Culture in the Age of Enlightenment
Introduction
1. Enlightenment from a general point of view
1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment
1.2 Age of Reason
2. Education in Russia
2.1 Penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia
2.2 Education in Russian conditions
2.2.1 Catherine II: Culture and Enlightenment
2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy
2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism
3. The most famous educators
3.1 Russia. Radishchev
3.2 Russia: Novikov
3.3 France: Voltaire
3.3.1 Literary creativity. Dramaturgy
3.3.2 Literary creativity: Poetry
3.4 Germany: Goethe
Conclusion
List of used literature
Application
Introduction
The 18th century in world culture left its mark on history and is called the “era of enlightenment.”
During this era, the direction of fantastic forms - “Baroque” - ended, and the persecution of humanists began1. It was from this time that cultural figures began to have a double life (the 1st life is a secret search for something new by the power of imagination and the 2nd life is manifest life just like others). In literature, the main work of this time is the novel by the Spanish writer Calderon “Life is a Dream.”
In Europe, a war is emerging between the educated authorities and the poorly educated population, which has become active thanks to books. This war leads to the creation of the first bourgeois republic in Holland. And here it becomes necessary for all monarchies to protect themselves from the influence of republics. For example, in the largest kingdom in Europe, France, the de facto ruler, Cardinal Richelieu, publishes uniform requirements to art: to educate the citizens of the kingdom according to the models of the heroes of antiquity. And from Richelieu’s rules a new direction, classicism, appears. From the 2nd half of the 17th century to the end of the 18th century, the idea of enlightenment (educating the people through art) was winning in Europe.
So, what is the “age of enlightenment”? What personalities is it built on? And how did it change people's minds? - you will find answers to these and other questions in subsequent topics.
1. Enlightenment from the point of view of history
The Enlightenment is a broad cultural movement in Europe and North America in the 18th century, which aimed to spread the ideals of scientific knowledge, political freedom, social progress and expose related prejudices and superstitions. The centers of Enlightenment ideology and philosophy were France, Germany and England (where it originated). The ideology of the Enlightenment received its concentrated expression in France in the period from 1715 to 1789, called the Age of Enlightenment (siecle des lumieres). Kant's definition of Enlightenment as “the courage to use one's own mind” speaks of the Enlightenment's fundamental orientation towards endowing reason with the status of the highest authority and the associated ethical responsibility of its bearers - enlightened citizens.
The ideas of the Enlightenment had a significant influence on the development of social thought. At the same time, in the 19th and 20th centuries. The ideology of the Enlightenment was often criticized for the idealization of human nature, an optimistic interpretation of progress as the steady development of society based on the improvement of the mind. In a broad sense, enlighteners were the name given to outstanding disseminators of scientific knowledge.
1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment
Despite all the national characteristics, the Enlightenment had several common ideas and principles. There is a single order of nature, on the knowledge of which not only the success of science and the well-being of society, but also moral and religious perfection are based; the correct reproduction of the laws of nature allows us to build natural morality, natural religion and natural law. Reason, freed from prejudice, is the only source of knowledge; facts, the essence, are the only material for reason. Rational knowledge must free humanity from social and natural slavery; society and the state must harmonize with the external nature and nature of man. Theoretical knowledge is inseparable from practical action, which ensures progress as the highest goal of social existence.
The specific ways of implementing this program within the framework of the Enlightenment diverged significantly. The difference in opinions about religion was especially significant: the practical atheism2 of La Mettrie, Holbach, Helvetius and Diderot, the rationalistic anticlerical deism3 of Voltaire, the moderate deism of D'Alembert, the pious deism of Condillac, the emotional "deism of the heart" of Rousseau. The unifying point was hatred of the traditional church. However, the deism of the Enlightenment did not exclude such organizational forms, like the Masonic4 quasi-church5 with its rituals. Epistemological6 differences were less varied: mostly the Enlightenmentists adhered to Lockean empiricism7 with a distinctly sensualist interpretation of the origin of knowledge. Sensualism8 could be of a mechanical-materialistic nature, but a skeptical and even spiritualistic option was not excluded. Ontology9 was of less interest to the Enlightenment people: they left the solution to these problems to specific sciences (in this regard, the philosophy of the Enlightenment can be considered the first version of positivism10), fixing only the evidence of the existence of the subject, nature and God as the first cause. Only in Holbach's System of Nature is a dogmatic11 picture of atomistic-material existence given. In the social sphere, educators tried to substantiate the theory of progress and connect it with the stages of economic and political development of society. Economic (Turgot), political (Montesquieu), human rights (Voltaire) ideas of the Enlightenment played a significant role in the formation of the liberal12 civilization of the modern West.
1.2 Age of Reason
The years of Defoe's life (1660-1731) coincided with a time of rapid development of science, which literally interrupted all the ideas of medieval man about the world around him. During the 16th-18th centuries. Geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of Europeans: the world was rapidly expanding. If in the 15th century. The lands well known in Europe stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century the Spaniards, English, Dutch, and French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries begun by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation. As a result of their work, by the end of the 17th century. the previous picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of ordinary people: the Earth - the biblical focus, the universe - from the center of the universe has turned into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be just one of the stars that complement the endless Cosmos.
This is how modern science was born. It broke the traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new world science, in which the concepts of “mind”, “nature”, “natural law” became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence mechanical watches- a favorite image in the writings of statesmen and politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-functioning system there was almost no room for God. He was given the role of the originator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received an impetus, subsequently developed independently, in accordance with natural laws, which the Creator created as universal, unchangeable and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine was called deism and had many followers among naturalists of the 17th and 18th centuries.
But perhaps the most important step that the new philosophy dared to take was the attempt to extend the laws operating in nature to human society. A conviction emerged and grew stronger: both man himself and social life are subject to unchangeable natural laws. They only need to be discovered, recorded, and achieved accurate and universal execution. A path was found to create a perfect society built on “reasonable” foundations - the key to the future happiness of mankind.
The search for natural laws of social development contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them is the theory of natural law, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, and human dignity. Based on the theory of natural law, a new view of the origin of the state was formed. The English philosopher Locke believed that there was no time for transition free people to "civil society" - the result of a "social contract" concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are transferred to some part of the “natural rights” of fellow citizens (justice, foreign relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, religion and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of “civil society.”
A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new, deeply different from the medieval, understanding of the world and man. It was called the Age of Enlightenment - after the name of the powerful ideological movement that by the mid-18th century. widely covered the countries of Europe and America. In the 18th-19th centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. That is why the 18th century went down in history as the Age of Reason, the Age of Enlightenment.
This movement was represented by outstanding philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures different countries. Among the educators were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain problems, belong to different religions or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of light restrictions on the monarchy. But they were all united by a commonality of goals and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating a just society through peaceful, non-violent means. "Enlightenment of minds", the purpose of which is to open people's eyes to the rational principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves - this is the essence of Enlightenment and main meaning activities of educators.
But criticism of medieval orders was not the only concern of the enlighteners. They tried to develop principles for the structure of a future society, where people would gain freedom, equality, prosperity, peace, and religious tolerance.
Enlighteners pinned their hopes for establishing a just system on the wise policies of the powers that be. In those days, monarchy was the dominant form of government. The Enlightenmentists believed that an “enlightened sovereign” brought up in the spirit of new ideas would destroy slavery and oppression by introducing reasonable government institutions and laws. Thus, from the ideas of the “sage on the throne” grew the idea of an alliance between educators and monarchs, although both sides had largely opposing goals.
The field of activity of educators was extensive: they wrote philosophical treatises and political pamphlets, sat in parliament and received ministerial posts, drafted laws and carried out educational reforms, were engaged in science and teaching, literature and journalism, book publishing and charity. They talked with monarchs and commoners, prospered and begged, traveled and spent time in prisons. They left their descendants a rich ideological and cultural heritage and their unrealized (perhaps unrealizable) dreams of creating an ideal society.
2. Education in Russia
2.1 Penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia
The ground for the spread of Enlightenment ideas in Russia was prepared by the reforms of Peter I. By the end of his reign, the country was confidently moving along the path of Europeanization and found itself included in the cultural orbit of the West. The development of domestic science and education proceeded at a rapid pace. Many innovations appeared that pre-Petrine Russia did not know: newspapers, magazines, portrait painting.
By the middle of the 18th century. educated society consisted of a Europeanized nobility (primarily St. Petersburg and Moscow), as well as an extremely small number of young raznochin intelligentsia (raznochinsy were people who came from soldiers, sailors, clergy, minor officials, etc.).
Philosophical and socio-political ideas of Western European thinkers began to penetrate into Russia already under Peter I.
But the Enlightenment movement under the general name “Voltairianism” became widespread in the 40-60s. 17th century It is no coincidence that it was named after the famous French philosopher Voltaire. If at the end of the 17th century. England was the leader of the European Enlightenment, then in the 18th century. The “historical initiative” moved to the continent, and the French Enlightenment became the pan-European standard. In addition, Russian “Frenchmania” was caused by the expansion of cultural ties between Russia and France, especially in the second half of the 18th century. Wealthy nobles had an excellent opportunity to become familiar with the Enlightenment while traveling abroad, and a good knowledge of the French language allowed them to study the works of the Enlightenment.
And in Russia itself, the works of enlighteners gained extreme popularity: educated society read the books of Voltaire, Montesquieu, D’Alembert and Diderot.
2.2 Education in Russian conditions
But the centuries-old path of development of Russia differed in many ways from the European one, and the seeds of the Enlightenment, having fallen on Russian soil, bore different fruits than in the West. In the second half of the 18th century, France was already on the threshold of a great revolution, and the “third estate” (the entire population, except the nobility and clergy) had to present a historical account of the monarchy and the nobility. The enlighteners' sharp criticism of outdated orders and prejudices, the ideals they proclaimed corresponded to the sentiments of the future leaders of the revolution. Later, slogans of freedom and equality were inscribed on its banners.
Meanwhile, Russia during the heyday of Voltairianism, that is, under Catherine II, was completely different from France. Behind the façade of the brilliant empire lay a huge country, the vast majority of the population, which literally did not lift its eyes from the ground, engaged in hard peasant labor. About half of the enslaved peasantry were in the position of landowner slaves. There was no trace of the third estate: on industrial enterprises Serf labor reigned, and the most entrepreneurial merchants longed to merge with the powerful and privileged noble class. Serfdom became part of the flesh and blood of Russia, becoming a familiar, everyday phenomenon. It was protected by the autocracy, which had at its disposal a strong bureaucratic apparatus, a powerful army and a strong social support in the person of the “slave-owning nobility.” It is not surprising that the ideas of Western European enlighteners received a completely different sound in Russia.
The Enlightenment was supported by both the autocracy and the nobility. They sought to use new cultural trends in the interests of preserving existing orders. Empress Catherine II herself paid tribute to the new century, passionately wanting to be known as an “enlightened empress.” She flaunted her views, borrowed from French authors, corresponded with such luminaries of European thought as Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and was very jealous of the reputation of an enlightened ruler. The ideas of the Enlightenment were not alien to the conservative aristocracy. Its herald was a prominent publicist, historian and economist, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov. The ideas of the Enlightenment were also used by liberal nobles. Among them are the director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences E.R. Dashkova, historian I.N. Boltin, diplomat N.I. Panin and D.A. Golitsyn, writers A.P. Sumarokov and M.M. Kheraskov. They considered it necessary to modernize monarchical rule and soften relations between landowners and peasants.
The true enlighteners who dreamed of a radical reorganization of Russian society on a reasonable basis were the publicist N. I. Novikov, the writer D. I. Fonvizin, as well as individual representatives of the small intelligentsia of the various ranks at that time. Among the latter we should name jurists S.E. Desnitsky and A.Ya. Polenov, philosophers J.P. Kozeltsky, D.S. Anichkov and N.N. Popovsky. And even the democratic aspirations of those who can rightfully be considered educators did not go beyond the limits set by the same Russian reality.
2.2.1 Catherine II : Culture and Enlightenment
Her passion for science and fine arts revealed another side of the empress’s multifaceted, richly gifted nature. Ekaterina was involved in collecting: she bought libraries, graphic and numismatic collections (cabinets), collections of paintings and sculptures; invited European artists to decorate her palaces and cities.
Among Catherine's famous acquisitions are the libraries of Diderot and Voltaire. In a relatively short period of time, sparing no expense, she bought unique painting collections of such patrons as Brühl in Dresden and Crozat in Paris, which included masterpieces by Raphael, Rembrandt, Poussin, Van Dyck, Rubens and other celebrities. Catherine II founded the Hermitage, the richest collection of art collections at the palace.
The empress's example was followed by her entourage. They set up large and small “Hermitages” in their city palaces and country estates, acquiring a taste for beauty and a thirst for knowledge and enlightenment.
The reign of Catherine II was marked by extensive educational transformations. Through the efforts of the empress, institutes, cadet corps and educational homes were established. But Ekaterina’s main merit in this area can be considered the first experience of creating a system in Russia general education, not limited by class barriers (with the exception of serfs). IN provincial cities Main public schools appeared, and small schools appeared in district schools. In Ekaterinoslavl, Penza, Chernigov and Pskov, with the assistance of the empress and the care of the public, it was planned to establish universities.
During the reign of Catherine, the Russian government for the first time set as its goal the introduction of general education in the country (and not just technical and special education; Peter the Great needed schools to train artillerymen and navigators). Catherine proclaimed her intention to educate “a new breed of people” (General I. I. Betskoy was Catherine’s active collaborator in education). At the very beginning of her reign, Catherine laid the foundation for female school education: in 1764, in St. Petersburg, at the Resurrection Monastery, an educational institution was established for the “education of noble maidens” (Smolny Institute). In 1764, the “Charter for Public Schools in the Russian Empire” was published; According to this charter, “main” (in provincial cities) and “small” (in county towns) public schools.
The Medical College, established in 1763, was supposed to be concerned with the training of doctors; several special schools were also established (in particular, cadet corps).
It is also noteworthy that under Catherine, the organization of medical care to the population was entrusted to the authorities. Each city was required to have a hospital and a pharmacy, where patients were offered not those medicines that were cheaper, but those prescribed by the doctor. Smallpox epidemics remained a terrible disaster for the inhabitants of Russia, and Catherine by example marked the beginning of vaccination. When the empress inoculated herself with smallpox, in response to the admiration of the courtiers, she objected that “she only fulfilled her duty, because a shepherd is obliged to lay down his life for his flock.”
Catherine's time was the time of awakening of scientific, literary and philosophical interests in Russian society, the time of the birth of the Russian intelligentsia. The first in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg public library. In 1765, on the initiative of Catherine, the Free Economic Society was established, which set as its main idea a study of the situation of agriculture in Russia and published a long series of its “Proceedings” (some of them very valuable). Under Catherine, scientific work began in the field of Russian history; on the one hand, there was a collection and publication historical sources, on the other hand, the general course of historical development of Russia was discussed and assessed (works of Miller and Schletser, Prince M.M. Shcherbatov and Boltin). The Academy of Sciences at this time began to publish Russian chronicles.
Of the Russian writers, the most outstanding were the poet Derzhavin and the satirist Fonvizin. Catherine herself was a writer (though not a first-class one); she also undertook the publication of the magazine “All sorts of things” to influence modern public opinion. Simultaneously with her magazine, several independent magazines arose, which sometimes entered into lively politics with it.
The main ideological influence under which the educated nobility and the emerging “raznochinsky” intelligentsia were in Catherine’s era was the influence of French “enlightenment” literature with its preaching of “natural human rights,” freedom and equality.
Catherine was not only tolerant, but also sympathetic and patronizing towards liberal ideas and educational activities. Only at the end of her reign, alarmed and frightened by the events of the French Revolution, Catherine tried to stop the further spread of “freethinking.” A. N. Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” published in 1790 and containing a strong protest against serfdom, was confiscated, and its author was exiled to Siberia. As Catherine said about Radishchev after: “The rebel is worse than Pugachev.” In 1791, Novikov’s “printing company” was closed, and he himself was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.
And also, 2nd half of the 18th century. was characterized by a significant rise in Russian culture, which, of course, was facilitated by Catherine, who persistently strove to appear in the eyes of Europe as an educational ruler and patron of music. Under her, dramatic and musical theaters. In St. Petersburg, theater troupes existed under the gentry corps; in Moscow - at the university and the Orphanage. In 1783, the first theater school appeared in St. Petersburg. Amateur and professional theaters are springing up in Tula, Kharkov, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Irkutsk and other cities. The repertoire of these theaters included plays by Beaumarchais and Moliere, as well as tragedies, dramas and comedies by Russian authors Sumarokov, Fonvizin, Knyazhnin, Krylov. Serf theaters that belonged to large nobles became widespread (among them the theater of Count Sheremetyev in Ostankino was famous).
Musical culture was also on the rise. Russia became acquainted with the achievements of European music. Famous foreign musicians toured St. Petersburg and Moscow, performing works by Mozart, Haydn, Handel and other composers. And Russian herself national opera successfully competed with Italian and French. And also high degree Russian culture reached perfection in Catherine's era art, permeated with the ideas of humanism and patriotism (coming from common people V. Bazhenov and M. Kazakov). Their work is the most striking examples of Russian classicism.
Catherine II continued the traditions of Peter the Great, inviting the most famous European architects to Russia, such as Rastrelli, Cameron, Rossi, Quarenghi, Falcone, who contributed huge contribution into Russian culture. Became the symbol of St. Petersburg famous monument Peter I, created by Etienne Falconet.
The time of Catherine II was the heyday of urban planning in Russia. Under her, the systematic development of St. Petersburg - the “Venice of the North” - and the construction of new cities were carried out: Nikolaev, Ekaterinoslav, Odessa, Sevastopol and other cities. The construction of suburban imperial palaces gained great scope: Peterhof with its majestic cascade of fountains, Tsarskoye Selo, Pavlovsk, Gatchina.
Painting also achieved particular success (F. Rokotov, D. Levitsky, V. Borovitsky). The history of the reign of Empress Catherine II is a story of brilliant good wishes and their very moderate and distorted implementation. Catherine did not make a “sage on the throne”: in Russia the autocracy was not weakened and serfdom, in many ways they even intensified. But in those same decades, colossal legislative and administrative work was carried out, transforming Russia from the hastily cobbled together state of Peter I into a Europeanized power. The army and navy delivered many glorious victories to Russia. Historians have ambivalent assessments of Catherine's era: at that time, enlightenment and despotism turned out to be inextricably, inseparably linked.
2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy
The dissimilarity between the development paths of Russia and the West determined another feature of the Russian Enlightenment. The famous “freethinking” of the French enlighteners is well known, their sharply hostile attitude towards the Catholic Church, which sometimes took the form of open atheism. The question of the existence of God was a hot topic between them. Thus, Diderot declared that there is no God; Rousseau claimed that he saw God in every creation, Voltaire believed that if God does not exist, then he needs to be invented as a moral bridle for humanity. But the main thing was that the French Enlightenment was secular in nature. In Russia, philosophy had not yet been separated from religion; it only had to go beyond the framework of Christianity. Therefore, among the enlighteners of that time, the question of the existence of God was not openly discussed. Russian naturalists, for example, firmly occupied the position of deism. Even Lomonosov, who ardently argued the harmfulness of church tutelage over science, did not question the existence of God and sharply condemned Voltaire’s religious views. How contradictory was the attitude of Russian society towards this famous Frenchman can be understood from the statement of the enlightened nobleman I. I. Shuvalov: “I don’t like him, he’s a beast... but he writes nicely!” Of course, Russian enlighteners glorified Reason, fought against ignorance and superstition, and exposed the vices of the clergy. Walking in society famous poem Lomonosov's “Hymn to the Beard” brought a lot of trouble to its author. But in general, they all remained in the position of true Christians.
2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism
Perhaps the most remarkable feature of Russian educators was their pronounced patriotism. The victory over Sweden in the Northern War promoted Russia to the ranks of the great European powers. This allowed the Russian people to realize in a new way the importance of their nation, which is an equal member of the family of European nations. At the same time, Russia's cultural backwardness gave rise to bitter feelings. Particularly offensive to Russian national pride was the widespread opinion in the West that Russia would never become civilized if it relied only on its own strength. Therefore, Russian educators never tired of talking about the nation’s untapped creative potential. Russia, according to the Enlightenment philosopher Popovsky, did not manage to join the ranks of enlightened states more likely “due to the late start of learning than due to impotence.” Giving lectures on philosophy at Moscow University, he called on his listeners to prove that they, too, “were given minds by nature, the same as those that entire nations boast of.”
Russian leaders insisted that it was necessary to strengthen the educational role of the state and create an extensive system public education, open access to science, government and public life to people from the lower strata of society. Big role Russian educational scientists, and above all Lomonosov, played a role in the creation of the Russian scientific language.
If you try to paint a portrait of Russia during the time of Catherine II, the Enlightenment will serve as a frame, or at best, as a background. The ideas of the Enlightenment, assimilated extremely fragilely by an extremely small part of Russians, were distorted under the influence of Russian reality. However, in the next, 19th century, enlightened Russian society will increasingly begin to turn the course of the country's history in its own way.
3. The most famous enlighteners
3.1 Russia: Radishchev
Radishchev's philosophical views bear traces of the influence of various trends in European thought of his time. He was guided by the principle of reality and materiality (corporality) of the world, arguing that “the existence of things, regardless of the power of knowledge about them, exists in itself.” According to his epistemological views, “the basis of all natural knowledge is experience.” At the same time, sensory experience, being the main source of knowledge, is in unity with “reasonable experience.” In a world in which there is nothing “beyond corporeality,” man, a being as corporeal as all of nature, takes his place. A person has a special role; according to Radishchev, he represents highest manifestation physicality, but at the same time inextricably linked with the animal and plant world. “We do not humiliate a person,” Radishchev argued, “by finding similarities in his constitution with other creatures, showing that he essentially follows the same laws as him. How could it be otherwise? Isn’t it real?” The fundamental difference between a person and other living beings is the presence of a mind, thanks to which he “has the power to know about things.” But an even more important difference lies in the human capacity for moral action and evaluation. “Man is the only creature on earth who knows the bad, the evil,” “a special property of man is the unlimited possibility of both improving and being corrupted.” As a moralist, Radishchev did not accept the moral concept of “reasonable egoism,” believing that “self-love” is by no means the source of moral feeling: “man is a sympathetic being.” Being a supporter of the idea of “natural law” and always defending ideas about the natural nature of man (“the rights of nature never dry up in man”), Radishchev at the same time did not share the opposition outlined by Rousseau between society and nature, the cultural and natural principles in man. For him, human social existence is as natural as natural existence. In fact, there is no fundamental boundary between them: “Nature, people and things are the educators of man; climate, local situation, government, circumstances are the educators of nations.” Criticizing the social evils of Russian reality, Radishchev defended the ideal of a normal “natural” way of life, seeing the injustice reigning in society as literally a social disease. He found this kind of “disease” not only in Russia. Thus, assessing the state of affairs in the slave-owning United States, he wrote that “one hundred proud citizens are drowning in luxury, and thousands do not have reliable food, nor their own from the heat and darkness of the shelter.” In the treatise “On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality, Radishchev, considering metaphysical problems, remained true to his naturalistic humanism, recognizing the inextricability of the connection between the natural and spiritual principles in man, the unity of body and soul: “Doesn’t the soul grow with the body, or with it?” He matures and grows strong, but doesn’t he wither and grow dull? At the same time, not without sympathy, he quoted thinkers who recognized the immortality of the soul (I. Herder, M. Mendelssohn, etc.). Radishchev’s position is not that of an atheist, but rather of an agnostic, which fully corresponded general principles his worldview, already quite secularized, oriented towards the “naturalness” of the world order, but alien to godlessness and nihilism.
3.2 Russia : Novikov
Novikov considered one of the most important tasks to be the fight against the admiration of the nobility for foreignness, for national foundations Russian culture. Simultaneously with satirical magazines, he published a number of historical publications. Among them is the book “An Experience of a Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers,” as well as “Ancient Russian Vivliofika...” - monuments of Russian history, published monthly, and other publications of historical materials. He was the first to create the “Scythian History”.
Novikov was aware of the need to publish historical monuments with paleographic accuracy, a collection of heteroglossia, compiling alphabetical indexes, etc., and sometimes applied these techniques when used in several lists. Novikov drew material for his editions of ancient monuments from private, church, and state ancient repositories, access that was allowed by the empress in 1773. Novikov himself compiled a collection of manuscripts historical content. Miller, Prince Shcherbatov, Bantysh-Kamensky and others brought him a lot of materials, as well as Catherine II, who supported the publication of Vivliofika with generous subsidies.
3.3 France: Voltaire
3.3.1 Literary creativity: Dramaturgy
Continuing to cultivate the aristocratic genres of poetry - messages, gallant lyrics, odes, etc., Voltaire in the field of dramatic poetry was the last major representative of classical tragedy; he himself wrote 28 tragedies. Among them are the most important: “Caesar”, “Semiramis”, “Rome Saved”, “Chinese Orphan”. However, in the context of the extinction of aristocratic culture, classical tragedy was inevitably transformed. Notes of sensitivity burst into her former rationalistic coldness in ever greater abundance, her former sculptural clarity was replaced by romantic picturesqueness. The repertoire of ancient figures was increasingly invaded by exotic characters - medieval knights, Chinese, Scythians, Hebrians and the like. For a long time, not wanting to put up with the ascension new drama- as a “hybrid” form, Voltaire ended up defending the method of mixing the tragic and the comic, considering this mixture a legitimate feature of only “high comedy” and rejecting “tearful drama”, where there are only “tears”, as a “non-artistic genre”. For a long time, opposing the invasion of the stage by plebeian heroes, Voltaire, under the pressure of bourgeois drama, gave up this position, wide opening the doors of drama “for all classes and all ranks” and essentially formulating the program of a democratic theater; “To make it easier to instill in people the valor necessary for society, the author chose heroes from the lower class. He was not afraid to bring on stage a gardener, a young girl helping her father with rural work, or a simple soldier. Such heroes, who stand closer to nature than others and speak simple language, will make a stronger impression and achieve their goals more quickly than princes in love and princesses tormented by passion. Enough theaters thundered with tragic adventures, possible only among monarchs and completely useless for other people.” The type of such bourgeois plays includes “The Seigneur’s Right,” “Nanina,” “The Spendthrift,” etc.
3.3.3 Literary creativity: Poetry
Voltaire began in the style of classical epic, which, like classical tragedy, was transformed under his hand: instead of fictional character taken real, instead of fantastic wars - in fact, the former, instead of gods - allegorical images- concepts: love, jealousy, fanaticism. Continuing the style of the heroic epic in the “Poem of the Battle of Fontenoy,” glorifying the victory of Louis XV, Voltaire then in “The Virgin of Orleans” (La Pucelle d'Orleans), caustically and obscenely ridiculing the entire medieval world of feudal-clerical France, reduces the heroic poem to the heroic farce and moves gradually, under the influence of Pope, from a heroic poem to a didactic poem, to “discourse in verse” (discours en vers), to the presentation in the form of a poem of his moral and social philosophy (“Letter on the Philosophy of Newton”, “Discourse in Verse” about man", "Natural Law", "Poem about the Lisbon disaster").
3.4 Germany: Goethe
Goethe's first significant work of this new era is Götz von Berlichingen, a drama that made a huge impression on his contemporaries. She puts Goethe in the forefront of German literature, placing him at the head of the writers of the period of Sturm and Drang. The originality of this work, written in prose in the manner of Shakespeare’s historical chronicles, is not so much that it rehabilitates national antiquity, dramatizing the story of a 16th-century knight, but rather that this drama, arising outside of Rococo literature14, also comes into conflict with the literature of the Enlightenment, the most influential cultural movement hitherto. The image of a fighter for social justice - a typical image of Enlightenment literature - receives an unusual interpretation from Goethe. Knight Götz von Berlichingen, sad about the state of affairs in the country, leads a peasant uprising; when the latter takes on sharp forms, it moves away from it, cursing its outgrown movement. The established legal order triumphs: before it, the revolutionary movement of the masses, interpreted in the drama as unleashed chaos, and the individual trying to oppose “willfulness” are equally powerless. Goetz finds freedom not in the human world, but in death, in merging “with Mother Nature.” The meaning of the symbol is the final scene of the play: Goetz leaves the prison into the garden, sees the boundless sky, he is surrounded by reviving nature: “Lord Almighty, how good it is under your sky, how good freedom is! The trees are budding, the whole world is full of hope. Goodbye, dears! My roots are cut off, my strength is leaving me.” Last words Goethe - “Oh, what heavenly air! Freedom, freedom!
Conclusion
In general, the 1780-1790s become the historical border of the European Enlightenment. During the era of the English industrial revolution, engineers and entrepreneurs replaced publicists and ideologists in culture. The French Revolution destroyed the historical optimism of the Enlightenment. The German literary and philosophical revolution redefined the status of reason.
Intellectual Legacy The Enlightenment was an ideology rather than a philosophy, and was therefore quickly superseded by German classical philosophy and Romanticism, receiving from them the epithet of "flat rationalism." However, the Enlightenment finds allies in the positivists of the 2nd half of the 19th century and finds a “second wind” in the 20th century, sometimes perceived as an alternative and antidote in the fight against totalitarianism.
But that's a completely different story………
List of used literature
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius, 2009
B. I. Krasnobaev “Essays on the history of Russian culture” M., 1987.
IN. Klyuchevsky " Historical portraits", 1990
Encyclopedia "Wikipedia"
Applications
Meaning of words
1. Humanists1 (from Latin humanus - human, humane) - this is a person who recognizes the values of a person as an individual, his right to free development and manifestation of his abilities, the affirmation of the human good as an evaluation criterion public relations
2. Atheism2 (French atheisme, from Greek atheos - godless) - historically diverse forms of denial of religious ideas and cult and affirmation of the intrinsic value of the existence of the world and man.
3. Deism3 (from Latin deus - god) - a religious and philosophical doctrine that recognizes God as the world’s mind, which designed the expedient “machine” of nature and gave it laws and movement, but rejects God’s further intervention in the self-movement of nature (i.e., “divine providence,” miracles, etc.) and does not allow any other path to the knowledge of God other than reason.
4. Freemasonry4 (French franc mason, English free mason - lit. “free mason”) - a religious and moral movement associated with the satisfaction of religious needs on a non-church basis.
5. Quasi-church5 (from Latin quasi - supposedly, as if) -“imaginary”, “fake” church, based on the teachings of the Freemasons.
6. Epistemology6 (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge and logos - word, teaching) - the same as the theory of knowledge.
7. Empiricism7 (from Greek empeiria - experience) - a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of reliable knowledge; opposes rationalism. Empiricism is characterized by the absolutization of experience, sensory knowledge, and the belittlement of the role of rational knowledge.
8. Sensualism8 (from Latin sensus - perception, feeling) - direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations and perceptions are the basis and main form of reliable knowledge; opposes rationalism. The basic principle of sensationalism is “there is nothing in the mind that is not in the senses.”
9. Ontology9 (from Greek on, genus ontos - existing and logos - word, teaching) - section of philosophy, the doctrine of being (in contrast to epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge), in which the universal foundations, principles of being, its structure and patterns are studied.
10. Positivism10 (French positivisme, from Latin positivus - positive) - a philosophical direction based on the fact that all true knowledge is the cumulative result of special sciences; science, according to positivism, does not need any philosophy standing above it.
11. Dogmatism11 (Greek Dogmatikos, from dogma - teaching) - one-sided, schematic, ossified thinking. Dogmatism is based on blind faith in authorities and the defense of outdated positions.
12. Liberalism12 (from Latin liberalis - relating to freedom, free) - an ideological and socio-political movement that proclaimed the principle of civil, political, and economic freedoms.
13. Clericalism13 - the desire to ensure the primacy of the church and religion in political and cultural life.
14. Rococo14 (“bizarre”, “capricious”; French rococo from rocaille - fragments of stones, shells) - stylistic direction that dominated European art during the first three quarters of the 18th century, it represented not so much an independent artistic phenomenon as a phase, a certain stage of the pan-European Baroque style.
Illustrations
Culture in the Age of Enlightenment
Introduction
1. Enlightenment from a general point of view
1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment
1.2 Age of Reason
2. Education in Russia
2.1 Penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia
2.2 Education in Russian conditions
2.2.1 Catherine II: Culture and Enlightenment
2.3 Ideas of the Enlightenment and Russian Orthodoxy
2.4 Enlightenment ideas and patriotism
3. The most famous educators
3.1 Russia. Radishchev
3.2 Russia: Novikov
3.3 France: Voltaire
3.3.1 Literary creativity. Dramaturgy
3.3.2 Literary creativity: Poetry
3.4 Germany: Goethe
Conclusion
List of used literature
Application
Introduction
The 18th century in world culture left its mark on history and is called the “era of enlightenment.”
During this era, the direction of fantastic forms - "Baroque" - ended, and the persecution of humanists began 1. It was from this time that cultural figures began to have a double life (the 1st life is a secret search for something new by the power of imagination and the 2nd life is an open life like everyone else). In literature, the main work of this time is the novel by the Spanish writer Calderon “Life is a Dream.”
In Europe, a war is emerging between the educated authorities and the poorly educated population, which has become active thanks to books. This war leads to the creation of the first bourgeois republic in Holland. And here it becomes necessary for all monarchies to protect themselves from the influence of republics. For example, in the largest kingdom in Europe, France, the de facto ruler, Cardinal Richelieu, publishes uniform requirements for art: to educate the citizens of the kingdom according to the models of the heroes of antiquity. And from Richelieu’s rules a new direction, classicism, appears. From the 2nd half of the 17th century until the end of the 18th century, the idea of enlightenment (educating the people through art) prevailed in Europe.
So, what is the “age of enlightenment”? What personalities is it built on? And how did it change people's minds? - you will find answers to these and other questions in subsequent topics.
1. Enlightenment from the point of view of history
The Enlightenment is a broad cultural movement in Europe and North America in the 18th century, which aimed to spread the ideals of scientific knowledge, political freedom, social progress and expose related prejudices and superstitions. The centers of Enlightenment ideology and philosophy were France, Germany and England (where it originated). The ideology of the Enlightenment received its concentrated expression in France in the period from 1715 to 1789, called the Age of Enlightenment (siecle des lumieres). Kant's definition of Enlightenment as “the courage to use one's own mind” speaks of the fundamental orientation of the Enlightenment to endow reason with the status of the highest authority and the associated ethical responsibility of its bearers - enlightened citizens.
The ideas of the Enlightenment had a significant influence on the development of social thought. At the same time, in the 19th and 20th centuries. The ideology of the Enlightenment was often criticized for the idealization of human nature, an optimistic interpretation of progress as the steady development of society based on the improvement of the mind. In a broad sense, enlighteners were the name given to outstanding disseminators of scientific knowledge.
1.1 Basic ideas and principles of the Enlightenment
Despite all the national characteristics, the Enlightenment had several common ideas and principles. There is a single order of nature, on the knowledge of which not only the success of science and the well-being of society, but also moral and religious perfection are based; the correct reproduction of the laws of nature allows us to build natural morality, natural religion and natural law. Reason, freed from prejudice, is the only source of knowledge; facts, the essence, are the only material for reason. Rational knowledge must free humanity from social and natural slavery; society and the state must harmonize with the external nature and nature of man. Theoretical knowledge is inseparable from practical action, which ensures progress as the highest goal of social existence.
The specific ways of implementing this program within the framework of the Enlightenment diverged significantly. The difference in opinions about religion was especially significant: the practical atheism of La Mettrie, Holbach, Helvetius and Diderot, the rationalistic anticlerical deism of Voltaire, the moderate deism of D'Alembert, the pious deism of Condillac, the emotional "deism of the heart" of Rousseau. The unifying point was hatred of the traditional church. At the same time, the deism of the Enlightenment did not exclude such organizational forms as the Masonic 4 quasi-church 5 with its rituals. Epistemological 6 differences were less diverse: mostly the Enlightenmentists adhered to Lockean empiricism with a distinctly sensationalist interpretation of the origin of knowledge. materialistic character, but a skeptical and even spiritualistic option was not excluded. 9 interested the Enlightenment people to a lesser extent: they provided the solution to these problems to specific sciences (in this regard, the philosophy of the Enlightenment can be considered the first version of positivism 10), fixing only the evidence of the existence of the subject, nature and God. - root causes. Only in Holbach's System of Nature is a dogmatic 11 picture of atomistic-material existence given. In the social sphere, educators tried to substantiate the theory of progress and connect it with the stages of economic and political development of society. Economic (Turgot), political (Montesquieu), human rights (Voltaire) ideas of the Enlightenment played a significant role in the formation of the liberal 12 civilization of the modern West.
1.2 Age of Reason
The years of Defoe's life (1660-1731) coincided with a time of rapid development of science, which literally interrupted all the ideas of medieval man about the world around him. During the 16th-18th centuries. Geographical discoveries constantly expanded the horizons of Europeans: the world was rapidly expanding. If in the 15th century. The lands well known in Europe stretched from India to Ireland, then by the beginning of the 19th century the Spaniards, English, Dutch, and French owned the whole world. The streak of outstanding discoveries begun by Nicolaus Copernicus was continued by the works of Isaac Newton, who formulated the law of universal gravitation. As a result of their work, by the end of the 17th century. the previous picture of the world has become yesterday even in the eyes of ordinary people: the Earth - the biblical focus, the universe - from the center of the universe has turned into one of the few satellites of the sun; the Sun itself turned out to be just one of the stars that complement the endless Cosmos.
This is how modern science was born. It broke the traditional connection with theology and proclaimed experiment, mathematical calculation and logical analysis as its foundations. This led to the emergence of a new world science, in which the concepts of “mind”, “nature”, “natural law” became the main ones. From now on, the world was seen as a gigantic complex mechanism operating according to the exact laws of mechanics (it is no coincidence that mechanical watches were a favorite image in the writings of statesmen and politicians, biologists and doctors in the 17th and early 18th centuries). In such a well-functioning system there was almost no room for God. He was given the role of the originator of the world, the root cause of all things. The world itself, as if having received an impetus, subsequently developed independently, in accordance with natural laws, which the Creator created as universal, unchangeable and accessible to knowledge. This doctrine was called deism and had many followers among naturalists of the 17th and 18th centuries.
But perhaps the most important step that the new philosophy dared to take was the attempt to extend the laws operating in nature to human society. A conviction emerged and grew stronger: both man himself and social life are subject to unchangeable natural laws. They only need to be discovered, recorded, and achieved accurate and universal execution. A path was found to create a perfect society built on “reasonable” foundations - the key to the future happiness of mankind.
The search for natural laws of social development contributed to the emergence of new teachings about man and the state. One of them is the theory of natural law, developed by European philosophers of the 17th century. T. Hobbes and D. Locke. They proclaimed the natural equality of people, and therefore the natural right of every person to property, freedom, equality before the law, and human dignity. Based on the theory of natural law, a new view of the origin of the state was formed. The English philosopher Locke believed that the transition of once free people to “civil society” was the result of a “social contract” concluded between peoples and rulers. The latter, according to Locke, are transferred to some part of the “natural rights” of fellow citizens (justice, foreign relations, etc.). Rulers are obliged to protect other rights - freedom of speech, religion and the right to private property. Locke denied the divine origin of power: monarchs must remember that they are part of “civil society.”
A whole era began in the history of Western culture, bringing with it a new, deeply different from the medieval, understanding of the world and man. It was called the Age of Enlightenment - after the name of the powerful ideological movement that by the mid-18th century. widely covered the countries of Europe and America. In the 18th-19th centuries. it had a strong influence on science, socio-political thought, art and literature of many peoples. That is why the 18th century went down in history as the Age of Reason, the Age of Enlightenment.
This movement was represented by outstanding philosophers, scientists, writers, statesmen and public figures from different countries. Among the educators were aristocrats, nobles, priests, lawyers, teachers, merchants and industrialists. They could hold different, sometimes opposing views on certain problems, belong to different religions or deny the existence of God, be staunch republicans or supporters of light restrictions on the monarchy. But they were all united by a commonality of goals and ideals, a belief in the possibility of creating a just society through peaceful, non-violent means. “Enlightenment of minds,” the goal of which is to open people’s eyes to the reasonable principles of organizing society, to advance their world and themselves—this is the essence of the Enlightenment and the main meaning of the activities of educators.
ROCOCO
Western artistic culture Europe XVIII century. Age of Enlightenment.
Culture Western Europe
XVIII century- one of the most brilliant eras in the history of human culture. This period of European history, located, relatively speaking, between two revolutions - the so-called “glorious revolution” in England (1688-1689) and the Great French revolution 1789-1795 is called the Age of Enlightenment. Indeed, the central phenomenon of cultural and ideological life of the 18th century. The Enlightenment movement came into being. It included political and social ideas - progress, freedom, a fair and reasonable social order, the development of scientific knowledge, and religious tolerance. But it was not a narrow ideological movement of the bourgeoisie directed against feudalism - and only that, as is sometimes claimed. The famous philosopher of the 18th century, the one who was the first to sum up the results of this era, I. Kant, in 1784. dedicated a special article to the Enlightenment, “What is Enlightenment?” and called it “a person’s exit from the state of minority.” The English thinker Locke argued that man is born " blank slate”, on which any moral, social “writing” can be inscribed, it is only important to be guided by reason. “Age of Reason”, “Age of Criticism”, “Philosophical Age” - this is the common name for the 18th century.
And in this busy time, trends in art are developing: rococo, (neo-) classicism, sentimentalism.
Antoine Watteau(1684-1721). "Gallant festivities" or "gallant scenes"- main topic creativity of Watteau. The landscape here is nature inhabited by humans, more like a park than a forest; the poses and movements of the characters are surprisingly graceful and harmonious. In the development of the plot, the main thing is the communication between a man and a woman, their elegant, silent dialogue: the play of glances, slight hand movements, barely noticeable turns of the head, which speak louder than any words.
* Community in the Park
A year before his death, Watteau created a large painting that was supposed to serve as a sign for an antique shop.
* Signboard of Gersen's shop
When they bought it, they cut it in half. It turned out like two paintings. This is what mastery means - to divide society so precisely that from one canvas two can be obtained without any problems? Its theme is the daily life of a fashionable art store. Visitors look at paintings and antiques, make purchases, and talk with sellers. Watteau surprisingly accurately and completely presented the styles and artistic tastes of the era: the first part depicts cold, pompous classicist works, the second – playful “gallant scenes” and genre painting.
Jean Honore Fragonard. (1732 - 1806) - French painter and engraver. He painted mainly idealistic genres and pastorals, scenes of intimate life with piquant, sometimes shamelessly erotic content, decorative panels, portraits, miniatures, watercolors, and pastels. His works were included in big fashion and were bought in great demand at an expensive price, thanks to which he managed to make good money for himself.
* Sneak kiss
*Pastoral- (French pastorale, pastoral, rural) - a genre in literature, music and theater that poetizes peaceful and simple rural life.
Francois Boucher- fashionable artist, favorite of Madame de Pompadour, creator of the court rocaille. Subjects – pastoral scenes with pseudo-shepherdesses, playful ambiguities, poetic huts, plump beauties disguised as Venuses and Dianas. Contemporaries said about his paintings: “Not painting, but airy cakes.” Shades of pale green, blue; one of the shades of pink is “the color of the thigh of an embarrassed nymph.” Subtle refined forms, lyrically tender coloring, charming gracefulness, even affectation of movements, pretty faces are reminiscent of Watteau’s “gallant scenes”. But Boucher’s feeling of instability and changeability of the situation disappeared. The artist is more interested not in the characters themselves, but in the combination of human figures and landscape, still life.
* Diana's bath
Nicola Lancret- (22.1.1690 - 14.9.1743) - French painter, representative of Rococo art. He was strongly influenced by A. Watteau. In 1719 he was accepted as a member of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture as a “master of gallant subjects.” Lancret also painted in the spirit of “gallant scenes”, even creating a series of paintings depicting the “Seasons”, which shows not only the weather, but also a variety of games and entertainment.
* Summer
At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. The Middle Ages ended in Russia and the New Age began. Russian art of the 18th century. in just a few decades, he was destined to transform from religious to secular, master new genres (for example, portrait, still life and landscape) and discover completely new themes (in particular, mythological and historical). For this reason, styles in art, which in Europe successively replaced each other over the centuries, existed in Russia XVIII centuries at the same time or with a gap of only a few years.
The 18th century in the history of Russian art was a period of apprenticeship. But if in the first half of the 18th century. the teachers of Russian artists were foreign masters, then in the second they could learn from their compatriots and work with foreigners on equal terms. At that time there were almost no major Russian masters. Peter I invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent the most talented young people to study “art” abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. "Peter's pensioners"(students who studied at the expense of state funds - pensions) began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.
Russian art in the second half of the 18th century. was already developing in parallel with the European one, in which by that time it had become established a new style- neoclassicism. But since, unlike Western European countries, Russia turned to cultural heritage antiquity and the Renaissance for the first time, Russian neoclassicism of the 18th century. usually called simply classicism. After only a hundred years, Russia appeared in a renewed form - with a new capital, in which the Academy of Arts was opened; with many art collections that were not inferior to the oldest European collections in scope and luxury.
In order for Russia to strengthen its position on the Baltic Sea, Peter I founded a new capital on the land conquered from the Swedes - St. Petersburg. Its name then sounded a little different - St. Peter-Burkh, which meant “the fortress of St. Peter” (the Apostle Peter was the heavenly patron of the Russian monarch).
According to the plan of Peter I, first of all it was necessary to build up and populate the islands at the mouth of the Neva. With this layout, the river with its numerous branches and the canals dug later became the main thoroughfares of St. Petersburg, almost like in Venice or Amsterdam (the Russian Tsar took it as a model). Bridges were not deliberately built; Boats were distributed to the townspeople to accustom them to the water element. St. Petersburg was built unusually quickly by European standards, in just a few decades. In the first years after its foundation, wild animals still roamed there (in 1714, wolves even killed a sentry at his post). And just seven years later, in 1721, the streets of St. Petersburg were already illuminated by about a thousand lanterns. To quickly realize Peter’s plan, the best craftsmen were gathered here, and throughout the country it was forbidden to build stone houses.
* Peter-Pavel's Fortress ( modern look) - architect - Swiss Domenico Giovanni Trezzini, whose name in Russia was Andrei Yakimovich.
The location turned out to be successful, but building on marshy soils was extremely difficult: it was necessary to drive many oak piles under each building.
* Admiralty (modern view)
The Admiralty itself (a building that housed shipyards (a set of structures for the construction and repair of ships), workshops and warehouses - everything extremely important for the construction of ships) was founded in 1704. Master shipbuilders and sailors settled next to him. According to Korobov's project in the late 20s - 30s. XX century The Admiralty building was rebuilt. Just at that very moment, the famous spire appeared on it - the “Admiralty Needle” with a weather vane in the shape of a ship, which served as the main landmark on the left bank of the Neva. The “trident” of the main thoroughfares of the city - Nevsky and Voznesensky Prospekts and Gorokhovaya Street - diverged from the Admiralty, which began to be built up with residential buildings. There, in the fortress was
* Peter and Paul Cathedral (Trezzini)
The cathedral even now looks very unusual for an Orthodox church. The building is dominated not by a dome, but by a sharp bell tower spire. There is also no usual apse (the protrusion on the eastern side where the altar was located). The high bell tower combined so well with the flat, flat landscape that later architects tried to repeat this detail.
Nearby, Peter I founded his first palace, called the Winter Palace. The king hardly lived in it, calling it an “office,” but he visited and worked here every day. We will not be able to see it as it was then, because the Palace was constantly being rebuilt.
In addition to the Admiralty, other enterprises appeared in St. Petersburg. Foundry yard, Sestroretsk arms factory, Mint, Tapestry manufactory, Silk manufactory, Tannery on the Vyborg side, sugar factory, glass factories, grinding and cutting factory and many other factories, factories and manufactories.
* Mint
Later, stone houses for nobles began to be built on Vasilyevsky Island, for example
* Menshikov Palace
Menshikov was an associate of Peter I. His palace often served as a place for ceremonial royal receptions. It was there that the crew of the first foreign ship that arrived at the new port from Holland was honored.
By the mid-20s. Other buildings appeared on Vasilyevsky Island. They still decorate the embankment
* Kunstkamera
The Kunstkamera is the first museum in Russia; (German: Kunstkammer - cabinet of curiosities, museum), or Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography Russian Academy Sci. Possesses unique collection antiquities that reveal the history and life of many peoples. But many people know this museum for its collection of “freaks” - anatomical rarities and anomalies.
* building of the Twelve Colleges
These are unique ministries of the Petrine era. The building consists of 12 identical parts, each part belonged to a separate ministry. The total length of the building was more than 400 meters. The long line of the building was planned to limit the then emerging main square of the city - Kollezhskaya. It never became the main one; after the death of Peter I, the city center was moved beyond Vasilyevsky Island. And at the beginning of the 20th century it ceased to exist altogether, when the Clinical Midwifery Institute was built on its space. The building of the Twelve Collegiums does not face the University Embankment, but only faces it with its end. There is a legend associated with this feature of the building’s location. As if planning to one day leave St. Petersburg, Peter I entrusts Menshikov with the construction of the Twelve Collegium Building along the Neva embankment. It was supposed to be a continuation of the Kunstkamera. And as a reward, Peter allowed Menshikov to use for his palace all the remaining land that would remain to the west of the new building. Menshikov allegedly reasoned that if the house was placed facing the Neva, then he would get very little land. And he decided to place the building not along, but perpendicular to the embankment. Returning from the trip, Peter became furious. Dragging Menshikov by the collar along the entire building, he stopped at each Collegium and beat him with his famous baton.
Slightly upstream of the Neva was located
* Summer Palace
Architects - Domenico Trezzini and Andreas Schlüter. Peter gave the Summer Palace to his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna. He was very proud of the Summer Garden that surrounded this building. Of course, now the garden is completely different. It was dominated not by trees, but by annual herbs and flowers. They were planted in figured flower beds, which formed ornaments similar to carpet patterns. Such parks in Russia were called regular or French, since the fashion for them came from Versailles (the residence of the French kings near Paris), and the flower beds were called parterres (from the French par terre - “on the ground”). The stalls were decorated with marble statues depicting heroes of ancient myths; the statues were brought from Italy. Walking around Summer Garden, visitors could get acquainted with a new form of art for Russia and with ancient mythology.
One of the greatest churches still pleases the eye with its grandeur -
* St. Isaac's Cathedral (French architect Auguste Montferrand)
48 monolithic granite columns 17 meters high were cut down in quarries near Vyborg and transported to St. Petersburg by sea. 128 workers installed each of them using a system of blocks and mechanisms in just 40-45 minutes! Construction technology has never seen anything like this before. It took a very long time to build - 40 years, until the death of the architect. And it was decorated until 1917 (!). Mosaic copies began to appear next to the paintings.
In 1741 ᴦ. Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter I, ascended the throne. During her reign (1741 - 1761), numerous luxurious palaces began to be built again, and artists, both Russian and foreign, were invited to decorate them. During the time of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Baroque style flourished in Russian architecture. Its main representative was an Italian by birth, Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (Bartholomew Varfolomeevich). In 1754-1762. Rastrelli built a new
* Winter Palace
It appeared at approximately the same place where the Winter Palace of Peter I stood. Here is what the architect himself wrote about it: “I built a large Winter Palace in stone, which forms a long rectangle with four facades... This building consists of three floors, except cellars Inside... there is a large courtyard in the middle, which serves as the main entrance for the empress... In addition... to the main courtyard, there are two other smaller ones... The number of all rooms in this palace exceeds four hundred and sixty... At the same time , there is a large church with a dome and an altar... In the corner... of the palace, on the side of the Great Square, a theater with four tiers of boxes was built...” The Winter Palace was the whole city, without leaving which one could pray, watch theatrical performances, and receive foreign ambassadors. This majestic, luxurious building symbolized the glory and power of the empire. Its facades are decorated with columns, which are either crowded together, forming bunches, or more evenly distributed between window and door openings. The columns unite the second and third floors and visually divide the façade into two tiers: the lower, more squat one, and the upper, lighter and more ceremonial. On the roof there are decorative vases and statues that continue the vertical columns against the sky. Part of the premises was a storage facility for one of the first museums in Russia - Hermitage, since 1922 the entire building has become a museum.
And here is another unique structure -
* building of the Academy of Arts
It was built over almost a quarter of a century (1763-1788). The authors of the project were the vice-president and later the rector of the academy, Alexander Filippovich Kokorinov (1726-1772) and the Frenchman Jean Baptiste Michel Vallin-Delamot (1729-1800), who worked in Russia from 1759 to 1775. The purity of classic proportions, the monochromatic façade, on which the play of colors was replaced by the play of chiaroscuro, significantly distinguished this building from Baroque buildings. It is also unique among other buildings of Russian classicism with their colored - green or yellow - walls and white columns. The plan of the academy building is strictly symmetrical, made up of the simplest geometric shapes: the buildings of the building form a square, and the huge courtyard forms a circle. Simplicity and clarity of plans became a characteristic feature of classicist architecture.
Artistic culture of Europe at the end of the 18th century - the first quarter of the 19th century. Romanticism
Romanticism– ideological and artistic direction, established in the era of revolutions, contrasting the old order with the aspiration for freedom, the pathos of personal and civil independence.
Features of romanticism in Western European painting:
· affirmation of the self-worth of a person’s personality;
· depiction of strong passions (emotions);
· spiritualization of nature;
· interest in history, civic position;
· research of the subconscious;
· search for oneself
Caspar David Friedrich- German artist, considered nature (themes - philosophical landscapes) as a huge organism, where man is small and fragile, but part of the world.
* landscape with a rainbow
* Monk by the sea
* On a sailboat
Francisco Goya – spanish painter, engraver.
Famous etchings (French – “nitric acid”, a type of engraving) – “Caprichos” series:
* The sleep of reason gives birth to monsters
* Spun finely
* Execution of rebels
Theodore Gericault- French painter and graphic artist, his work shocked those in power.
* Raft "Jellyfish"
Eugene Delacroix- French painter and graphic artist.
* Freedom leading the people to the barricades
Dante Gabriel Rossetti – Italian artist, poet.
* Annunciation
William Turner- English artist, marine painter.
* Shipwreck
* Blizzard
* Slave ship
* Rain. Steam. Speed
Presentation on the topic: Russian art culture era of enlightenment
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Presentation on the topic: Russian artistic culture of the era of enlightenment
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Now an academician, now a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He was a worker with an all-encompassing soul On the eternal throne. Pushkin expressed in these lines the very essence of the character of the reformer Tsar Peter 1. Whatever business Peter took on, he delved into all its subtleties: with his own hand edited newspapers and translations of books, opened schools, libraries and museums, distributed nobles according to educational institutions. Peter was extremely inquisitive. On his first trip abroad in 1697 -1698 as part of the (great embassy), he was able to see a lot. In Holland he visited museums, hospitals, orphanages, and theaters. Abroad, Peter began collecting works of art and various rarities. Peter was interested in methods of embalming the body, he took part in operations to autopsy corpses. Once noticing that his Russian companions were watching this with disgust, he forced them to tear the muscles and tendons of the body with their teeth. Seeing the engraver's work, the king sat down at a copper board and engraved a picture depicting the triumph of Christianity over Islam. Both sculptural and architectural works of Peter are known.
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Peter had great respect for knowledge and knowledgeable people; he himself studied all his life and demanded this from others. Having not received a systematic education, he nevertheless knew mathematics, navigation, geography, military science well, spoke Dutch, understood French, and German. According to some reports, the tsar perfectly mastered 14 specialties and could build a sea vessel from start to finish with his own hands. In everyday life, Peter loved simplicity and naturalness. He could often be seen in darned stockings and worn-out shoes. The king did not even have a good crew. If necessary, he took it from the famous Moscow dandy Senate Yaguzhinsky. Peter did not have luxurious palaces either. Court celebrations had to be held in the palace of his favorite Menshikov.
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Birthday of the Russian press. At the end of 1702 or the beginning of 1703, an event occurred whose significance is difficult to overestimate: the first issue of the first Russian printed newspaper, Vedomosti, was published. True, the newspaper often changed its name. Back in the 17th century, the newspaper “Chimes” was published in the Kremlin. However, it was handwritten, published in one copy and intended for a narrow circle of readers - the king and his courtiers. In addition, the material for Chimes consists mainly of extracts from foreign newspapers translated into Russian. At first, Vedomosti was published in Moscow. The first Russian newspaper looked little like the modern one. Vedomosti was not published regularly: from 1 to 70 issues per year. In 1708-1710 in Russia they switched to a new font - civil, which, with some changes, is still used to this day. Peter 1 personally selected the final version of the new font. The changed graphics of the letters have made them simpler and clearer.
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The first museum. Under Peter, the first museum appeared - the Kunstkamera, founded in the same year as the public library. At first, its exhibits were ancient objects and rarities collected by the king during his travels abroad. In Danzig he acquired a collection of minerals and shells, and in Amsterdam - preserved animals, fish, snakes and insects. There, from the famous doctor Ruysch, Peter bought a unique anatomical collection of human freaks preserved in alcohol. The collection of the Kunstkamera was also replenished with domestic rarities. The Kunstkamera was first opened to visitors in 1719. The museum is located in a high tower that housed one of the first observatories in Russia.
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The first academy In 1721, Peter signed a decree on the creation of a national academy. The Russian Academy opened after the death of Peter, which united research and teaching departments - a university and a gymnasium, and the academy was supported by the state. The creation of the academy laid the foundation not only for science but also for higher education in Russia. Peter placed education at the forefront of all reforms. Schools were opened in Moscow one after another: navigation, engineering, artillery, medical, and German. Schooling was not easy. The school day lasted 8-9 hours, the holidays were short - Christmas holidays in winter and one month in summer. We studied for 10 years. They used cruel punishments: for skipping classes - rods, for theft, drunkenness, escape - arrest, sending to hard labor.
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Changes in everyday life. Peter sought to instill good manners in the nobles and give them a secular education. The book “An Honest Mirror of Youth, or Indications for Everyday Conduct” became an encyclopedia of cultural behavior. The compiler of this book is unknown; he extracted from foreign sources everything that he considered valuable and useful for Russian readers. Since the beginning of the 18th century, much has changed in both oral and written Russian speech. An appeal to “you”, “dear sir”, “my lord” appeared. During the reign of Peter I, a new Julian calendar. The calendar began to be calculated not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ. The time of day began to be calculated in a new way. Previously, it was customary to divide the day into day and night hours: after sunrise, daytime time began to be counted, and after sunset, evening time was counted in the same way. Clocks were installed: chimes on the Kremlin's Spasskaya Tower in the 17th century. The number of hours in a day became 24. Petrine reforms affected all aspects of Russian life, including culture. Education, science, enlightenment, art, and everyday life developed throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. under the sign of the transformations begun by Peter 1.
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Man and culture of modern times. In the culture of modern times, man dominates. In architecture, the main building has become the house, the palace - the dwelling of a person, in painting the portrait “reigns”, the writer is primarily interested in the person. This was especially evident in literature. Small adventure stories were very popular: “The Story of the Russian Nobleman Frol Skobeev”, “The Story of the Brave Russian Cavalier Alexander” and others. The stories reflect their era and its heroes, who accomplished incredible feats, built new cities, created a developed industry, a strong army, navy, defeated the invincible Swedes, and achieved access to the sea. These people are described in literature, and the faces of many of them can be seen in ancient portraits.
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ROCOCO
Artistic culture of Western Europe in the 18th century. Age of Enlightenment.
Western European culture
The 18th century is one of the most brilliant eras in the history of human culture. This period of European history, located, relatively speaking, between two revolutions - the so-called “glorious revolution” in England (1688-1689) and the Great French Revolution of 1789-1795 - is called the Age of Enlightenment. Indeed, the central phenomenon of cultural and ideological life of the 18th century. The Enlightenment movement came into being. It included political and social ideas - progress, freedom, a fair and reasonable social order, the development of scientific knowledge, and religious tolerance. But it was not a narrow ideological movement of the bourgeoisie directed against feudalism - and only that, as is sometimes claimed. The famous philosopher of the 18th century, the one who was the first to sum up this era, I. Kant, in 1784 dedicated a special article to the Enlightenment, “What is Enlightenment?” and called it “a person’s exit from the state of minority.” The English thinker Locke argued that a person is born a “blank slate” on which any moral, social “writing” can be inscribed; it is only important to be guided by reason. “Age of Reason”, “Age of Criticism”, “Philosophical Age” - this is the common name for the 18th century.
And in this busy time, trends in art are developing: rococo, (neo-) classicism, sentimentalism.
Antoine Watteau(1684-1721). "Gallant festivities" or "gallant scenes"- the main theme of Watteau's work. The landscape here is nature inhabited by humans, more like a park than a forest; the poses and movements of the characters are surprisingly graceful and harmonious. In the development of the plot, the main thing is the communication between a man and a woman, their elegant, silent dialogue: the play of glances, slight hand movements, barely noticeable turns of the head, which speak louder than any words.
* Community in the Park
A year before his death, Watteau created a large painting that was supposed to serve as a sign for an antique shop.
* Signboard of Gersen's shop
When they bought it, they cut it in half. It turned out like two paintings. This is what mastery means - to divide society so precisely that from one canvas two can be obtained without any problems? Its theme is the daily life of a fashionable art store. Visitors look at paintings and antiques, make purchases, and talk with sellers. Watteau surprisingly accurately and completely presented the styles and artistic tastes of the era: the first part depicts cold, pompous classicist works, the second – playful “gallant scenes” and genre painting.
Jean Honore Fragonard. (1732 - 1806) - French painter and engraver. He painted mainly idealistic genres and pastorals, scenes of intimate life with piquant, sometimes shamelessly erotic content, decorative panels, portraits, miniatures, watercolors, and pastels. His works became very fashionable and were bought in great demand at high prices, thanks to which he managed to make good money for himself.
* Sneak kiss
*Pastoral- (French pastorale, pastoral, rural) - a genre in literature, music and theater that poetizes peaceful and simple rural life.
Francois Boucher- fashionable artist, favorite of Madame de Pompadour, creator of the court rocaille. The subjects are pastoral scenes with pseudo-shepherdesses, playful ambiguities, poetic huts, plump beauties disguised as Venuses and Dianas. Contemporaries said about his paintings: “Not painting, but airy cakes.” Shades of pale green, blue; one of the shades of pink is “the color of the thigh of an embarrassed nymph.” Subtle refined forms, lyrically tender coloring, charming gracefulness, even affectation of movements, pretty faces are reminiscent of Watteau’s “gallant scenes”. But Boucher’s feeling of instability and changeability of the situation disappeared. The artist is more interested not in the characters themselves, but in the combination of human figures and landscape, still life.
* Diana's bath
Nicola Lancret- (22.1.1690 - 14.9.1743) - French painter, representative of Rococo art. He was strongly influenced by A. Watteau. In 1719 he was accepted as a member of the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture as a “master of gallant subjects.” Lancret also painted in the spirit of “gallant scenes”, even creating a series of paintings depicting the “Seasons”, which shows not only the weather, but also a variety of games and entertainment.
* Summer
At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. The Middle Ages ended in Russia and the New Age began. Russian art of the 18th century. in just a few decades he was destined to transform from religious to secular, master new genres (for example, portrait, still life and landscape) and discover completely new themes (in particular, mythological and historical). Therefore, styles in art, which in Europe successively replaced each other over the centuries, existed in Russia in the 18th century simultaneously or with a gap of only a few years.
The 18th century in the history of Russian art was a period of apprenticeship. But if in the first half of the 18th century. the teachers of Russian artists were foreign masters, then in the second they could learn from their compatriots and work with foreigners on equal terms. At that time there were almost no major Russian masters. Peter I invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent the most talented young people to study “art” abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. "Peter's pensioners"(students who studied at the expense of state funds - pensions) began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.
Russian art in the second half of the 18th century. developed in parallel with the European one, in which by that time a new style had been established - neoclassicism. But since, unlike the countries of Western Europe, Russia turned to the cultural heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance for the first time, Russian neoclassicism of the 18th century. usually called simply classicism. After only a hundred years, Russia appeared in a renewed form - with a new capital, in which the Academy of Arts was opened; with many art collections that were not inferior to the oldest European collections in scope and luxury.
In order for Russia to strengthen its position on the Baltic Sea, Peter I founded a new capital on the land conquered from the Swedes - Saint Petersburg. Its name then sounded a little different - St. Peter-Burkh, which meant “the fortress of St. Peter” (the Apostle Peter was the heavenly patron of the Russian monarch).
According to the plan of Peter I, first of all it was necessary to build up and populate the islands at the mouth of the Neva. With this layout, the river with its numerous branches and the canals dug later became the main thoroughfares of St. Petersburg, almost like in Venice or Amsterdam (the Russian Tsar took it as a model). Bridges were not deliberately built; Boats were distributed to the townspeople to accustom them to the water element. St. Petersburg was built unusually quickly by European standards, in just a few decades. In the first years after its foundation, wild animals still roamed there (in 1714, wolves even killed a sentry at his post). And just seven years later, in 1721, the streets of St. Petersburg were already illuminated by about a thousand lanterns. To quickly realize Peter’s plan, the best craftsmen were gathered here, and it was forbidden to build stone houses throughout the country.
* Peter and Paul Fortress (modern view)- architect - Swiss Domenico Giovanni Trezzini, whose name in Russia was Andrei Yakimovich.
The location turned out to be successful, but building on marshy soils was extremely difficult: it was necessary to drive many oak piles under each building.
* Admiralty (modern view)
The Admiralty itself (a building that housed shipyards (a set of structures for the construction and repair of ships), workshops and warehouses - everything necessary for the construction of ships) was founded in 1704. Shipbuilders and sailors settled next to it. According to Korobov's project in the late 20s - 30s. XX century The Admiralty building was rebuilt. It was then that the famous spire appeared on it - the “Admiralty Needle” with a weather vane in the shape of a ship, which served as the main landmark on the left bank of the Neva. The “trident” of the main thoroughfares of the city - Nevsky and Voznesensky Prospekts and Gorokhovaya Street - diverged from the Admiralty, which began to be built up with residential buildings. There, in the fortress was
* Peter and Paul Cathedral (Trezzini)
The cathedral even now looks very unusual for an Orthodox church. The building is dominated not by a dome, but by a sharp bell tower spire. There is also no usual apse (the protrusion on the eastern side where the altar was located). The high bell tower combined so well with the flat, flat landscape that later architects tried to repeat this detail.
Nearby, Peter I founded his first palace, called the Winter Palace. The king hardly lived in it, calling it an “office,” but he visited and worked here every day. We will not be able to see it as it was then, because the Palace was constantly being rebuilt.
In addition to the Admiralty, other enterprises appeared in St. Petersburg. Foundry, Sestroretsk Arms Factory, Mint, Trellis Manufactory, Silk Manufactory, Tannery on the Vyborg Side, sugar factory, glass factories, grinding and cutting factory and many other factories, plants and manufactories.
* Mint
Later, stone houses for nobles began to be built on Vasilyevsky Island, for example
* Menshikov Palace
Menshikov was an associate of Peter I. His palace often served as a place for ceremonial royal receptions. It was there that the crew of the first foreign ship that arrived at the new port from Holland was honored.
By the mid-20s. Other buildings appeared on Vasilyevsky Island. They still decorate the embankment
* Kunstkamera
The Kunstkamera is the first museum in Russia; (German: Kunstkammer - cabinet of curiosities, museum), or the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It has a unique collection of antiques that reveal the history and life of many peoples. But many people know this museum for its collection of “freaks” - anatomical rarities and anomalies.
* building of the Twelve Colleges
These are unique ministries of the Petrine era. The building consists of 12 identical parts, each part belonged to a separate ministry. The total length of the building was more than 400 meters. The long line of the building was planned to limit the then emerging main square of the city - Kollezhskaya. It never became the main one; after the death of Peter I, the city center was moved beyond Vasilyevsky Island. And at the beginning of the 20th century it ceased to exist altogether, when the Clinical Midwifery Institute was built on its space. The building of the Twelve Collegiums does not face the University Embankment, but only faces it with its end. There is a legend associated with this feature of the building’s location. As if planning to one day leave St. Petersburg, Peter I entrusts Menshikov with the construction of the Twelve Collegium Building along the Neva embankment. It was supposed to be a continuation of the Kunstkamera. And as a reward, Peter allowed Menshikov to use for his palace all the remaining land that would remain to the west of the new building. Menshikov allegedly reasoned that if the house was placed facing the Neva, then he would get very little land. And he decided to place the building not along, but perpendicular to the embankment. Returning from the trip, Peter became furious. Dragging Menshikov by the collar along the entire building, he stopped at each Collegium and beat him with his famous baton.
Slightly upstream of the Neva was located
* Summer Palace
Architects - Domenico Trezzini and Andreas Schlüter. Peter gave the Summer Palace to his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna. He was very proud of the Summer Garden that surrounded this building. Of course, now the garden is completely different. It was dominated not by trees, but by annual herbs and flowers. They were planted in figured flower beds, which formed ornaments similar to carpet patterns. Such parks in Russia were called regular or French, since the fashion for them came from Versailles (the residence of the French kings near Paris), and the flower beds were called parterres (from the French par terre - “on the ground”). The stalls were decorated with marble statues depicting heroes of ancient myths; the statues were brought from Italy. Walking through the Summer Garden, visitors could get acquainted with a new form of art for Russia and with ancient mythology.
One of the greatest churches still pleases the eye with its grandeur -
* St. Isaac's Cathedral (French architect Auguste Montferrand)
48 monolithic granite columns 17 meters high were cut down in quarries near Vyborg and transported to St. Petersburg by sea. 128 workers installed each of them using a system of blocks and mechanisms in just 40-45 minutes! Construction technology has never seen anything like this before. It took a very long time to build - 40 years, until the death of the architect. And it was decorated until 1917 (!). Mosaic copies began to appear next to the paintings.
In 1741, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter I, ascended the throne. During her reign (1741 - 1761), numerous luxurious palaces began to be built again, and artists, both Russian and foreign, were invited to decorate them. During the time of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Baroque style flourished in Russian architecture. Its main representative was an Italian by birth, Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli (Bartholomew Varfolomeevich). In 1754-1762 Rastrelli built a new
* Winter Palace
It appeared at approximately the same place where the Winter Palace of Peter I stood. Here is what the architect himself wrote about it: “I built a large Winter Palace in stone, which forms a long rectangle with four facades... This building consists of three floors, except cellars Inside... there is a large courtyard in the middle, which serves as the main entrance for the empress... In addition... to the main courtyard, there are two other smaller ones... The number of all rooms in this palace exceeds four hundred and sixty... In addition, there is a large church with with a dome and an altar... In the corner... of the palace, on the side of the Great Square, a theater with four tiers of boxes was built...” The Winter Palace was a whole city, without leaving which one could pray, watch theatrical performances, and receive foreign ambassadors. This majestic, luxurious building symbolized the glory and power of the empire. Its facades are decorated with columns, which are either crowded together, forming bunches, or more evenly distributed between window and door openings. The columns unite the second and third floors and visually divide the façade into two tiers: the lower, more squat one, and the upper, lighter and more ceremonial. On the roof there are decorative vases and statues that continue the vertical columns against the sky. Part of the premises was a storage facility for one of the first museums in Russia - Hermitage, since 1922 the entire building has become a museum.
And here is another unique structure -
* building of the Academy of Arts
It was built over almost a quarter of a century (1763-1788). The authors of the project were the vice-president, and later the rector of the academy, Alexander Filippovich Kokorinov (1726-1772) and the Frenchman Jean Baptiste Michel Vallin-Delamot (1729-1800), who worked in Russia from 1759 to 1775. Purity of classic proportions, single-color facade, in which the play of colors was replaced by the play of chiaroscuro, significantly distinguished this structure from Baroque buildings. It is also unique among other buildings of Russian classicism with their colored - green or yellow - walls and white columns. The layout of the academy building is strictly symmetrical, made up of the simplest geometric shapes: the buildings of the building form a square, and the huge courtyard forms a circle. Simplicity and clarity of plans became a characteristic feature of classicist architecture.
Artistic culture of Europe at the end of the 18th century - the first quarter of the 19th century. Romanticism
Romanticism- an ideological and artistic direction that established itself in the era of revolutions, which contrasted the old order with aspirations for freedom, the pathos of personal and civil independence.
Features of romanticism in Western European painting:
· affirmation of the self-worth of a person’s personality;
· depiction of strong passions (emotions);
· spiritualization of nature;
· interest in history, civic position;
· research of the subconscious;
· search for oneself
Caspar David Friedrich- German artist, considered nature (themes - philosophical landscapes) as a huge organism, where man is small and fragile, but part of the world.
* landscape with a rainbow
* Monk by the sea
* On a sailboat
Francisco Goya- Spanish painter and engraver.
Famous etchings (French – “nitric acid”, a type of engraving) – “Caprichos” series:
* The sleep of reason gives birth to monsters
* Spun finely
* Execution of rebels
Theodore Gericault- French painter and graphic artist, his work shocked those in power.
* Raft "Jellyfish"
Eugene Delacroix- French painter and graphic artist.
* Freedom leading the people to the barricades
Dante Gabriel Rossetti- Italian artist, poet.
* Annunciation
William Turner- English artist, marine painter.
* Shipwreck
* Blizzard
* Slave ship
* Rain. Steam. Speed
