Classicism in Russian literature.

Changes in the political, cultural, and economic life of Russia posed a number of urgent tasks for literature: it was necessary to understand the changes that had taken place and, having comprehended them, reflect the surrounding reality. The literature of this period not only reproduces new phenomena, but also evaluates them, comparing them with the past, advocating in defense of Peter's conquests. In the 30-50s, a new direction was formed in literature – Russian classicism . This led to radical changes in the field of literature, which can be called the first steps of Russian classicism: New classic genres are created, literary language and versification are formed, theoretical treatises are written to substantiate such innovations. The founders of this trend in Russian literature are Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, whose work belongs entirely to XVIII century. All of them were born in the era of Peter, from childhood they breathed its air and with their creativity they sought to approve and defend Peter’s reforms in the years following the death of Peter the Great. The basis of Russian classicism in literature was the ideology that emerged as a result of the realization strengths Peter's reforms. Russian classicism was created by a generation of European-educated young writers who defended this ideology.

Word classicism comes from the Latin word classicus, i.e. exemplary. This was the name of ancient literature, which was widely used by classicists. Classicism received its most vivid embodiment in the 17th century, in France, in the works of Corneille, Racine, Molière, and Boileau. Foundation European classicism becomes absolutism and advanced philosophical teachings of that time. The aesthetic ideal of classicism is a man who has mastered his passions and subordinated the personal to the public. In art, the concept of “duty” arises in relation to one’s state; this duty is above all else. In a conflict between passion and duty, duty always wins. A person must have high moral principles, then he will prefer the fulfillment of state or public duty to his personal interests.

The main thing in the ideology of classicism is state pathos. The state was declared the highest value. The classicists believed in the possibility of its further improvement. In their view, the state was a reasonably structured social organism, where each class fulfills the duties assigned to it. Man, from the point of view of classicists, is an egoist, but he is amenable to education and the influence of civilization. The key to positive changes in human “nature” is reason, which classicists contrasted with emotions and “passions.” Reason helps to realize “duty” to the state, while “passions” distract from socially useful activities.

Russian classicism was formed under similar conditions of the absolutist power of the emperor, but it arose much later, so it has its own differences:

1. Russian classicism was formed in the era of the European Enlightenment, therefore its main task is the reconstruction of society based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. Classical writers were confident that it was possible, on reasonable grounds, through proper education, which should organize a state headed by an enlightened monarch, to put an end to human “evil nature” and create a perfect society.

2. Russian classicism arises after the death of Peter I, during the period of reaction, and new Russian literature begins not with odes glorifying the actions of the emperor, but with Cantemir’s satires, the heroes of which are not ancient heroes, but contemporaries, and Cantemir does not ridicule specific human vices, but exposes social shortcomings and fights reactionaries.

3. The first Russian classicists were already aware of the educational idea about the natural equality of people. But this thesis at that time had not yet been embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of “natural law,” called on the nobles to humanely treat the peasants. Sumarokov pointed to the natural equality of nobles and peasants.

4. The main difference between Russian classicism and European classicism was that he combined the ideas of absolutism with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. First of all, this is the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise “enlightened” monarch, demanding from each of the classes and individuals honest service for the benefit of the whole society. An example of such a ruler for Russian classicists was Peter the Great. Russian literature begins the process of teaching and educating the autocrat.

He reigns over the people to bliss,

And leading the common benefit to perfection:

The orphan does not cry under his scepter,

The innocent is not afraid...

... The flatterer does not bow to the feet of a nobleman

The king is a judge equal to all and a father equal to all...

– wrote A.P. Sumarokov. The king must remember that he is the same person as his subjects; if he cannot establish the proper order, then he is a “vile idol”, “an enemy of the people.”

5. The word “enlightened” meant not just an educated person, but a citizen person who was helped by knowledge to realize his responsibility to society. “Ignorance” implied not only a lack of knowledge, but also a lack of understanding of one’s duty to the state. That is why in Russian classicism of the 30-50s a huge place was given to sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. In almost all of his odes M.V. speaks about the benefits of science. Lomonosov. Kantemir’s first satire, “To Your Mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching."

6. Russian classicists were close to the struggle of enlighteners against the church and church ideology. They denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by the church.

7. The art of Russian classicists is based not only on works of antiquity, it is quite closely connected with national tradition and oral folk art, their literature often takes events as a basis national history.

8. B artistic field Russian classicists faced very difficult tasks. Russian literature of this period did not know well-processed literary language, did not have a specific genre system. Therefore, Russian writers of the second third of the 18th century had to not only create a new literary direction, but also to put in order the literary language, the system of versification and to master genres unknown until that time in Russia. Each of the authors was a pioneer: Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies.

9. Russian classicists created many theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. V. K. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems” (1735), in which he substantiated the basic principles of the new syllabic-tonic system, and Lomonosov in his “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry” (1739) developed and finalized syllabic-tonic system of versification /41 /. In his discussion “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” Lomonosov carried out a reform of the literary language and proposed the doctrine of the “three calms.” Sumarokov in his treatise “Instructions for those who want to be writers” gave a description of the content and style of classicist genres.

As a result of such research, a literary movement was created that had its own program, creative method and a coherent system of genres.

Artistic creativity considered by classicists as strict adherence to “reasonable” rules, eternal laws created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient authors and French literature of the 17th century. According to the classic canons, there were “correct” and “incorrect” works. Even the works of Shakespeare were among the “wrong” ones. Strict rules existed for each genre and required strict adherence. The genres were distinguished by their “purity” and unambiguity. For example, it was not allowed to introduce “touching” episodes into a comedy, and comic ones into a tragedy. The classicists developed a strict system of genres. Genres were divided into “high” and “low”. The “high” genres included the ode, the epic poem, and the eulogy. To the “low” - comedy, fable, epigram. True, Lomonosov also proposed “middle” genres - tragedy and satire, but tragedy gravitated towards the “high” genres, and satire - towards the “low” genres. In the “high” genres, heroes were depicted who could serve as role models - monarchs, generals, etc., the most popular of them was the image of Peter the Great. In the “low” genres, characters were depicted who were seized by one or another “passion”.

basis creative method classicists were rationalistic thinking. The classicists sought to decompose human psychology into its simplest component forms. In this regard, in the literature of classicism, abstractly generalizing, without individualization, images arise (miser, prude, dandy, braggart, hypocrite, etc.). It should be noted that it was strictly forbidden to combine different “passions” and even more so “vices” and “virtues” in one character. The intimate, everyday aspects of the life of an ordinary (private) person were not of interest to classic writers. Their heroes, as a rule, are kings, generals, devoid of typical national features, abstract schemes, bearers of the author's ideas.

When creating dramatic works, equally strict rules had to be followed. These rules concerned " three unities" - place, time and action. The classicists wanted to create a kind of illusion of life on stage, so stage time it had to be close to the time that the viewer spends in the theater. The duration of action could not exceed 24 hours - this unity of time. Unity of place due to the fact that the theater, divided into stage and auditorium, gave the audience the opportunity to see someone else’s life. If the action is moved to another place, this illusion will be broken. Therefore, it was believed that it was best to play out the action in the same, permanent scenery; it was much worse, but it was acceptable when the events developed within the confines of one house, castle or palace. Unity of action required the presence in the play of only one storyline and a minimum number characters. The strictest adherence to the three unities constrained the inspiration of playwrights. However, in such stage regulation there was a rational grain - the desire for a clear organization of a dramatic work, concentrating the viewer’s attention on the characters themselves and their relationships. All this made many theatrical performances of the era of Russian classicism true art.

Despite the strict regulation of creativity, the works of each of the classicists were distinguished by their individual characteristics. Thus, Kantemir and Sumarokov attached great importance to civic education. They called on the nobles to fulfill their public duty and denounced self-interest and ignorance. To achieve this goal, Kantemir wrote his satires, and Sumarokov wrote tragedies, where he subjected the monarchs themselves to harsh judgment, appealing to their civic duty and conscience.

Classicism

Classicism (first-class, exemplary) is a movement in art and literature that received this name because it considered classical ancient (ancient Greek and Roman) art to be ideal, exemplary, perfect, harmonious. Supporters of classicism saw their goal as getting closer to ancient models by imitating them (ancient motifs, plots, images, and elements of mythology are widely used in the work of classicists).

Classicism arose at the end of the Renaissance and took shape in France in the mid-17th century under Louis XIV. The emergence of classicism is associated with the formation of a centralized state, the strengthening of the monarchy, and the ideals of “enlightened” absolutism.

The code (set of rules) of classicism was compiled by the French poet and critic N. Boileau in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art” (1674). Sumarokov was the first to translate this work into Russian in 1752, proving its applicability to Russian literature.

Classicism reached its peak in France in the tragedies of P. Corneille (“Cid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”), J. Racine (“Britannicus”, “Mithridates”, “Phaedra”), F. Voltaire (“Brutus” , “Tancred”), in the comedies of J. B. Molière (“The Miser,” “The Bourgeois in the Nobility,” “The Misanthrope,” “Tartuffe, or the Deceiver,” “The Imaginary Invalid”), in the fables of J. de La Fontaine, in prose by F. La Rochefoucauld, J. Labruyère; in Germany in the works of the Weimar period by J. W. Goethe (“Roman Elegies”, drama “Egmont”) and I. F. Schiller (“Ode to Joy”, drama “The Robbers” , “The Fiesco Conspiracy”, “Cunning and Love”).

Classicism as an artistic movement has its own characteristics and principles.

Cult, the dominance of reason as the highest criterion of truth and beauty, the subordination of personal interests to the lofty ideas of civic duty and state laws. The philosophical basis of classicism was rationalism (from the Latin haIo - reason, rationality, expediency, rational validity of everything, the harmony of the Universe, conditioned by its spiritual principle), the founder of which was R. Descartes.

From the standpoint of statehood and enlightenment, denunciation of ignorance, selfishness, and despotism of the feudal order; glorification of the monarchy, which intelligently governs the people and cares about education; affirmation of human dignity, civic and moral duty. In other words, classicism formulated the purpose of literature as influencing the mind to correct vices and education of virtue, and this clearly expressed author's position(for example, Corneille glorifies heroes who defend the state, the absolute monarch; Lomonosov glorifies Peter the Great as an ideal monarch).

Heroes of classicism, mainly tragedies, there were “high” ones: kings, princes, generals, leaders, nobles, high clergy, noble citizens who cared about the fate of the fatherland and served it. In comedies, not only high-ranking officials were portrayed, but also commoners and serf servants.

The characters were strictly divided into positive and negative, into virtuous, ideal, devoid of individuality, acting at the behest of reason, and carriers of vice, in the grip of selfish passions. At the same time, in the outline goodies there was schematism and reasoning, that is, a tendency to moralizing reasoning from the author’s point of view.

The characters were unilinear: the hero personified any one quality (passion) - intelligence, courage, bravery, nobility, honesty or greed, deceit, stinginess, cruelty, flattery, hypocrisy, boasting (Pushkin noted: “In Moliere stingy stingy- but only..."; Mitrofan’s leading trait in “Nedorosl” is laziness).

The heroes were portrayed statically, without character evolution. In essence, these were just mask images (as Belinsky put it, “images without faces”).

“Talking” names of the characters (Tartuffe, Skotinin, Pravdin).

The conflict of good and evil, reason and stupidity, duty and feelings, in which good, reason, and duty always won. In other words, in the works of classicism, vice was always punished, and virtue triumphed (for example, in Fonvizin’s “Minor”). Hence the abstraction, the conventionality of the depiction of reality, the conventionality of the classicists' method.

The heroes spoke in a pompous, solemn, elevated language; such poetic means were used as Slavicisms, hyperbole, metaphor, personification, metonymy, comparison, antithesis, emotional epithets (“cold corpse”, “pale brow”), rhetorical questions and exclamations, appeals, mythological comparisons (Apollo, Zeus, Minerva, Neptune, Boreas). Syllabic versification dominated, and Alexandrian verse was used.

The characters delivered long monologues in order to more fully reveal their views, beliefs, and principles. Such monologues slowed down the action of the play.

Strict gradation, hierarchy of genres. “High” genres (tragedy, heroic poem, ode) reflected state life, historical events, and ancient subjects. “Low” genres (comedy, satire, fable) were turned into the sphere of everyday modern privacy. An intermediate place was occupied by “middle” genres (drama, message, elegy, idyll, sonnet, song), depicting the inner world of an individual; they did not play a noticeable role in the literary process (the flourishing of these genres would come later). The classification of genres was based on the theory of “three styles” (high, medium, low), known since ancient times. Each genre had one of these styles; deviations were not allowed.

Mixing the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary was not allowed.

Heroes were depicted only in verse and in a sublime style. The prose was considered humiliating, “despicable” for high-ranking officials.

In dramaturgy dominated theory of "three unities"- place (all the action of the play took place in one place), time (events in the play developed over the course of a day), action (what was happening on stage had its beginning, development and end, while there were no “extra” episodes or characters that were not directly related to the development of the main plot).

Supporters of classicism usually borrowed plots for works from ancient history or mythology. The rules of classicism required the logical development of the plot, harmony of composition, clarity and conciseness of language, rational clarity and noble beauty of style.

Russian classicism. In Russia, due to historical conditions (during the establishment of the absolute monarchy), classicism appeared later, from the late 20s of the 18th century, existing until the 20s of the 19th century. At the same time, one should see one’s own periods in the development of Russian classicism and, accordingly, the representatives of these periods.

Early classicism: A. D. Kantemir (poetic satires), V. K. Trediakovsky (poem “Tilemakhida”, ode “For the surrender of Gdansk”).

The heyday of classicism (40-70s): M. V. Lomonosov (odes “On the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna”, “On the capture of Khotin”; tragedy “Tamira and Selim”, poem “Peter the Great”, cycle poems “Conversation with Anacreon”, satire “Hymn to the Beard”), A. P. Sumarokov (tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”, “Dmitry the Pretender”, “Semira”; comedies “Guardian”, “The Covetous Man” , “Cuckold by Imagination”; fables, satires; the theoretical treatise “Epistole on Poetry”, which is based on Boileau’s “Poetic Art”, while introducing certain changes associated with an increase in interest in the inner life of the individual).

Late classicism: D. I. Fonvizin (comedies “Brigadier”, “Undergrown”), Ya. B. Knyazhnin (tragedies “Dido”, “Rosslav”, “Vadim Novgorodsky”; comedy “Boaster”), V. A. Ozerov (tragedies “Oedipus in Athens”, “Fingal”, “Dmitry Donskoy”), P. A. Plavilshchikov (comedies “Bobyl”, “Sidelets”), M. M. Kheraskov (poem “Rossiyada”, tragedies “Borislav”, “The Venetian Nun”), G. R. Derzhavin (odes “Felitsa”, “Nobleman”, “God”, “Waterfall”, “For the Capture of Ishmael”; anacreontic poems), A. N. Radishchev (ode “Liberty”, the story “The Life of V. F. Ushakov”).

In the works of representatives of late classicism, sprouts and tendencies of realism are already noticeable(for example, the recreation of typical features of negative characters conditioned by serfdom, realistic descriptions of everyday life, satirical denunciation, mixing of genres, “calms”), the destruction of classicism and its conventions occurs; The features of classicism are preserved rather externally.

Russian classicism expressed the worldview, psychology and tastes of the enlightened Russian nobility, which rose to prominence under Peter the Great.

The originality of Russian classicism. High civil-patriotic pathos, manifested in appealing mainly to national themes, to subjects from Russian reality, from national history. In the preaching of national ideas, in the formation of socially useful, civic qualities of a person, in the development of an anti-despotic orientation, anti-tyrant motives, in educational tendencies (in the struggle for national culture, science, education) lay the objectively progressive meaning of Russian classicism, its connection with life was closer, by the people. (It is no coincidence that Pushkin called Fonvizin “a friend of freedom.”).

A more pronounced accusatory realistic tendency, expressed in satire, comedy, fable, violated the principle of abstract depiction of reality inherent in classicism, that is, elements of realism were significant in Russian classicism.

There was a great connection with folk art, which gave the works of Russian classicism a democratic imprint, while Western European classicism avoided the inclusion of vernacular expressions and the use of folklore techniques (thus, Kantemir in his satires, Sumarokov in his satires and fables widely used vernacular). Tonic and syllabonic versification and free verse dominated.

Classicism is artistic direction, which originated in the Renaissance, took, along with the Baroque, important place in the literature of the 17th century and continued development in the Age of Enlightenment - right up to the first decades of the 19th century. The adjective “classical” is very ancient.: Even before receiving its basic meaning in Latin, "classicus" meant "noble, wealthy, respected citizen." Having received the meaning of “exemplary”, the concept of “classical” began to be applied to such works and authors who became the subject school study, were intended to be read in classrooms. It was in this sense that the word was used both in the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance, and in the 17th century the meaning “worthy of study in classes” was enshrined in dictionaries (dictionary of S.P. Richle, 1680). The definition of “classical” was applied only to ancient, ancient authors, but not to modern writers, even if their works were recognized as artistically perfect and aroused the admiration of readers. The first to use the epithet “classical” in relation to writers of the 17th century was Voltaire (“The Age of Louis XIV”, 1751). The modern meaning of the word “classical,” which significantly expands the list of authors belonging to the literary classics, began to take shape in the era of romanticism. At the same time, the concept of “Classicism” appeared. Both terms among the romantics often had a negative connotation: Classicism and the “classics” were opposed to the “romantics” as outdated literature, blindly imitating antiquity - innovative literature (see: “On Germany”, 1810, J. de Stael; “Racine and Shakespeare”, 1823-25, Stendhal). On the contrary, opponents of romanticism, primarily in France, began to use these words as a designation of truly national literature, opposing foreign (English, German) influences, and defined the great authors of the past with the word “classics” - P. Corneille, J. Racine, Moliere, F. La Rochefoucauld. High appreciation of the achievements of French literature of the 17th century, its significance for the formation of other national literatures of the New Age - German, English, etc. - contributed to the fact that this century began to be considered the “era of Classicism,” in which the leading role was played by French writers and their diligent students in other countries. Writers who clearly did not fit within the framework of classicist principles were judged to be "laggard" or "lost their way." In fact, two terms were established, the meanings of which partly overlapped: “classical”, i.e. exemplary, artistically perfect, included in the fund of world literature, and “classic” - i.e. relating to Classicism as a literary movement, embodying its artistic principles.

Concept – Classicism

Classicism is a concept that entered the history of literature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries., in works written by scientists of the cultural-historical school (G. Lanson and others). The features of Classicism were primarily determined from the dramatic theory of the 17th century and from N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art” (1674). It was seen as a movement oriented towards ancient art, drawing its ideas from Aristotle's Poetics, and also as embodying an absolutist monarchical ideology. A revision of this concept of Classicism in both foreign and domestic literary criticism occurred in the 1950s-60s: from now on, Classicism began to be interpreted by most scientists not as an “artistic expression of absolutism”, but as a “literary movement that experienced a period of bright prosperity in the 17th century, during the strengthening and triumph of absolutism" (Vipper Yu.B. About the "seventeenth century" as a special era in history Western European literatures 17th century in the world literary development.). The term “Classicism” retained its role even when scientists turned to non-classicist, baroque works of literature of the 17th century. The definition of Classicism emphasized, first of all, the desire for clarity and precision of expression, strict subordination to rules (the so-called “three unities”), and comparison to ancient models. The origin and spread of Classicism was associated not only with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, but also with the emergence and influence of the rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes, with the development of the exact sciences, especially mathematics. In the first half of the 20th century, Classicism was called the “school of the 1660s” - a period when great writers - Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine and Boileau - simultaneously worked in French literature. Gradually, its origins were revealed in Italian literature of the Renaissance: in the poetics of G. Cintio, J. C. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, in the tragedies of D. Trissino and T. Tasso. The search for an “orderly manner”, the laws of “true art” was found in English (F. Sidney, B. Johnson, J. Milton, J. Dryden, A. Pope, J. Addison), in German (M. Opitz, I. H. . Gottsched, J.V. Goethe, F. Schiller), in Italian (G. Chiabrera, V. Alfieri) literature of the 17th-18th centuries. Russian Classicism of the Enlightenment took a prominent place in European literature (A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin). All this forced researchers to consider it as one of the important components artistic life Europe for several centuries and as one of the two (along with Baroque) main movements that laid the foundations of the culture of the New Age.

Durability of Classicism

One of the reasons for the durability of Classicism was that the writers of this movement considered their work not as a way of subjective, individual self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, unchangeable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. The classicist vision of reality, formed on the threshold of the New Age, had, like the Baroque, internal drama, but subordinated this drama to the discipline of external manifestations. Ancient literature served for classicists as an arsenal of images and plots, but they were filled with relevant content. If early, Renaissance Classicism sought to recreate antiquity through imitation, then Classicism of the 17th century entered into competition with ancient literature, seeing in it, first of all, an example of the correct use of the eternal laws of art, using which one can be able to surpass ancient authors (see Dispute about the “ancients” and “new”). Strict selection, ordering, harmonious composition, classification of themes, motives, all material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for the writers of Classicism an attempt to artistic overcome the chaos and contradictions of reality, correlated with the didactic function of works of art, with the principle of “teaching”, drawn from Horace , entertaining." A favorite conflict in the works of Classicism is the clash of duty and feelings or the struggle of reason and passion. Classicism is characterized by a stoic mood, contrasting the chaos and unreason of reality, one’s own passions and affects with a person’s ability, if not to overcome them, then to curb them, in extreme cases - to both dramatic and analytical awareness (the heroes of Racine’s tragedies). Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” plays the role of not only a philosophical and intellectual, but also an ethical principle in the artistic worldview of the characters of Classicism. The hierarchy of ethical and aesthetic values ​​determines the predominant interest of Classicism in moral, psychological and civil themes, dictates the classification of genres, dividing them into “higher” (epic, ode, tragedy) and lower (comedy, satire, fable), the choice for each of these genres specific theme, style, character system. Classicism is characterized by the desire to analytically distinguish between different works, even artistic worlds, the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the beautiful and the ugly. At the same time, turning to low genres, he strives to ennoble them, for example, to remove crude burlesque from satire, and farcical features from comedy (“high comedy” by Molière). The poetry of Classicism strives for a clear expression of significant thought and meaning; it refuses sophistication, metaphorical complexity, and stylistic embellishments. Of particular importance in Classicism are dramatic works and the theater itself, which is capable of most organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions. In the bosom of Classicism, prose genres also developed - aphorisms (maxims), characters. Although the theory of Classicism refuses to include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious critical reflection, in practice the poetics of Classicism had a tangible impact on the concept of the novel as an “epic in prose”, popular in the 17th century, and determined the genre parameters of the “little novel” or “romantic short story” 1660-80s, and “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) by M.M. de Lafayette is considered by many experts to be an example of a classic novel.

Theory of Classicism

The theory of Classicism is not limited only to Boileau’s poetic treatise “Poetic Art”: although its author is rightly considered the legislator of Classicism, he was only one of many creators of literary treatises of this direction, along with Opitz and Dryden, F. Chaplin and F. d’Aubignac. It develops gradually, experiences its formation in disputes between writers and critics, and changes over time. National versions of Classicism also have their differences: French - develops into the most powerful and consistent artistic system, and also influences the Baroque; German - on the contrary, having emerged as a conscious cultural effort to create a “correct” and “perfect” poetic school worthy of other European literatures (Opitz), as it were, “chokes” in the stormy waves of the bloody events of the Thirty Years' War and is drowned out and covered by the Baroque. Although rules are a way to keep creative imagination, freedom within the boundaries of reason, Classicism understands how important intuitive insight is for a writer, poet, and forgives talent for deviation from the rules if it is appropriate and artistically effective (“The least that should be looked for in a poet is the ability to subordinate words and syllables to certain laws and write poetry. A poet must be...a person with a rich imagination, with an inventive fantasy" - Opitz M. A book about German poetry). A constant subject of discussion in the theory of Classicism, especially in the second half of the 17th century, is the category of “good taste,” which was interpreted not as an individual preference, but as a collective aesthetic norm developed by a “good society.” The taste of Classicism prefers simplicity and clarity to verbosity, laconicism, vagueness and complexity of expression, and decency to striking, extravagant. Its main law is artistic verisimilitude, which is fundamentally different from an artlessly truthful reflection of life, from historical or private truth. Plausibility depicts things and people as they should be, and is associated with the concept of moral norm, psychological probability, decency. Characters in Classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which contributes to their transformation into universal human types. His poetics in its original principles is opposed to the Baroque, which does not exclude the interaction of both literary movements not only within the framework of one national literature, but also in the work of the same writer (J. Milton).

In the Age of Enlightenment, the civil and intellectual nature of the conflict in the works of Classicism, its didactic-moralistic pathos, received special significance. Enlightenment Classicism comes into contact even more actively with other literary trends of its era, is no longer based on “rules”, but on the “enlightened taste” of the public, gives rise to various options Classicism (“Weimar classicism” by J.W. Goethe and F. Schiller). Developing the ideas of “true art,” Classicism of the 18th century, more than other literary movements, lays the foundations of aesthetics as a science of beauty, which received both its development and its very terminological designation precisely in the Enlightenment. The demands put forward by Classicism for clarity of style, semantic content of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the structure and plot of works retain their aesthetic relevance today.

The word classicism comes from Latin classicus, which means exemplary, first-class.

"Class!" - we talk about what causes us admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin language word classicus and means "exemplary".

Classicismnamed art style and aesthetic direction in European culture XVII-XIX centuries

What about as a sample? Classicism developed canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict movement in art; it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical; accidental signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.

Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect K. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When is it possible to do this and nothing else? Don't rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, give direction, show examples and sweep away everything that is insignificant and not deep.
But the canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. V fine arts and in music: norms that had been rooted for several centuries had become obsolete and were torn apart.
However, we have already gotten ahead of ourselves. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of classicism genres. Let's just say that classicism as a specific movement was formed in France in the 17th century. The peculiarity of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.

Hierarchy of classicism genres

Classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Let's look at the hierarchy of genres using examples various types art.

Literature

Nicolas Boileau is considered the largest theorist of classicism, but the founder is Francois Malherbe, who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”.

Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy it was necessary to observe three unities: unity of time (the action must take place within one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (there must be one story line). The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the French tragedians Corneille and Racine. The main idea of ​​their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.

In Russia

In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.

M. V. Lomonosov at the monument “1000th anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of the “three calms”.

“Theory of three calms” M.V. Lomonosov

The doctrine of three styles, i.e. the classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, distinguishing high, middle and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three “styles” according to Lomonosov:
1. Tall – solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Intermediate – elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly essays.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. We find this in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires by A.D. Kantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, ode M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavina.
At the end of the 18th century. the tendency to see in art main force human upbringing. In this regard, the literary movement sentimentalism emerged, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared to be the main thing in human nature. French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin – let’s remember his famous “Poor Liza”!
But works in the direction of classicism were also created in the 19th century. For example, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedova. Although this comedy already contains elements of romanticism and realism.

Painting

Since the definition of “classicism” is translated as “exemplary,” then some kind of example is natural for it. And the supporters of classicism saw it ancient art. This was the highest example. There was also reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance, which also saw its model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected conflicts between the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which indicate the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors. This is what N. Poussin wrote, for example.

Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)

N. Poussin “Self-Portrait” (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings were created on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.

N. Poussin “Dance to the Music of Time” (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. Circling in it (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the double-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of the fast-flowing human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, and the old face looks to the past. The winged gray-bearded old man, to whose music the round dance spins, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby holding an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, goddess of the dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers along her path.

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)

V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin", State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist captured in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is traditional for classicism ceremonial portrait. Derzhavin – senator, member of the Russian Academy, statesman, his uniform and awards speak about this.
But at the same time, he is also a famous poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals And social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which were already actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classical painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, this is Karl Bryullov. His work occurred at a time when works that were classical in form were filled with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. IN mid-19th V. The younger generation, gravitating toward realism, began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was facilitated, among other things, by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many Hellenistic sculptures became known.
Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the works of Antonio Canova.

Antonio Canova (1757-1822)

A. Canova “Self-portrait” (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Paris Louvre and the St. Petersburg Hermitage.

A. Canova “The Three Graces”. St. Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group “The Three Graces” belongs to the late period of Antonio Canova’s work. The sculptor embodied his ideas about beauty in the images of the graces - ancient goddesses personifying feminine beauty and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two outermost ones face each other (and not the viewer) and the friend standing in the center. All three are slim female figures merged in an embrace, they are united by an entanglement of hands and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are executed in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II -legislators and others.

F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator; he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a master bone carver of Kholmogory carved bones.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which military valor and the wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition it was customary to depict models naked, but moral norms modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.

Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.

B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw

Architecture

The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order– a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. Includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

London mansion Osterley Park. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.

Carl Bartalomeo-Rossi (1775-1849) – Russian architect Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
The outstanding architectural and urban planning skills of Russia are embodied in ensembles Mikhailovsky Palace with the adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff and a triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the buildings of the Senate and Synod (1829-1834), Alexandrinskaya Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater ( 1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two homogeneous extended buildings of Teatralnaya Street (now Architect Rossi Street).

The General Staff Building on Palace Square

Music

The concept of classicism in music is associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. They set the direction further development European music.

Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)

Barbara Kraft "Posthumous Portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)

Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. What was required of her was: balance of parts of the work, careful finishing of details, development of basic canons musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, and the classical composition of the sonata and symphony parts was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the era Renaissance XVII V. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the work of I.S. can also be classified as classicism. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reform operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are still associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart and L. van Beethoven.

Note

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of “classical music” is much broader. It includes not only the music of the classical era, but also the music of the past in general, which has stood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.

In Russian XVIII literature century, which underwent intensive development in the context of the general process of Europeanization of the country, begun by the reforms of Peter I, the leading direction became classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary), which took shape in European literature already in the middle of the 17th century. Classicism is a pan-European phenomenon. But in different countries it had its own characteristics. The purpose of the report is to find out which features of European classicism were organically adopted by Russian literature and what in Russian classicism is due to its national specificity.

Classicism is not only a literary phenomenon, but also a general cultural one. He touched upon the most diverse aspects of the social and cultural life of European countries, architecture, painting, music, theater and, of course, literature. Modern researchers are unanimous in the opinion that classicism arises and is formed in certain historical and cultural conditions of the transition from feudal fragmentation to a single monarchical state. This largely explains the rather later, in comparison with European countries, the appearance of classicism in Russia. After all, its historical prerequisites could have been formed only after the era of Peter I; accordingly, signs of classicism as a literary movement in Russia were noted only in the 30s of the 18th century.

Elements of the poetics of French classicism apply to all other national literatures in which this literary movement is present. But in Russian classicism These general theoretical provisions found a unique refraction, since they were determined by the historical and national characteristics of the formation of the new Russian culture of the 18th century. As already noted, classicism came to Russia much later; it was influenced by the entire historical and cultural process of the general Europeanization of the country. Russian literature of that era is firmly connected with the best traditions of ancient Russian literature: its patriotism, reliance on folk art, and high spirituality. educational ideas, started in mid-18th century centuries to penetrate into Russia, contributed to an increase in interest in human personality, posing the problem of fairness of laws, the need to spread education and develop science. At the same time, the decisive role in the transformation of the state on this kind of basis was assigned to the enlightened monarch, whose ideal the Russian classicists saw in Peter I. But in modern times they did not find such a person, therefore great importance was attached to social and social issues in their works. moral education autocrats: an explanation of their duties towards their subjects, a reminder of their duty to the state, etc. On the other hand, the negative phenomena of Russian reality of this era were subjected to satirical ridicule and exposure, which further strengthened the connection of Russian classicism with modernity and gave it satirical wit. Unlike European classicism, Russian classicism is associated with folk traditions and oral folk art. He often uses the material Russian history, not antiquity. The ideal of Russian classicists is a citizen and patriot who strives to work for the good of the Fatherland. He must become an active creative person, fight social vices and, in the name of duty, give up personal happiness.

Theoretical Classicism in Russia was conceptualized in the works M. V. Lomonosova And V. K. Trediakovsky . In all countries, the important contribution of classicism to the development of literature was not only the streamlining of the system of genres and artistic forms, but also the development of a harmonious and clear language of works. Boileau noted: “So choose your language carefully. / Can’t speak like a young man, an old man.” It is not without reason that both in France and in Russia the formation of classicism began with reforms of the language and versification system. In Russia, the systematization of the rules and norms of the literary language was carried out by Trediakovsky and Lomonosov (the theory of “three calms”). The first stage of the reform of verse composition was carried out by Trediakovsky in the treatise “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems with Definitions of Previously Appropriate Titles,” published in 1735. The second stage of the reform of Russian versification was carried out by Lomonosov in the “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry,” which he, then studying in Germany, sent from Marburg to St. Petersburg with the text of his first solemn ode “To the Capture of Khotin” in 1739. Like Trediakovsky , Lomonosov is convinced that “Russian poetry should be composed according to the natural property of our language; and what is very unusual for him should not be brought in from other languages.” Combining the syllabic and tonic principles of versification in the concept of foot, Trediakovsky comes to the discovery and scientific justification syllabic-tonic system of versification. Lomonosov, developing Trediakovsky’s ideas, came to the idea of ​​the need to introduce another rhythmic determinant of verse: not only by the type of rhythm (iamb, trochee, etc.), but also by length. So in his “Letter...” the concept is formed size, although Lomonosov does not use the term “size” itself, but only lists existing sizes, denoting them in Greek terms. Thus, in Russian poetry, the syllabic-tonic principle of versification was established, which best corresponds to the characteristics of the Russian language and is still the fundamental principle of Russian versification. Trediakovsky is a pioneer in this reform, the author of theoretical justification and first experience practical application principle, Lomonosov was a systematizer who extended the scope of its application to all poetic practice without exception.

Regulation genre system Russian literature carried out A. P. Sumarokov , who in 1748 published a didactic message “Two Epistles” based on the traditions of Horace and Boileau (the first is about the Russian language, and the second about poetry), subsequently united by him under the title “Instruction for those who want to be a writer.” With all the focus on European tradition classicism, Sumarokov’s aesthetic code was quite original in the description of literary genres, since it was oriented towards Russian literary process. Moreover, in a number of cases, his theoretical descriptions of genres preceded their actual appearance in Russian literature, which, of course, also contributed to its development.

It is significant that the theorists of Russian classicism also acted as recognized leaders of its artistic practice. To a lesser extent this applies to Trediakovsky, but the significance of Lomonosov’s poetic activity, especially in the genre of ode and Sumarokov in the genre of tragedy, comedy and fable, is undeniable. In the genre of satire, the work of A. D. Kan-temir stands out, and in the genre of the epic poem, focused on Virgil’s Aeneid, M. M. Kheraskov, the creator of Rossiyada, stands out. Material from the site

The later period of the development of classicism in Russia is marked by the work of such outstanding figures of Russian literature, who had a significant influence on its further development, such as G. R. Derzhavin, D. I. Fonvizin, I. A. Krylov. But their work testifies, rather, to overcoming the strict regulatory rules of classicism and preparation for a new stage in the development of Russian literature. Thus, remaining in the position of classicism, the famous comedy-graphic D. I. Fonvizin and the great fabulist I. A. Krylov widely introduce realistic elements into their works. G. R. Derzhavin, introducing a personal element into his poetry, destroys the usual genre norms, creating, as he himself defined, new genres of “mixed” or “angry” ode, as well as anacreontic poems written on an odic plot, messages with features of ode and elegy.

Later, at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and especially in the first quarter of the 19th century, classicism was already perceived as an outdated phenomenon, slowing down the development of Russian literature. Romantics entered into a fierce struggle with its strict rules, and in Pushkin’s work it is ridiculed as an obvious anachronism. And yet it should be noted that in the history of Russian literature, classicism played an important role, allowing the introduction domestic art into the circle of the pan-European cultural process and by ordering and systematizing those artistic phenomena that were accumulated in previous periods. And in this the achievements of classicism remain indisputable.

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