The process of the caste system. Castes in modern Nepal

Since childhood, we have been taught that there is nothing worse than caste society. But oddly enough, castes have survived to this day, as evidenced, for example, by India. What do we actually know about how the caste system functions?

Every society consists of certain basic units that form it. So, in relation to Antiquity, such a unit can be considered a polis, modern to the West - capital (or a social individual owning it), for Islamic civilization - a tribe, Japanese - a clan, etc. For India from ancient times to the present day, this basic element were and remain a caste.

Caste system for India is not at all a dense archaic or “relic of the Middle Ages” as for a long time we were taught. The Indian caste system is part of the complex organization of society, a historically established diverse and multifaceted phenomenon.

One can try to describe castes through a number of characteristics. However, there will still be exceptions. Indian caste differentiation is a system of social stratification of separate social groups connected by a single common origin and the legal status of its members. They are built according to the principles:

1) common religion;
2) general professional specialization (usually hereditary);
3) marriages only between “our own”;
4) nutritional characteristics.

In India there are not 4 (as many of us still think), but about 3 thousand castes and they can be called differently in different parts of the country, and people of the same profession can different states belongs to different castes. What are sometimes mistakenly considered Indian “castes” are not castes at all, but varnas (“chaturvarnya” in Sanskrit) - social strata of the ancient social system.

Varna brahmins (brahmins) are priests, doctors, teachers. Kshatriyas (rajanyas) - warriors and civil leaders. Vaishyas are farmers and traders. Shudras are servants and landless peasant laborers.

Each varna had its own color: Brahmins - white, Kshatriyas - red, Vaishayas - yellow, Shudras - black (once every Hindu wore a special cord in the color of his varna).

Varnas, in turn, are theoretically divided into castes. But in a very complex and intricate way. An obvious direct connection is not always visible to a person with a European mentality. The word “caste” itself comes from the Portuguese casta: birthright, clan, class. In Hindi, this term is identical to “jati”.

The infamous "untouchables" are not one particular caste. In Ancient India, everyone who was not included in the four varnas was automatically classified as “marginal”, they were avoided in every possible way, they were not allowed to settle in villages and cities, etc. As a result of this position, the “untouchables” had to take on the most “non-prestigious”, dirty and low-paid work and they formed their own separate social and professional groups - essentially, their own castes.

There are several such castes of “untouchables” and, as a rule, they are associated either with dirty work, or with the killing of living beings or death (so all butchers, hunters, fishermen, tanners, garbage men, sewer men, laundresses, cemetery and morgue workers, etc. must be “untouchable”).

At the same time, it would be wrong to believe that every “untouchable” is necessarily someone like a homeless person or a “lowlife.” In India, even before independence and the adoption of a number of legislative measures to protect lower castes from discrimination, there were “untouchables” who achieved a very high social status and earned universal respect. Like, for example, the outstanding Indian politician, public figure, human rights activist and author of the Indian Constitution - Dr. Bhimaro Ramji Ambedkar, who received his law degree in England.

One of the many monuments to Bhimaro Ambedkar in India

The “untouchables” have several names: mleccha - “stranger”, “foreigner” (that is, formally all non-Hindus, including foreign tourists), harijan - “child of God” (a term specially introduced by Mahatma Gandhi), pariahs - “outcasts”, “exiled”. And the most commonly used modern name for “untouchables” is Dalits.

Legally, castes in India were recorded in the Laws of Manu, compiled in the period from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The varna system traditionally developed in a much more ancient period (there is no exact dating).

As mentioned above, castes in modern India still cannot be considered simply an anachronism. On the contrary, all of them are now carefully counted and listed in a special annex to the current Indian Constitution (Table of Castes).

In addition, after each population census, changes are made to this table (usually additions). The point is not that some new castes appear, but that they are recorded in accordance with the data provided about themselves by census participants. Only discrimination on the basis of caste is prohibited. What is written in Article No. 15 of the Indian Constitution.

Indian society is very colorful and heterogeneous in its structure; In addition to division into castes, there are several other differentiations in it. There are both caste and non-caste Indians. For example, adivasis (descendants of the main indigenous black population of India before its conquest by the Aryans), with rare exceptions, do not have their own castes. In addition, for some misdemeanors and crimes a person can be expelled from his caste. And there are quite a lot of non-caste Indians, as evidenced by the census results.

Castes exist not only in India. A similar public institution takes place in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bali and Tibet. By the way, Tibetan castes do not correlate with Indian castes at all - the structures of these societies were formed completely separately from each other. It is curious that in Northern India (the states of Himachal, Uttar Pradesh and Kashmir) the caste system is not of Indian origin, but of Tibetan origin.

Historically, when the overwhelming majority of the Indian population professed Hinduism - all Hindus belonged to some caste, the only exceptions were pariahs expelled from castes and the indigenous non-Aryan peoples of India. Then other religions (Buddhism, Jainism) began to spread in India. As the country was subjected to invasions by various conquerors, representatives of other religions and peoples began to adopt from the Hindus their system of varnas and professional caste-jatis. Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists and Christians in India also have their own castes, but they are somehow different from the Hindu castes.

What about Indian Muslims? After all, the Koran initially proclaimed the equality of all Muslims. A natural question. Despite the fact that British India was divided into two parts in 1947: “Islamic” (Pakistan) and “Hindu” (India proper), today Muslims (approximately 14% of all Indian citizens) in absolute terms live in India more than in Pakistan, where Islam is the state religion.

However, the caste system is inherent in India and Muslim society. However, caste differences among Indian Muslims are not as strong as among Hindus. They have virtually no “untouchables.” There are no such impenetrable barriers between Muslim castes as there are among Hindus - transition from one caste to another or marriages between their representatives is allowed.

The caste system was established among Indian Muslims relatively late - during the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th-16th centuries. The Muslim caste is usually referred to as biradari ("brotherhood") or biyahdari. Their occurrence is often attributed by Muslim theologians to the influence of Hindus with their caste system (supporters of “pure Islam” see this, of course, as the insidious machinations of pagans).

In India, as in many Islamic countries, Muslims also have their nobility and common people. The former are called sharifs or ashraf (“noble”), the latter are called ajlaf (“low”). Currently, about 10% of Muslims living in the territory of the Republic of India belong to the Ashraf. They usually trace their ancestry to those external conquerors (Arabs, Turks, Pashtuns, Persians, etc.) who invaded Hindustan and settled for many centuries.

For the most part, Indian Muslims are descendants of the same Hindus who, for one reason or another, converted to a new faith. Forced conversion to Islam in medieval India was the exception rather than the rule. Typically, the local population was subjected to a slow Islamization, during which elements of foreign faith were unobtrusively incorporated into the local cosmology and ritual practice, gradually displacing and replacing Hinduism. It was an implicit and sluggish social process. During it, people maintained and protected the closedness of their circles. This explains the persistence of caste psychology and customs among large sections of Indian Muslim society. Thus, even after the final conversion to Islam, marriages continued to be concluded only with representatives of their own castes.

Even more curiously, even many Europeans were included in the Indian caste system. Thus, those Christian missionary preachers who preached to high-born Brahmins eventually found themselves in the “Christian Brahmin” caste, and those who, for example, carried the Word of God to the “untouchable” fishermen, became Christian “untouchables”.

Often it is impossible to determine exactly which caste an Indian belongs to just by his appearance, behavior and occupation. It happens that a kshatriya works as a waiter, and a brahmin trades and removes garbage from a shop - and they don’t particularly have a complex about these reasons, but a sudra behaves like a born aristocrat. And even if an Indian says exactly what caste he is from (although such a question is considered tactless), this will give a foreigner little to understand how society is structured in such an outlandish and peculiar country as India.

The Republic of India declares itself a “democratic” state and, in addition to prohibiting caste discrimination, has introduced certain benefits for representatives of lower castes. For example, they have adopted special quotas for their admission to higher educational institutions, as well as to positions in state and municipal bodies.

The problem of discrimination against people from lower castes and Dalits, however, is quite serious. The caste structure is still fundamental to the lives of hundreds of millions of Indians. Outside major cities In India, caste psychology and all the conventions and taboos arising from it are firmly preserved.

upd: For some reason unknown to me, some readers started swearing and mutual insults in the comments to this post. I do not like it. Therefore, I decided to block comments on this post.

Four Indian Varnas

Varnas and castes in our time

One and a half thousand years BC, Indian society was divided into 4 classes. They were called varnas. From Sanskrit it is translated as “color”, “quality” or “category”. According to the Rig Veda, varnas or castes emerged from the body of God Brahma.

In Ancient India there were originally the following castes (varnas):

• Brahmins;
• Kshatriyas;
• Vaishya;
• Shudras.

According to legend, Brahma created 4 castes from parts of his body

The emergence of castes in ancient India

There are many reasons for the emergence of varnas or the so-called Indian castes. For example, the Aryans (not to be confused with the pseudoscientific “Aryans”), having conquered Indian land, decided to divide the local people according to skin color, origin and financial status. This simplified social relationships and created winning conditions for the board. The Aryans obviously elevated themselves to a higher caste and took only Brahmin girls as wives.

A more detailed table of Indian castes with rights and responsibilities

Caste, Varna and Jati - what is the difference?

Most people confuse the concepts of “caste” and “varna”; many consider them synonymous. But this is not the case, and it needs to be dealt with.

Every Indian, without the right to choose, was born in a closed group - in varna. They are sometimes called the Indian caste. However, caste in India is a subgroup, a stratification in each varna, which is why caste exists today countless. Only in 1931, according to the census, data on 3,000 Indian castes were published. And varna is always 4.

In fact, there are more than 3000 castes in India, and there are always four varnas

Jati is the second name of caste and sub-caste, and every resident of India has a jati. Jati - belonging to a particular profession, to a religious community, it is also closed and endogamous.

Each varna has its own jatis.

You can draw a primitive analogy with our society. For example, there are children of rich parents. This is varna. They study in separate kindergartens, schools and universities, and communicate mainly with each other. These children, growing into teenagers, are divided into subcultures. Some become hipsters, some become “elite” entrepreneurs, others become creative intellectuals, and some become free travelers. This is jati or caste.

Castes in India can be divided by religion, profession and even interests

Four Indian Varnas

They can be divided by interests, by chosen professions. However, oddly enough, people of this varna rarely “mix” with other, lower varnas and even castes, and always strive to communicate with those who are higher than them. Brahmins

- the highest varna or caste in India. It included priests, clergy, sages, teachers, spiritual guides and those people who connected other people with God. Brahmins were vegetarians and could only eat food prepared by people of their castes.

Brahmins are the highest and most respected caste in India is an Indian caste or varna of warriors, defenders of their country, combatants, soldiers and, surprisingly, kings and rulers. Kshatriyas were the protectors of brahmanas, women, old people, children and cows. They were allowed to kill those who did not observe the dharma.

The most prominent representatives of the Kshatriya warrior caste are the Sikhs

Vaishya- these are free community members, traders, artisans, farmers, the working class. They did not like to do hard physical labor and were extremely scrupulous about food. Among them could be very wealthy and wealthy people - owners of enterprises and lands.

The Vaishya caste is often rich merchants and landowners who do not like hard menial work

Shudras- the lowest varna or caste of India. It included servants, laborers and laborers. All those who had neither home nor land, and performed the most difficult physical work. Shudras did not have the right to pray to the gods and become “twice-born”.

Shudras are the lowest caste in India. They live poorly and work very hard

The religious ceremony performed by the three upper varnas or castes of India was called “Upanayana”. During the process of initiation, a consecrated thread corresponding to his varna was placed around the boy’s neck, and from then on he became “dvija” or “twice-born”. He received a new name and was considered a brahmachari - a student.

Each caste has its own rituals and initiations

Hindus believe that living a righteous life allows one to be born into a higher caste in the next life. And vice versa. And the brahmins, who have already gone through a large cycle of rebirths on Earth, will be incarnated on other, divine planets.

The untouchable caste - myth and reality

Special attention should be paid to the untouchables. The existence of 5 Indian castes is a myth. In fact, untouchables are those people who did not fall into the 4 varnas for some reason. According to Hinduism, they led an impious life in their previous rebirth. The “caste” of untouchables in India is most often homeless, poor people who carry out the most humiliating and dirty work. They beg and steal. They defile the Indian Brahmin caste with their presence.

This is how the untouchable caste lives in India today

The Government of India protects the untouchables to some extent. It is a criminal offense to call such people untouchables or even out-caste. Discrimination on social grounds is prohibited.

Varnas and castes in India today

What castes are there in India today? - you ask. And there are thousands of castes in India. Some of them are few in number, but there are also castes known throughout the country. For example, hijras. This is the Indian untouchable caste, in India it includes transgender people, transsexuals, bisexuals, hermaphrodites, intersex people and homosexuals. Their processions can be seen on the streets of cities and towns, where they make offerings to the Mother Goddess. Thanks to numerous protests, the Indian hijra caste achieved official recognition of itself as a “third gender”.

People with non-traditional sexual orientation (Hijras) in India also belong to the untouchable caste

Varnas and castes in India in our time are considered some kind of relic of the past, but in vain - the system remains. In big cities, the boundaries are somewhat blurred, but in the villages the old way of life is still preserved. According to the Constitution of India, discrimination against people based on varna or caste is prohibited. There is even a Constitutional Table of Castes, in which, by the way, the term “community” is used instead of “Indian caste”. It states that every citizen of India has the right to receive an appropriate document that indicates their caste membership.

In India, anyone can obtain a caste document

So, the caste system in India has not only survived and survived to this day, it still works to this day. Moreover, other peoples are also divided into varnas and castes, they simply do not give this social division a name.

In the colonies of Latin America. Later, by analogy, it was extended to a similar phenomenon in India and since then has been applied mainly to Indian varnas and jatis. However, there is a fundamental difference between the Latin American castes and the Indian varnas; between the former, at least formally, mixing of any kind was allowed, as a rule, leading to the transfer of offspring to another caste; furthermore, Latin American castes were based primarily on visual differences. Mixing between Indian varnas was in most cases unacceptable, and between jatis (subdivisions of varnas) was sharply limited.

Varnas and jati

Of the most early works It is known from Sanskrit literature that the peoples who spoke Aryan dialects during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas” (with Skt.  -  “color”): Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, cattle breeders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

While a Hindu may not have varna, he always has jati. While enjoying political equality in India, members of different jatis have varying degrees of access to traditional religious practices. By prohibiting the official use of the category "untouchable" and equating the term "community" with "jati", the Indian government creates favorable conditions for Sanskritization: the creation by untouchables of a mythology about the origin of their jati from groups possessing varna, and the assumption of ritual rules higher jatis - which gives a chance for a gradual change in the status of the jati. Over the course of one or two generations, an untouchable jati may be included in the number of sudras or even “twice-born”.

Castes in modern India

Indian castes are literally countless. Since each named caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even approximately calculate the number of social units possessing the minimum necessary characteristics of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information on the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as stand-alone podcasts. social groups.

It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes have lost their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. Position [ ], occupied by the INC and the Government of India after the death of Mahatma Gandhi, is notable for its inconsistency. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need politicians in the support of the electorate they gave new importance to the corporate spirit and internal cohesion of the castes.

However, despite the fact that castes have existed in India for more than two thousand years, their influence and importance in society (especially in cities) is gradually being lost, although this process is quite slow in rural areas. In big cities, castes are especially quickly losing their importance among the liberal intelligentsia, as well as in the business community.

Researcher Andre Padou in the article “Tantric Guru” states that a Hindu tantric guru, according to tradition, usually must be a Brahmin varna, come from a good family, as a rule, the guru must be male, married, know the shastras and be able to teach them, etc. d. The Hindu guru Paramahamsa Prajnanananda, in his commentary on the Jnana Sankalini Tantra, states: “The scriptures say that a competent guru must be a person of pure birth, coming from a Brahmin family.”

Sanskritization: vertical mobility of castes

If in theory the status of a caste is fixed and cannot be increased, in practice there is the possibility of a gradual revision of the hierarchical status of the caste. Indian ethnologist Mysore Srinivas called this process "Sanskritization". The creation of a mythology about higher origins and the assimilation of the rules of ritual purity of higher castes play a key role.

Sanskritization is a way of including foreigners (mlecchas, outcastes) who are outside the varna system into traditional Hinduism. Mysore Srinivas wrote: “Sanskritization is not limited to Hindu castes but occurs among tribal and semi-tribal groups such as the Bhīl of Western India, the Gond and Orāon of Central India, and the Pahārī of the Himalayas. This usually results in the Sanskritized tribe claiming to be a caste and thus becoming Hindu. In the traditional system, the only way to become a Hindu is to belong to a caste." The subject of Sanskritization is not an individual person or even a family - but only ethnic group, which has its own cult, which is included in the orbit of traditional Hinduism. A representative of the priestly caste, finding himself surrounded by foreigners (mlecchas), recognizes his own deities in the images of their religion, then interprets the genealogy of the rulers in favor of descent from the Hindu caste - and adapts the local cult to Hindu ritual.

According to a study by S. L. Shrivastava, conducted in the village of Asalpur in the state of Rajasthan, Naths and Dhobis were included in the untouchables: “Among the “untouchables” are Balais (Balāī), Chamars (Chamār), washerwomen Dhobi (Dhobī), “sect”-caste Nath (Nāt/Nāth) and Bhangī cleaners." According to a study by K. Mathur, conducted in the village of Potlod in the Malwa region of the same state of Rajasthan, the Sanskritized Naths already “occupy a place between the “twice-born” and the Shudras, only slightly higher than the latter, because they are engaged in religion”; and “their way of life is quite well Sanskritized, they follow the rules of ritual purity.” Sanskritization also allowed the Dhobi washer caste to upgrade their status in the Potlod from untouchable to sudra.

Ethnic non-Hindus find themselves outside the varna system: in particular, Tibetan Buddhists and Muslims. In the hermit order of Natha Yoga, hermits of Hindu origin refuse to eat together with hermits who do not have varna. Sannyas excludes spiritual practice from hereditary professional group(jati), but does not deprive him of varna if he initially possessed varna: the rules of ritual purity when eating food continue to be observed in hermitage.

Preservation of the caste system in other religions of India

Social inertia has led to the fact that stratification into castes exists among Indian Christians and Muslims, although it is an anomaly from the point of view of the Bible and the Koran. Christian and Muslim castes have a number of differences from the classical Indian system; they even have some social mobility, that is, the opportunity to move from one caste to another. In Buddhism, castes do not exist (which is why Indian “untouchables” are especially willing to convert to Buddhism), but it can be considered a relic of Indian traditions that in Buddhist society the social identification of the interlocutor is of great importance. In addition, although Buddhists themselves do not recognize castes, speakers of other Indian religions can often easily determine what caste their Buddhist interlocutor comes from and treat him accordingly. Indian legislation provides a number of social guarantees for “disadvantaged castes” among Sikhs, Muslims and Buddhists, but does not provide such guarantees for Christians - representatives of the same castes.

Castes in modern Nepal

The Nepalese caste system developed in parallel with the Indian one. Indian influence in Nepal especially increased during the Gupta dynasty (320−500); Nepal then had the status of a “neighboring kingdom”, but subordinate to Samudragupta.

Later, from the 10th century, many Hindus (as well as numerous Brahmins) migrated from India to Nepal, predominantly fleeing the Arab invasion and the introduction of Islam, especially from northeastern India. At the same time, refugees sought to preserve their original culture and rituals.

To understand Nepali caste relations, let's look at the various caste systems schematically.

Classical Hindu model of caste hierarchy Nepalese caste system from the perspective of Bahuns and Chhetris

The untouchable caste makes up about 7 percent of the population in Nepal.

Caste system from the Newari point of view

The Hindu Newaris, who exclusively inhabit the Kathmandu Valley, use the following caste system, partly adopted from the Buddhist Newars. However, the caste system in Newari communities is not as important as in other nations.

The diagram above shows the castes according to the Newari Hindus, and the bottom - the Newari Buddhists.

Majority opinion on the caste system

The majority, which includes liberal Bahuns and Chhetris and peoples without their own caste systems, consider the following hierarchy to be significant for religious ritual:

In practice, it happens that belonging to castes is associated with material well-being, that is, the poor are classified as untouchables, and the rich are classified as higher castes. This results in foreigners of European origin, who are not Hindus and should therefore be considered untouchables, being classified as upper castes, but when it comes to dealings related to ritual activities, they are treated as untouchables. In particular, we are talking about rituals associated with water and cooking rice.

see also

Notes

1. Vasmer M. Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language: In 4 volumes: Transl. with him. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.:

Portal "Hinduism"

Castes(Port. casta, from Latin castus - pure; Sanskrit jati)

In the broadest sense of the word - closed groups (clans) of people, isolated due to the performance of specific social functions, hereditary occupations, professions, level of wealth, cultural traditions And so on. For example, - officer castes (within military units they are separated from soldiers), members political parties(separated from members of competing political parties), religious and non-integrated national minorities (separated from adherence to a different culture), castes of football fans (separated from fans of other clubs), leprosy patients (separated from healthy people due to disease).

According to some experts, a union of tribes and race can be considered a caste. Trade, priestly, religious, corporate and other castes are known.

The phenomenon of caste society is observed everywhere to one degree or another, but, as a rule, the term “caste” is erroneously applied primarily to the oldest division of living beings existing in the Indian subcontinent. varnas. This confusion of the term “caste” and the term “varna” is incorrect, since there are only four varnas, and castes ( jati), even within each varna, there can be many.

Hierarchy of castes in medieval India: the highest - priestly and military-agricultural castes - constituted the class of large and medium-sized feudal lords; below are the trading and usurious castes; then the landowning castes of small feudal lords and farmers - full-fledged community members; even lower - a huge number of castes of landless and disadvantaged farmers, artisans and servants; Among the latter, the lowest layer is the powerless and most oppressed untouchable castes.

The Indian leader M.K. Gandhi fought against caste discrimination, which is reflected in the religious, philosophical and socio-political doctrine of Gandhism. Ambedkar came up with even more radical egalitarian ideas, who sharply criticized Gandhi for moderation on the issue of caste.

Story

Varna

From the earliest works of Sanskrit literature it is known that the peoples who spoke Aryan dialects during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas” (Sanskrit “color”) : Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, herders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

During the early Middle Ages, the varnas, although preserved, were divided into numerous castes (jatis), which even more strictly consolidated class affiliation.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that whoever follows the rules of his caste future life rises by birth to a higher caste, the one who violates these rules will lose social status.

Researchers from the Institute of Human Genetics at the University of Utah took blood samples from various castes and compared them with a genetic database of Africans, Europeans and Asians. A comparative genetic analysis on the maternal and paternal lines, carried out on five hereditary characteristics, made it possible to reasonably assert that people of higher castes are clearly closer to Europeans, and lower castes - to Asians. Among the lower castes, mainly those peoples of India are represented who inhabited it before the Aryan invasion - speakers of Dravidian languages, Munda languages, Andamanese languages. Genetic mixing between castes is due to the fact that sexual violence against lower castes, as well as the use of prostitutes from lower castes, were not considered violations of caste purity.

Stability of castes

Throughout Indian history the caste structure showed remarkable stability before changes. Even the rise of Buddhism and its adoption as the state religion by Emperor Ashoka (269-232 BC) did not affect the system of hereditary groups. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism as a doctrine does not support caste division, but at the same time it does not insist on the complete abolition of caste differences.

During the rise of Hinduism, which followed the decline of Buddhism, from a simple, uncomplicated system of four varnas, a complex multi-layered system grew, which built a strict order of alternation and correlation of different social groups. Each varna defined in the course of this process the framework for many independent endogamous castes (jatis). Neither the Muslim invasion, which ended with the formation of the Mughal Empire, nor the establishment of British rule shook the fundamental foundations of the caste organization of society.

Nature of castes

As the organizing basis of society, caste is characteristic of all Hindu India, but there are very few castes that are found everywhere. In each geographical area its own, separate and independent ladder of strictly ranked castes arose, for many of them there is no equivalent in neighboring territories. The exception to this regional rule is the number of Brahmin castes, which are represented over vast areas and everywhere occupy the highest position in the caste system. IN ancient times the meaning of castes came down to the concepts of different degrees of enlightenment, that is, at what stage the enlightened one is, what was not inherited. Transitions from caste to caste, in fact, occurred only under the supervision of elders (other enlightened ones from the highest caste), and marriages were also concluded. The concept of castes related only to the spiritual side and therefore the higher was not allowed to converge with the lower, in order to avoid transition to a lower stage.

Castes in modern India

Indian castes are literally countless. Since each named caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even approximately calculate the number of social units possessing the minimum necessary characteristics of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information about the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as independent social groups.

It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes have lost their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. The position taken by the INC and the Indian government after Gandhi's death is controversial. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need for political leaders to support the electorate gave new importance to esprit de corps and internal caste cohesion. As a consequence, caste interests became an important factor during election campaigns.

Preservation of the caste system in other religions of India

Social inertia has led to the fact that stratification into castes exists among Indian Christians and Muslims, although it is an anomaly from the point of view of the Bible and the Koran. Christian and Muslim castes have a number of differences from the classical Indian system; they even have some social mobility, that is, the opportunity to move from one caste to another. In Buddhism, castes do not exist (which is why Indian “untouchables” are especially willing to convert to Buddhism), but it can be considered a relic of Indian traditions that in Buddhist society the social identification of the interlocutor is of great importance. In addition, although Buddhists themselves do not recognize castes, speakers of other Indian religions can often easily determine what caste their Buddhist interlocutor comes from and treat him accordingly. Indian legislation provides a number of social guarantees for “disadvantaged castes” among Sikhs, Muslims and Buddhists, but does not provide such guarantees for Christians - representatives of the same castes.

see also

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Contents of the first part:
1. general information
2. Castes

1 . General information about India

Indian territory in the north it extends in the latitudinal direction for 2930 km, in the meridional direction - for 3220 km. India is bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. Its neighbors are Pakistan in the northwest, China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. Moreover, India has maritime boundaries with the Maldives in the southwest, Sri Lanka in the south and Indonesia in the southeast. The disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir shares a border with Afghanistan.

India ranks seventh in the world by area, second largest population (after China) , currently lives in it 1.2 billion people. India has had one of the highest population densities in the world for thousands of years.

Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent and had a major influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.

More than 900 million Indians (80.5% of the population) profess Hinduism. Other religions with significant numbers of followers are Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism (0.4%). Religions such as Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Baha'i and others are also represented in India. Animism is common among the aboriginal population, which makes up 8.1%.

Almost 70% of Indians live in rural areas, although last decades migration to large cities led to a sharp increase in the urban population. The largest cities in India are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. In terms of cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity, India ranks second in the world after the African continent. The gender composition of the population is characterized by an excess of men over the number of women. The male population is 51.5%, and the female population is 48.5%. For every thousand men there are 929 women, this ratio has been observed since the beginning of this century.

India is home to the Indo-Aryan language family (74% of the population) and the Dravidian language family (24% of the population). Other languages ​​spoken in India come from the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, the most widely spoken language in India, is the official language of the Indian government. English, which is widely used in business and administration, has the status of an "auxiliary official language", it also plays big role in education, especially in secondary and higher education. The Constitution of India defines 21 official language spoken by a significant portion of the population or which have classical status. There are 1652 dialects in India.

Climate humid and warm, mostly tropical, tropical monsoon in the north. India, located in tropical and subequatorial latitudes, fenced off by the wall of the Himalayas from the influence of continental Arctic air masses, is one of the hottest countries in the world with a typical monsoon climate. The monsoon rhythm of precipitation determines the rhythm economic works and the whole way of life. 70-80% of the annual rainfall falls during the four months of the monsoon season (June-September), when the southwest monsoon arrives and rains almost incessantly. This is the main Kharif field season. October-November is the post-monsoon period when the rains mostly stop. The winter season (December-February) is dry and cool, at this time roses and many other flowers bloom, many trees bloom - this is the most pleasant time to visit India. March-May is the hottest, driest season, when temperatures often exceed 35 °C, often rising above 40 °C. This is a time of sweltering heat, when the grass burns out, leaves fall from the trees, and air conditioners work at full capacity in rich houses.

National animal - tiger.

National bird - peacock.

National flower - lotus.

National fruit - mango.

The national currency is the Indian rupee.

India can be called the cradle of human civilization. The Indians were the first in the world to learn how to grow rice, cotton, and sugar cane, and they were the first to raise poultry. India gave the world chess and the decimal system.
The average literacy rate in the country is 52%, with the figure for men being 64% and for women 39%.

2. Castes in India

For many centuries, caste was determined primarily by profession. The profession that passed from father to son often did not change throughout the lives of dozens of generations.

Each caste lives according to its own dharma - with that set of traditional religious prescriptions and prohibitions, the creation of which is attributed to the gods, to divine revelation. Dharma determines the norms of behavior of members of each caste, regulates their actions and even feelings. Dharma is that elusive but immutable thing that is pointed out to a child already in the days of his first babble. Everyone must act in accordance with his own dharma, deviation from dharma is lawlessness - this is what children are taught at home and at school, this is what the brahmana - mentor and spiritual leader - repeats. And a person grows up in the consciousness of the absolute inviolability of the laws of dharma, their immutability.

Currently, the caste system is officially prohibited, and the strict division of crafts or professions depending on caste is gradually being eliminated, while at the same time a government policy is being pursued to reward those who have been oppressed for centuries at the expense of representatives of other castes. It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes are losing their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case.

In fact, the caste system itself has not gone away: when entering school, a student is asked about his religion, and if he professes Hinduism, his caste, in order to know whether there is a place in this school for representatives of this caste in accordance with state norms. When entering a college or university, caste is important in order to correctly estimate the threshold score (the lower the caste, the lower the number of points required for a passing grade). When applying for a job, caste is again important in order to maintain balance. Although castes are not forgotten even when arranging the future of their children - weekly supplements with marriage advertisements are published in major Indian newspapers, in which columns are divided into religions, and the most voluminous column is with representatives of Hinduism - to castes. Often under such advertisements, which describe the parameters of both the groom (or bride) and the requirements for the prospective applicants (or applicants), there is a standard phrase “Cast no bar”, which translated means “Caste does not matter”, but, to be honest, I doubt a little that for a bride from the Brahman caste, her parents will seriously consider a groom from a caste lower than the Kshatriyas. Yes, inter-caste marriages are also not always approved, but they do happen if, for example, the groom occupies a higher position in society than the bride’s parents (but this is not a mandatory requirement - cases vary). In such marriages, the caste of the children is determined by the father. So, if a girl from a Brahmin family marries a Kshatriya boy, then their children will belong to the Kshatriya caste. If a Kshatriya youth marries a Veishya girl, then their children will also be considered Kshatriyas.

The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information about the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as independent social groups. In 2011, India plans to conduct a general population census, which will take into account the caste affiliation of the inhabitants of this country.

Main characteristics Indian caste:
. endogamy (marriage exclusively between caste members);
. hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste);
. prohibition on sharing meals with representatives of other castes, as well as having physical contact with them;
. recognition of the firmly established place of each caste in hierarchical structure society as a whole;
. restrictions on choosing a profession;

Indians believe that Manu is the first person from whom we all descended. Once upon a time, the god Vishnu saved him from the Flood, which destroyed the rest of humanity, after which Manu came up with rules that should henceforth guide people. Hindus believe that it was 30 thousand years ago (historians stubbornly date the laws of Manu to the 1st-2nd centuries BC and generally claim that this collection of instructions is a compilation of the works of different authors). Like most other religious instructions, the laws of Manu are distinguished by exceptional meticulousness and attentiveness to the most insignificant details of human life - from swaddling babies to culinary recipes. But it also contains much more fundamental things. It is according to the laws of Manu that all Indians are divided into four estates - varnas.

Varnas, of which there are only four, are often confused with castes, of which there are a great many. Caste is a fairly small community of people united by profession, nationality and place of residence. And varnas are more similar to categories such as workers, entrepreneurs, employees and the intelligentsia.

There are four main varnas: Brahmanas (officials), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (peasants, workers, servants). The rest are “untouchables”.

Brahmins are the highest caste in India.

In a typical rural area upper layer The caste hierarchy is formed by members of one or more Brahmin castes, constituting from 5 to 10% of the population. Among these Brahmins there are a number of landowners, a few village clerks and accountants or accountants, and a small group of clergy who perform ritual functions in local sanctuaries and temples. Members of each Brahmin caste marry only within their own circle, although it is possible to marry a bride from a family belonging to a similar subcaste from a neighboring area. Brahmins are not supposed to follow the plow or perform certain types of manual labor; women from their midst can serve in the house, and landowners can cultivate plots, but not plow. Brahmins are also allowed to work as cooks or domestic servants.

A Brahman has no right to eat food prepared outside his caste, but members of all other castes can eat from the hands of Brahmans. When choosing food, a Brahmin observes many prohibitions. Members of the Vaishnava caste (who worship the god Vishnu) have adhered to vegetarianism since the 4th century, when it became widespread; Some other castes of Brahmans who worship Shiva (Shaiva Brahmans) do not in principle abstain from meat dishes, but abstain from the meat of animals included in the diet of lower castes.

Brahmins serve as spiritual guides in the families of most high- or middle-status castes, except those considered "impure". Brahmin priests, as well as members of a number of religious orders, are often recognized by their “caste marks” - patterns painted on the forehead with white, yellow or red paint. But such marks indicate only membership in a major sect and characterize a given person as a worshiper of, for example, Vishnu or Shiva, and not as a subject of a particular caste or sub-caste.
Brahmins, more than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for in their varna. Over the course of many centuries, scribes, clerks, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials emerged from their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.

In communicating with the rest of the population, Brahmins do not allow reciprocity; Thus, they accept money or gifts from members of other castes, but they themselves never make gifts of a ritual or ceremonial nature. There is no complete equality among the Brahman castes, but even the lowest of them stands above the rest of the highest castes.

The mission of a member of the Brahmin caste is to study, teach, receive gifts and give gifts. By the way, all Indian programmers are Brahmins.

Brahmins are the highest and most respected caste in India

After the Brahmins, the most prominent hierarchical place is occupied by the Kshatriya castes. In rural areas they include, for example, landowners, possibly related to former ruling houses(for example, with the Rajput princes in North India). Traditional occupations in such castes are working as managers on estates and serving in various administrative positions and in the army, but now these castes no longer enjoy the same power and authority. In ritual terms, the Kshatriyas are immediately behind the Brahmins and also observe strict caste endogamy, although they allow marriage with a girl from a lower subcaste (a union called hypergamy), but in no case can a woman marry a man from a subcaste lower than her own. Most kshatriyas eat meat; they have the right to accept food from Brahmins, but not from representatives of any other castes.

Vaishya

The third category includes merchants, shopkeepers and moneylenders. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show the same attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict in observing the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of Vaishyas is trade and banking; they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landowners and village entrepreneurs, without directly participating in the cultivation of the land.

Shudras

They, due to their numbers and ownership of a significant part of local land, play an important role in solving social and political issues in some areas. Shudras eat meat, and widows and divorced women are allowed to marry. The lower Shudras are numerous sub-castes whose profession is of a highly specialized nature. These are the castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, weavers, oil makers, distillers, masons, hairdressers, musicians, tanners (those who sew products from finished leather), butchers, scavengers and many others. Members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or craft; however, if a Shudra is able to acquire land, any of them can engage in agriculture. Members of many craft and other professional castes have traditionally had traditional relationships with members of higher castes, which consist of the provision of services for which no cash is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village whose requests are satisfied by a given member of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he makes and repairs equipment and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.

The Untouchables

Activities such as tanning leather or slaughtering animals are considered clearly polluting, and although this work is very important to the community, those who engage in it are considered untouchables. They are engaged in cleaning dead animals from streets and fields, toilets, tanning leather, and cleaning sewers. They work as scavengers, tanners, flayers, potters, prostitutes, laundresses, shoemakers, and are hired for the hardest work in mines, construction sites, etc. That is, everyone who comes into contact with one of the three dirty things specified in the laws of Manu - sewage, corpses and clay - or leads wandering life on the street.

In many respects they are outside the boundaries of Hindu society, they were called "outcaste", "low", "scheduled" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijans" ("children of God"), which became widely used. But they themselves prefer to call themselves “Dalits” - “broken”. Members of these castes are prohibited from using public wells and taps. You cannot walk on the sidewalks so as not to inadvertently come into contact with a representative of the upper caste, because they will have to cleanse themselves after such contact in the temple. In some areas of cities and villages they are generally prohibited from appearing. Dalits are also prohibited from visiting temples; only a few times a year they are allowed to cross the threshold of the sanctuaries, after which the temple is subjected to thorough ritual cleansing. If a Dalit wants to buy something in a store, he must put money at the entrance and shout from the street what he needs - the purchase will be taken out and left on the doorstep. A Dalit is prohibited from starting a conversation with a representative of a higher caste or calling him on the phone.

After some Indian states passed laws fining canteen owners for refusing to feed Dalits, most catering establishments installed special cabinets with dishes for them. True, if the canteen doesn't have separate room for Dalits, they have to eat lunch on the street.

Most Hindu temples until recently were closed to untouchables; there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than a set number of steps. The nature of caste barriers is such that Harijans are believed to continue to pollute members of the “pure” castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in other social settings and situations, such as being in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable may have physical contact with members of higher castes and not pollute them, in his home village untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.

When Indian-born British journalist Ramita Navai decided to make a revolutionary film revealing to the world the terrible truth about the lives of untouchables (Dalits), she endured a lot. She courageously looked at the Dalit teenagers frying and eating rats. Of little children splashing in the gutter and playing with parts of a dead dog. A housewife cutting up more decorative pieces from a rotten pig carcass. But when the well-groomed journalist was taken on a work shift by ladies from a caste that traditionally cleans toilets by hand, the poor thing vomited right in front of the camera. “Why do these people live like this?!! - the journalist asked us in the last seconds documentary film“Dalit means broken.” Yes, because the child of the Brahmins spent the morning and evening hours in prayers, and the son of a Kshatriya at the age of three was put on a horse and taught to swing a saber. For a Dalit, the ability to live in the dirt is his valor, his skill. Dalits know better than anyone: those who are afraid of dirt will die faster than others.

There are several hundred untouchable castes.
Every fifth Indian is a Dalit - that's at least 200 million people.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that the one who follows the rules of his caste will rise by birth to a higher caste in a future life, while the one who breaks these rules will become unknown in the next life.

The first three high classes of varnas were required to undergo an initiation rite, after which they were called twice-born. Members of high castes, especially Brahmins, then wore a “sacred thread” over their shoulders. Twice-born people were allowed to study the Vedas, but only brahmanas could preach them. Shudras were strictly forbidden not only to study, but even to listen to the words of Vedic teachings.

Clothing, despite its apparent uniformity, is different for different castes and significantly distinguishes a member of a high caste from a member of a low one. Some wrap their hips with a wide strip of fabric that falls to the ankles, for others it should not cover their knees, women of some castes should drape their bodies in a strip of fabric of at least seven or nine meters, while women of others should not use fabric longer than four or five on their sari meters, some were required to wear a certain type of jewelry, others were prohibited from it, some could use an umbrella, others did not have the right to do so, etc. and so on. The type of housing, food, even the vessels for its preparation - everything is determined, everything is prescribed, everything is learned from childhood by a member of each caste.

That is why in India it is very difficult to pretend to be a member of any other caste - such imposture will be immediately exposed. Only one can do this who has studied the dharma of another caste for many years and had the opportunity to practice it. And even then he can only succeed so much far from his locality, where they know nothing about his village or city. And that’s why the most terrible punishment has always been exclusion from the caste, the loss of one’s social person, a break with all production ties.

Even the untouchables, who from century to century performed the dirtiest work, were brutally suppressed and exploited by members of higher castes, those untouchables who were humiliated and disdained as something unclean - they were still considered members of caste society. They had their own dharma, they could be proud of their adherence to its rules, and they maintained their long-legalized industrial ties. They had their own well-defined caste face and their own specific place, albeit in the lowest layers of this multi-layered hive.

Bibliography:
1. Guseva N.R. - India in the mirror of centuries. Moscow, VECHE, 2002
2. Snesarev A.E. - Ethnographic India. Moscow, Nauka, 1981
3. Material from Wikipedia - India:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F
4. Online Encyclopedia Around the world - India:
http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/strany_mira/INDIYA.html
5. Marry an Indian: life, traditions, features:
http://tomarryindian.blogspot.com/
6. Interesting articles about tourism. India. Women of India.
http://turistua.com/article/258.htm
7. Material from Wikipedia - Hinduism:
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC
8. Bharatiya.ru - pilgrimage and travel through India, Pakistan, Nepal and Tibet.
http://www.bharatiya.ru/index.html