people of different tribes and nationalities as a result of the socialization of production and the creation of a single market. A nation is characterized by a common economic life, territory, language, mental makeup, manifested in national character and culture. Its inherent economic community has a deeper and more universal character due to the dominance of capitalist commodity production with its inherent division and cooperation of labor and commodity-money relations. The nation is a product of the bourgeois era.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of nation and nationality. Nationality is identified with ethnos, ethnic origin.
Ethnos- a set of people who have genetically determined and more or less expressed common typical external characteristics, a common culture, language, ethnic identity, a common territory, which a given ethnic group perceives as their country.
There are different concepts in understanding a nation:
· Semyonov: civil concept of the nation. A nation is a collection of people living in a country.
· Tishkov: instrumental concept. A nation is a concept that politicians came up with to solve their political problems. The nation is a means for the political mobilization of the population.
A nation is a historically stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, culture and mental makeup.
Previously, nation and nationality coincided, but with the development of economic relations and migration, these concepts separated. The main feature of a nation is its common economic structure.
3 periods in the formation of nations.
1. The era of the formation of capitalism. At this time, the nationality turns into a nation.
2. The spread of capitalism from developed countries. This is due to colonial policy, when colonies were deprived of the opportunity to form their own nation.
3. Collapse of the colonial system. The former colonies gained independence, this completed the formation of nations.
2 trends in the development of nations under capitalism:
· the formation of nations, the awakening of national life
· strengthening ties between states breaks down national borders and makes them transparent. There is such a thing as globalization.
In the social structure of society, an important role also belongs to family, as one of the small social groups of people. The family is a small social group, the members of which are connected by marriage or kinship relations, a common life and mutual moral responsibility, defined by legal norms. The social necessity of the family is determined by the needs of society. Being a necessary component social structure of any society and performing various social functions, the family plays an important role in social development, performing a number of important social functions.
The family, as a specific community, is formed under the influence of many factors. Here, first of all, natural factors influence: the satisfaction of needs for procreation. The family as a social community is greatly influenced by the material and production life of society, the state of the economy, and development opportunities material sphere families. No less important in this regard, they have the opportunity to satisfy spiritual needs, the manifestation of feelings mutual love, respect, care between family members.
Family like social institution arose with the formation of society. At the first stages of its development, relations between men and women, older and younger generations were regulated by tribal and clan customs. With the emergence of morality, religion, and then the state, the regulation of sexual life acquired a moral and legal character. This allowed for even greater social control over marriage. With the development of society, certain changes occurred in marriage and family relations.
Family life and its social functions are multifaceted. They are related to intimate life spouses, procreation, raising children. All this is based on compliance with certain moral and legal norms: love, respect, duty, fidelity, etc.
The family is such a foundation of society and such a microenvironment, the climate of which promotes or hinders the development of moral and physical strength man, his formation as a social being. It is in the family that those moral principles that contribute to personal development.
Family has the greatest influence on a child's personality. In the sphere of influence of the family, the child’s intellect and emotions, his views and tastes, skills and habits are simultaneously affected. Family education has an almost comprehensive nature, because it is not limited to suggestion, but includes all forms of influence on the developing personality: through communication and direct observation, work and personal example of others. In other words, the development of a child is organically integrated into the life of the family. The educational function of the family cannot be overestimated.
Society is vitally interested in a strong, spiritually and morally healthy family. It requires attention and assistance from the state in performing social functions, raising children, and improving material, housing and living conditions.
Mythology
Along with religion and art in primitive society, the formation of another form takes place. public consciousness– mythology. Myths are the leading form verbal, speech expressions of worldview primitive man. Myth translated from Greek means “tradition,” i.e. knowledge passed on by ancestors. In myths, accumulated knowledge was consolidated and passed on to new generations in a vivid, figurative form. Myths did not just tell about the past, but explained the existing order of things and approved it, referring to the authority of ancestors. Since the rate of development of history was extremely low and for many generations people’s lives remained essentially unchanged, the experience of their ancestors seemed to be an indisputable truth and an example to follow. The myth could give a very naive explanation of the world around us from our point of view, but it practically “worked” and was sufficient for primitive man. Myths are closely related to magic and religion, since it was in myths that magical and religious rituals were explained. However, mythology is broader in content than religion. Myths reflected not only ideas of a religious nature, but also the everyday experience of people.
The myths of the most backward peoples of the modern world, for example the aborigines of Australia, give an idea of the mythology of primitive society. The myths of the Australian aborigines are closely connected with all important aspects of the life of the clan. They explain rituals, hunting rituals. During the ritual, myth interacts with song and dance. They are all dedicated to the same theme and purpose.
This close connection, the indivisibility of various aspects of social consciousness (art, religion, mythology) - characteristic culture of primitive man. In science this trait called syncretism(from the Greek synkretismos - connection). As culture develops, there will be a process of separation different forms social creation.
According to his biological qualities, a person could not survive alone or within very small group. Most early form the social organization of people was what anthropologists called the “primitive herd”, which was characterized by promiscuity - promiscuity.
Gradually this form social life changed primitive community. A characteristic feature of the latter – exogamy, that is, a ban on marriages between close relatives, and then on marriages within the same clan, because they led to the weakening of the offspring and extinction. Exogamy contributed to the formation of a couple families, since women were conquered or exchanged and therefore assigned to certain men. The formation of a couple family contributed to the upbringing of children. But not the family, but the clan remained the main social and production unit among hunters and gatherers, since, as already noted, the family could not survive alone. The needs of survival dictated two main features of the tribal system: joint production and joint consumption.
All members of the community performed certain work in accordance with age, gender, personal abilities and made different contributions to the common cause. However, the consumption of obtained food was joint and largely equalizing character. The reason is simple: the clan could survive if everyone shared their spoils with everyone. At the same time, equalization was not absolute. A successful hunter always had the right to the best pieces of meat, a spear, etc. Consequently, we can say that the community combined two principles of distribution: egalitarian and according to work, according to merit.
The tribal collective had its own leader - leader. A person became a leader due to his personal qualities. In science it's called meritocracy- ruling by merit. At some stage, the role of the leader was also consolidated in religious ideas. This was facilitated by the fact that the leader often performed important religious and magical rituals. It was believed that the leader was connected with a special power and was under its protection.
The leader relied on the advice and authority of the most experienced men. Important issues were resolved by all men of the clan, perhaps by women too. Matriarchy as a stage of female dominance in a family or clan has not been recorded. Among hunter-gatherers, the role of men as the main breadwinner and protector was undeniable.
An equally important role in regulating the life of the community was played by customs and established traditions - the result of cumulative experience. Their power was greater than the power of the leader, who relied on customs and ensured that they were carried out. Communal democracy should not be idealized either. It manifested itself in the relative equality of men’s rights when deciding important issues, in particular when choosing a leader, but then the leader’s power could be quite authoritarian, and control from below was included only in the event of gross mistakes by the leader that threatened the very existence of the community.
Trends in the development of the genus. Dimensions of the Primordial labor collective were determined by specific needs for combining the efforts of clan members in their economic activity. For hunters, the optimal community size was 30–50 people. As soon as the genus went beyond this optimum, it split into two, and they, as a rule, did not lose contact with each other. This is how a new, broader form of social organization of people arose - a union of several clans, which is usually denoted by the term tribe.
The tribe performs two main functions. Firstly, marriages take place within the tribe, since the clan was exogamous. Secondly, the tribal union could play an important role in the joint defense of the territory from outsiders. Where this problem is relevant, the role of intercommunity ties and the tribal leader grew: military danger required the concentration of power.
Another trend in the development of the clan was the strengthening of the role families. As labor productivity grew, conditions arose for the family to become the main production unit, since the family could provide itself with everything necessary. We can talk about a pattern: the higher the degree of development of the productive forces, the greater the degree of isolation of families within the clan. In other words, the degree of collectivism was determined by the objective needs of people’s survival. Hunters and gatherers did not go beyond the clan system. The clan was the main social unit at this stage of social development. It retained its significance for a long time. And now there are many peoples in the world who have strong ancestral ties.
Primitive society ended its existence as a result Neolithic or Agrarian Revolution: the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal husbandry. This transition radically changed the way people lived. Hunting and gathering objectively separated people, who were forced to live in small groups and constantly move across large territories. Agriculture and cattle breeding enabled people to transition to a sedentary lifestyle. They provided greater opportunities for nutrition more people in a smaller area. Man began to live in large settlements, and this stimulated progress: the experience and achievements of individual people quickly became the property of many. This created the prerequisites for the emergence of ancient civilizations.
Chapter 2. Culture Ancient Sumer
The transition to agriculture and cattle breeding began earliest in the Middle East region. There were already large settlements there in the 6th millennium, whose inhabitants possessed secrets farming, pottery and weaving. By the turn of the 3rd millennium, the first civilizations began to take shape in this region.
As already noted, the founder of anthropology L. G. Morgan used concept of "civilization" to denote a higher stage of development of society than barbarism. IN modern science The concept of civilization is used to designate the stage of development of society at which there are: cities, class society, state and law, writing.
Those features that distinguish civilization from the primitive era arose in the 4th millennium, and fully manifested themselves in the 3rd millennium BC. e. in the lives of people who developed the valleys of rivers flowing in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Later, in the middle of the 3rd millennium, civilizations began to emerge in the Indus River Valley (in the territory of modern Pakistan) and in the Yellow River Valley (China).
Let us trace the process of formation and development of the first civilizations using the example of the Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer.
