Subject of philosophy developed and changed every historical era due to different levels and societies. Initially, it included knowledge about nature, man and space. For the first time, Aristotle singled it out as a separate one. He defined it as knowledge that is devoid of sensory specifics, knowledge about causes, about essence, about essence.
During the scientific revolution ( end XVI- beginning of the 17th century) specific sciences began to separate from philosophy: mechanics of terrestrial and celestial bodies, astronomy and mathematics, later physics, chemistry, biology, etc. At this time subject of philosophy is the study of the general laws of development of nature and society, human thinking. Philosophy becomes the methodology of scientific knowledge and practical activity.
Object studying modern philosophy is the surrounding world, which is presented as a multi-level system.
There are four subjects for understanding the surrounding reality: Nature (the world around us), Man and Society. These concepts differ from each other in their specific way of existing in the world.
2. Exploring the essence and purpose of man, philosophy examines a person comprehensively, analyzes his capabilities, sensations, spiritual world, social aspect in a person, directs him on the path of self-knowledge, self-improvement and self-realization, determining the directions of activity of a person and society.
3. Considering the “man-world” system, philosophy explores the interaction of man with the world around him, their mutual perception of each other and their influence on each other. In this case, the main attention is paid to the forms and methods of human activity, his ways of knowing and transforming the world.
In general, we see that each of the subjects of philosophy explores its specific area, in connection with which a number of specific features research in one direction or another, a special categorical apparatus. The views of philosophers on each problem under study differ significantly. As a result, differentiation of philosophy arises, individual currents and directions of philosophical thought are determined. Thus, philosophy is a theoretically developed worldview, a system of general categories and theoretical views on the world, the place of man in the world, the definition various forms man's relationship to the world.
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The problem of man is one of the most important for all philosophy. The first ideas about man arose long before the appearance of philosophy itself. People imagined the origin of humanity and its place in the surrounding world in philosophical and religious forms.
Much attention was paid to the problem of man in the ancient Chinese and ancient Indian philosophical traditions. So, for example, the Chinese philosopher Confucius proposed the following ethical principles of behavior for the “ideal person”: humanity, humanity, love for people.
IN ancient philosophy the person was seen as component universe, space. A person’s life gains meaning if he realizes his destiny in space - he follows his destiny. But space also gains meaning because man exists in it. “Man is the measure of all things,” said the ancient Greek sophists.
For the outstanding ancient Greek philosopher Socrates main interest represented inner world person. Socrates' student Plato developed the doctrine of man as a dual being, having a mortal body and an immortal soul. Aristotle wrote that man is a “political” being, that is, existing only in the polis, in the community of people.
Christianity has formed an understanding of the essence of man as a free individual located at the center of world history. History began with the Fall and, according to Christian views, should end with salvation.
During the Renaissance, man is seen as an independent creator of history and the world around him. In modern times, an understanding of man as a subject of knowledge is being formed. Here the extreme of subjectivism becomes possible - the assertion that the world does not exist outside of our perception and idea of it.
In the philosophy of the 20th century. the idea of man as a being whose existence precedes essence is spreading. This means that there are no once and for all defined ideas about what a person should be. Each person, in the course of his life, makes his own choice about how he will be a person.
2 Anthroposocioginesis
Anthroposociogenesis in philosophy is the process of transition from a spontaneous form of development of matter (also called biological) to a more complex - social form, which indicates the transformation of an animal into a more developed species - a person. This phenomenon is observed already in the early stages, when humanoid animals united in primitive societies. From a philosophical point of view, one can consider anthropogenesis as the formation of a person, that is, the gradual formation of his mental structure, which is not something abstract, inherent exclusively to an individual. This design is a combination of all existing public relations, which means it is the property of the species.
The driving force of anthroposociogenesis in philosophy is the development and improvement of human production activities. Having once appeared, production activity began to require the emergence of thinking, that is, it made inevitable the emergence of will, and later - language, which gave rise to social and production relations. Two parties inextricably linked in this process are the mutation of the human ancestor into a directly human being, which is called anthropogenesis . The other side is the transformation of the association of animals as a biological necessity into a society called human - this is sociogenesis. The process of anthroposociogenesis in philosophy began about two million years ago and ended about forty thousand years ago. According to archaeological periodization this stage was called the Early Paleolithic. Those who are today called late pre-humans gradually moved from the use of tools given by nature to the independent manufacture and use of tools.
Spirituality- this is the nature of man himself. Spirituality is the thinking, consciousness, and will of a person; it is a single holistic flow that makes up the peculiarity of a person. Man is closely connected with the universe. Spirituality is something that is absent in nature. We develop and create it ourselves through personal development and self-awareness. Human spirituality is connected with the highest spiritual plane of existence. And the spirituality of man lies in the fact that he is the image and likeness of the Creator. When human spirituality comes into a state of disharmony with its prototype, this entails spiritual and moral illnesses, spiritual and moral death. Spirituality is life in the “here and now” and a complete feeling of life with your whole being! A distinctive feature of a spiritual person is his balance and integrity, sincerity, complete harmony with himself and the world in which such a person lives. Spirituality is a state of personality, which is expressed in the harmony of man and the Cosmos and gives a feeling of unity with the surrounding world, nature, and people. Spirituality gives meaning to our lives. In it we find answers to questions about the meaning of life, about the criteria of good and evil, truth and error. Spirituality gives us access to love, conscience, a sense of duty, to a sense of justice and statehood, to art, science and religion, and indicates what is most important and most valuable in life. A person’s spirituality is understood as his ability to distinguish between life priorities and values, and to subordinate his actions, behavior, and way of life to them. A spiritual person will never be unfair, knowing that he has more opportunities than others, he will try to help them, support them, setting an example. Spirituality is the highest asset of the human soul, the heart of the individual.
The problem of the meaning of human life
In considering the issue, it is appropriate to identify how this problem was considered in different eras. A number of interpreters of the problem tried to reduce the importance of the intrinsic value of human life by calling for self-denial and sacrifice in the name of future generations. But a person should be happy not in someone else’s life, but in his own life. Happy not at the expense of others and not to the detriment of others. The essence of the problem is succinctly expressed in the form of the question: “Why live?” There is, writes the French philosopher A. Camus, only one fundamental question of philosophy. It is a question of whether life is or is not worth living. Everything else - whether the world has three dimensions, whether the mind is guided by nine or twelve categories - is secondary. Among the many approaches to solving this complex problem, several can be highlighted. Adherents of the philosophy of hedonism and eudaimonism, today, like many centuries ago, claim as the meaning of life and its highest goal: the first is the achievement of maximum pleasure, the second is the achievement of happiness. Proponents of utilitarianism believe that achieving profit, benefit, and success is precisely the meaning of human life. Proponents of pragmatism argue that the goal of life justifies any means to achieve it. The modern Christian Orthodox tradition proclaims: “man has no boundaries to his human nature.” If God is a free spiritual person, then man must become the same. Man always has the opportunity to become more and more godlike. Not remaking the world on the basis of good, but cultivating substantial good in oneself. The perfection of human nature within the nature of God turns out to be a source of joy and freedom. Supporters of materialistic ideas believe that the development of man and humanity is determined by their internal logic of self-development. The purpose of man has nothing to do with some world mind, absolute or god. In the materialistic tradition, the meaning of life is seen in the self-development of man, in the improvement of his essential strengths, abilities and needs. This process is conditioned by previous development and has a specific historical real content. Therefore, the category “meaning of life” can be defined as a regulatory concept inherent in any developed worldview system, which justifies and interprets the moral norms and values inherent in this system, shows in the name of which the prescribed activity is necessary. The meaning of life is a philosophical category that reflects a long-term, stable task that has become an internal conviction of an individual, has social and personal value, and is realized in its social activities. This task is determined by the system of social relations, the goals and interests of society and the free choice of the individual. It is impossible to find the meaning of life for all times and peoples, since, along with universal, eternal truths, it includes something specific - the aspirations of people of each given era. The meaning of life is revealed to each person differently. The content of the purpose of life changes not only depending on the historical conditions of a person’s existence, but also on his age characteristics: in youth the goals are the same, in maturity and old age they are different. Only we ourselves, consciously or spontaneously, intentionally or involuntarily, by the very ways of our being, give it meaning and, thereby, choose and create our human essence. “Only us and no one else,” he writes in his book “Time human existence"talented philosopher N.N. Trubnikov. The meaning of life is an independent conscious choice of those values that (according to E. Fromm) orient a person not to have (the attitude of having), but to be (the attitude of using all human potentials). while improving oneself, improve the world around oneself. These general ideas about the meaning of life must be transformed into the meaning of life for each individual person, determined by objective circumstances and his individual qualities.
When discussing the first question “Man as an object philosophical analysis“It should be said that the problem of man as a unique creation of the Universe belongs to the “eternal” philosophical problems, since any philosophical tradition, at the core of its content, has the relationship of man to the world. We pose the questions: “Who is man, what is his essence, characteristics, functions? ", "What is a person?", "Who am I?". This problem is difficult and complex, and the solution is very important both for the individual in his life and for society. According to the French thinker B. Pascal, "the most incomprehensible phenomenon of nature is man" The 20th century did not bring clarity. Man still remains a mystery in the world and may be the “greatest mystery.”
If we take into account that many sciences study man in his various forms: biology, medicine, sociology, etc., then only philosophy studies man from the point of view of his integrity, in the unity of his biosocial essence. The problem of man is central to all philosophical movements throughout their history.
What images of man have existed in the history of philosophical thought?
In ancient philosophical thought, man was viewed primarily as a part of the cosmos, as a kind of microcosm, subordinate to a higher principle in his human manifestations, therefore we can say that the image of man in ancient philosophy is cosmocentric.
In the system of the Christian worldview, man began to be perceived as a being in which two hypostases were initially inextricably and contradictorily connected: spirit and body, qualitatively opposite friend to a friend as the sublime and the base. The medieval image of man is geocentric, and not cosmocentric, as in antiquity. A person does not believe in himself, he believes in God. His eyes are turned to the other world. Christianity put forward a different one instead of the reason of antiquity main feature a person's heart and the main sign of humanity is love. However, this is not the love of a person for another person, but the love for God.
Renaissance philosophy(Renaissance) analyzes man as an autonomous being, as a living integrity. In this era, humanism and anthropocentrism emerge, glorifying man as the highest value. A person is a value.
Philosophy of the New Age focuses on the spiritual essence of man. Man is a rational and moral being, capable of creative development, knowledge of the secrets of the laws of nature and the active use of this knowledge in practically transformative activities. The image of man in the New Age is anthropocentric. God shifts to the background of human life. The person now believes in himself. Main sphere human activity in the era of modern knowledge, the main thing is rationalism, which laid the foundation for experimental science.
The world is governed by laws corresponding to the laws of the human mind.
German philosophy, represented by Hegel, develops the idea of the historicity of man. For him, a person is a bearer of a universally significant spirit, a subject of cognitive and historical activity, creating the world of culture.
L. Feuerbach considers man as a sensory-physical being.
In the philosophy of Marxism, man was considered, however, not only as a natural being, but also as a social being living in society. Society, on the one hand, is created by man, on the other, it shapes man and socializes him.
The irrationalistic idea of the essence of man became most widespread in the 20th century.
“Philosophy of Life” (Nietzsche, Bergson) brings will and intuition to the fore. Consciousness is often contrasted with the unconscious.
Freud elevates the unconscious over consciousness. He sees the origins of religion, culture, and everything human in the unconscious.
Phenomenology (Husserl) strives to overcome the isolation of the individual and believes that experiences are initially aimed at the outside world.
A surge in the study of the human problem occurred at the beginning of the 20th century (works of M. Scheler, H. Plesner, A. Gehlen). Under the influence of their ideas, philosophical anthropology becomes a special discipline.
Existentialists (Sartre, Camus) try to “save man,” isolating him from life, from those real connections that a person has with the world of nature and society. Fear, melancholy and despair pushes him away from being, a person withdraws into himself, in in your loneliness.
In Ukrainian and Russian philosophical tradition anthropological motives have always been leading, determining the specificity and character of all spiritual life (G.S. Skovoroda, V.S. Solovyov, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.D. Tolstoy, N.A. Berdyaev, etc.).
Modern Ukrainian philosophers (V.I. Shinkaruk, M.V. Popovich, V.G. Tabachkovsky) preserve and develop the anthropological direction, exploring current human problems.
At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. the problem of man becomes central to philosophical knowledge. There is a keen attention to what in philosophy is called “existential problems”, questions about the meaning of life and value human existence. On the contrary, interest in ontology and epistemology as parts of philosophical knowledge is noticeably decreasing. Why is this happening?
The problem of man acquires particular relevance in those periods in the development of history when the question of the meaning of life arises and the existence of not only an individual person, but also the entire society. It is precisely this period that both domestic and world history is going through.
The term "anthropology" means the study of man, and philosophical anthropology, accordingly, philosophical doctrine about man, or philosophy of man.
Philosophical anthropology direction, engaged in the study of man, his nature and essence.
Discussing the second question, “The problem of the origin of man, his essence and existence. The meaning of life as a function of human existence. Death and immortality,” one should pay attention to the fact that philosophy, defining the essence of man, argues that man is a rational being, that he is a subject of labor , social relations and communication of people with each other, i.e. social beings. Conscious life activity directly distinguishes a person from... animal life. The question arises of how the formation of man as a rational, social and active being took place. Theories explaining the origin of man as biological species, are called theories of anthropogenesis, and theories about the development of man as an intelligent, social being are called anthroposociogenesis.
Essence of Man- this is the totality of its social qualities, conditioned by the specific historical situation (see diagram 76).
As a phenomenon, man is richer than essence; he is a biopsychosocial being. Its essence must be considered in interaction with action. The first means his relatively stable main quality, the second means his ways of life, changing depending on the circumstances. At the individual level, a person is a unity of three components:
- - biological (anatomical and physiological inclinations, type nervous system, sexual and age characteristics and so on.);
- - mental (feelings, imagination, memory, thinking, will, character, etc.);
- - social (worldview, values, moral traits, knowledge and skills, etc.). Man is a representative of Homo sapiens, genetically related to other forms of life, endowed with reason, reflection, speech, and the ability to create tools. He is a unique being (open to the world, inimitable, spiritually incomplete), universal (morphologically capable of any type of activity), holistic (integrates the physical, mental and spiritual principles). A person is a living system (see diagram 77).
The philosophical problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in human nature is not abstract, but is located at the intersection of many modern debates. So, for example, the following question: “Are the characteristics of female and male behavior, psyche and thinking determined biologically or socially?” In modern philosophy, sociology and cultural studies there is the concept of “tender”. If the concept of “sex” captures the biological and physiological differences between a man and a woman, then “gender” describes the social and cultural differences between the sexes, not inherited, but acquired in society.
Gender- social, cultural gender. A concept that characterizes the behavior of men and women, which is not genetically inherited, but acquired through the process of socialization. -
To find out the essence of a person, it is necessary, first of all, to find out the concepts that reflect his essence. The problem of man lies in the contradictory unity of his biosocial characteristics. Here it is necessary to clearly distinguish between such concepts as “person”, “individual”, “personality”, “individuality”.
We use the diagram (see diagram 78).
Human- the highest stage of development of living organisms on Earth, the subject of labor, social form life, communication and consciousness.
Human- a representative of a biological species, but a special species, for which culture has become a means of adaptation to the environment.
Human- a concept that characterizes the qualities and abilities inherent in the entire human race (both biological and social).
In philosophy, another concept is used to characterize a person - “individual”.
Individual- a term denoting an individual person as a representative and bearer of the human race, this is a set of biological generic characteristics of a person (we are born as an individual).
But a genuine person(possessing consciousness, abstract thinking, speech, human feelings, capable of work) we become under the influence of society, interaction with other people, under the influence of social factors.
Life, development, education in society is the main condition for the normal development of a person, the development in him of precisely human qualities, psyche and behavior, transformation into a personality. For characteristics spiritual origin The concept of personality has been used for many centuries.
Personality- a concept denoting a person as a representative of society, the totality of a person’s spiritual properties, his inner spiritual content. One of the main characteristics of a person is his independence in decision-making and responsibility for their results. The core of the personality structure is the worldview as a property of a social and thinking being. Worldview is formed through a person’s awareness of objective reality, as well as as a result of the individual’s self-awareness.
Ideas about the perfect person in different cultures become interesting. To do this, let's look at historical personality types.
Reflections on the perfect man have always been important topic philosophical and anthropological research. But different cultures placed their own emphasis on the main qualities of a perfect person:
- - in ancient Chinese philosophy, the ideal of a “noble husband” included the highest moral qualities, humanity, mercy, perseverance, respect for people, modesty and selflessness (Confucianism);
- - in ancient Indian philosophy, a perfect person comprehends the “own nature” of the world, fulfills his duty, his karma;
- - in antiquity, a perfect person is a person who lives according to law and justice; a perfect personality or “kalokagathia” is a harmonious combination of sublime morality, external and internal beauty with socio-political maturity (Aristotle). A person endowed with health, a proportional physique, graceful movements, strength, the ability for creativity, for moral self-improvement, having abandoned external goods and delved into himself, has peace of mind, wisdom;
- - in the Middle Ages, a perfect person has a perfect rational soul, striving to follow God's commandments;
- - in the Renaissance, a perfect person is endowed with a penchant for goodness and love, for establishing highly moral interpersonal relationships, capable of valuing other people’s life and dignity above all else (T. More);
- - in the Age of Enlightenment, the ideal of a person is a humane, virtuous, reasonable and enlightened person who follows the laws. “Bullets to virtues through the improvement of laws” (Helvetius);
- - in German classical philosophy a perfect person is the unity of spiritual and physical perfection, comprehensive, perfect educated person(L. Feuerbach);
- - in modern philosophical literature, a perfect person is a harmonious unity of feeling and reason: justice, humanity, responsiveness, patriotism, love for the Motherland, God, people.
It is noted that the formation of a perfect person is directly related to the improvement of the social environment in which he develops.
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that individuality and personality fix different aspects of social significant qualities person.
In individuality, its originality is valued, in personality - independence, independence, strength. Socialization of the individual is the process of forming the social qualities of a person.
Individuality indicates the uniqueness of socially significant qualities.
Individuality- a concept that expresses the unique originality of a person and his differences from others.
Realizing yourself as an individual, distinguishing yourself from environment, a person involuntarily comes to the thought: why does he live, what is the meaning of his existence. The question of the meaning of life is the question of whether life is worth living? And if it’s still worth it, then what is there to live for? Awareness of the meaning of life as its main value is historical in nature. Each era, to one degree or another, influenced the understanding of the meaning of human life. Let's look at the table (see Table 4).
Table 4
Understanding the meaning of life is diverse. Let's look at some of them:
- - the meaning of life is in love, in the pursuit of the good of what is outside of man, in the desire for harmony and unity of people (L.N. Tolstoy);
- - the meaning of life is to achieve the human ideal;
- - the meaning of life is to contribute as much as possible to the solution social development And comprehensive development personality (Marxism);
- - meaning is in the struggle (V. Belinsky, P. Beaumarchais);
- - in action, in motion (J.-J. Rousseau);
- - in improving oneself and society (I. G. Fichte);
- - in serving society (N.S. Leskov);
- - in enriching humanity with knowledge (D. Diderot);
- - the meaning of life is in its aesthetic side, in achieving what is majestic, beautiful and strong in it, in achieving superhuman greatness (Nietzsche).
To determine the meaning of life there are different approaches, which form different concepts. Let's consider them by referring to the diagram (see diagram 79).
Meaning of life- this is the choice of each individual person. This is an independent conscious choice of those values that (according to E. Fromm) orient a person not towards having (an attitude towards possession), but towards being (an attitude towards using all human potential).
In other words, the meaning of human life is in the self-realization of the individual, in the human need to create, give, share with others, sacrifice oneself for the sake of others. We can say that the mission of human life is to reveal one’s potential, to be able to find an opportunity for self-realization, to “put into circulation” one’s talents.
Of course these general ideas about the meaning of life must be transformed into the meaning of life for each individual person.
The question of the meaning of life arises only when we realize our mortality. The finitude of human existence is a natural law of nature. What has no death has no birth. Thus, already in ancient Greek society, an idea was formed about the value of the life of each individual individual, the finiteness of his life in time. As A. Schopenhauer wrote, “people might not even begin to philosophize if there were no death.” Death, therefore, acts as the “inspiration” of philosophy. Only the fact of death raises the question of the meaning of life. Life in this world has meaning precisely because there is death.
There are two most common polar points of view on death:
- 1. Death as a negation of the future, therefore, neither the past nor the future has meaning. Hence the conclusion is drawn: take from the present everything that you can take.
- 2. Death as a transition from the past to eternity. To live, according to V. Frankl, means to create for eternity. Realizing this, a person must make the most of all his abilities and time in order to make his feasible contribution to history, thereby enriching the future. Therefore, death, like life, has meaning.
The philosophical meaning of death is that it is a moment of renewal, first of all, of the organic world, and then of the whole world. Death is a natural phenomenon and has played a useful and necessary role in the course of long biological evolution. Indeed, without death, which made the progress of organic species possible, man would never have appeared at all. If there were no death, man would not think about eternity, would not “measure” himself against it, hoping for his own immortality. If there were no death, there would be no immortality, which owes its existence to it.
The Chinese philosopher Yang Zhu (c. 440-360 BC) said that death equals everyone: “In life there are differences - these are the differences between smart and stupid, noble and low. In death there is identity - this is the identity of stench and decay , disappearance and destruction... The ten-year-old and the hundred-year-old die; the virtuous and the wise die; the wicked and the foolish die.” Death also has a moral and philosophical meaning. Awareness of the frailty of one’s life forces a person to find or give it meaning. A person’s doom to death can become an incentive to do good to people in order to leave a bright memory for posterity, to “spur” a person to finish the work he has started, especially if it is a manifestation of artistic or philosophical creativity. The moral paradox of life and death can be expressed in the ethical imperative: treat the living as if you were dying, treat the dead as if you were alive, that is, always remember death as the secret of life, always affirm in both life and death eternal life.
A person is immortal and eternal as a spiritual being only when he feels like a spiritual being, when the spirit and spirituality that control his natural, bodily elements prevail in him. Immortality is won by the individual and is a struggle for the individual.
When discussing the issue of values, the problem of choice and free will, it should be noted that these are important philosophical issues that are dealt with by philosophical anthropology.
Value- this is an individual’s attitude towards an object, event or phenomenon as important, significant for a person.
The doctrine of values and their nature is called axiology.
In ancient philosophy, goodness and justice were considered the main values. Thus, Aristotle divided values into absolute (humanity, goodness, justice, courage, etc.) and relative - depending on gender, age, character, etc.
Medieval values were such religious values as piety, the achievement of divine truth, etc.
The Renaissance is marked by the values and ideals of humanism.
The German philosopher Kant substantiated that the highest value is a person, who must always be considered as an end and never as a means. The goals facing a person can also be values. The great German philosopher Hegel divided values into economic (those that are goods) and spiritual, associated with freedom of spirit and independent of market conditions.
For a person as a natural, bodily being, the highest value is his life itself, or the value of life, or life as a value. The second of the highest values is health. The third of the highest value orientations is freedom.
Personal freedom is the ability to act in accordance with one’s desires and intentions. The condition for personal freedom is the ability to choose one or another goal, one or another method of activity.
The condition for personal freedom is the ability to choose, which in the history of philosophy has been considered from different positions:
- - determinism;
- - indeterminism;
- - alternativeism.
Representatives of determinism believed that in every situation of choice there is only one real possibility, which determines the choice itself. The remaining possibilities are only formal. The extreme manifestation of determinism is fatalism - a worldview based on the thesis of the absolute primordial predetermination of all human views and actions. Fatalism thus denies any possibility of choice. The real path is only the one that is predetermined either by a dark irrational fate, or blown by God, or by an inexorable combination of circumstances, the establishment of a strict cause-and-effect relationship.
Supporters of another point of view of indeterminism- believe that a person has many possibilities and a person is completely free to choose one of them, without any coercion from the outside.
An extreme version of indeterminism is voluntarism, a direction of philosophy that recognizes human will as the supreme principle of existence. In socio-political practice, voluntarism does not take into account objective laws historical development, but is guided only by subjective desires and aspirations.
Third point of view- , recognizing that in every choice there are necessarily at least two (otherwise it will be a choice without choice) real possibilities.
S. Montesquieu defined freedom as “the right to do everything that is permitted by law,” and the German poet M. Claudius believed that “freedom lies in the right to do everything that does not harm others.”
Back in the 17th century, the philosopher Spinoza defined freedom as a conscious necessity. Hegel revealed the dialectical unity of freedom and necessity. In the 20th century, the relationship between freedom and responsibility came to the fore. Human freedom, according to Sartre, consists of the right to choose one’s attitude towards the current situation: a person is free to either come to terms with his dependence on the surrounding reality, or to rebel against it. A person shows freedom not so much in the fact that he can change the world, but first of all in the fact that he can change his attitude towards the world, he can make a choice of every action, free choice your destiny. The choice in each situation depends on the values and goals of the person, and the person chooses the values himself.
Basic concepts and terms
Axiology- philosophical doctrine about values and their nature.
Tender- social, cultural gender. A concept that characterizes the behavior of men and women, which is not genetically inherited, but acquired through the process of socialization.
Individual- this is a specific person as a representative and bearer of the human race, this is a set of biological generic characteristics of a person.
Individuality- the unique identity of a person
Personality- an individual person with certain character traits, individual abilities and inclinations.
Morality- a set of views, ideas, norms and assessments of people’s behavior in society from the point of view of good, evil, justice, injustice, honor and dishonor.
Fatalism- believes that in human history everything is predetermined by fate, that a person is not able to influence the destined course of events.
Value- a relationship between a subject and an object, in which the properties of the object are assessed in accordance with the value orientations of the subject.
Value orientations these are the political, philosophical, ideological, moral attitudes and beliefs of the subject.
Human- a concept that characterizes a living being (homo sapiens) showing that or any other degree of reasonableness.
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7. Man as a subject of philosophy
Man becomes the subject of philosophy in such a philosophical discipline as philosophical anthropology, which studies man, his specificity in comparison with other living beings, his place in the universe (world), the peculiarities of his existence and worldview. Unlike cultural anthropology, which studies the lifestyle and consciousness of people of specific cultures, philosophical anthropology focuses its attention on the basic features of man as a species. At the same time, it can and does include the study of man as an individual, as a subject of unique experiences (existential problems).
It must be borne in mind that philosophical anthropology was formed as an independent section around the 18th century, but elucidating the specifics of man is the leading task of all philosophizing. Behind epistemological (cognitive-theoretical), ontological, socio-philosophical searches there are always main questions, which Immanuel Kant formulated very well in his system of philosophical anthropology: What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? These three questions, according to Kant, are reducible and contained in the last, fourth question: What is a person?
Philosophical anthropology seeks to understand and poses the following problems:
What is the position of man in the world, what place does he occupy in the hierarchy of things and beings? Is man a random excess of soulless nature, or is he involved in higher powers? He is only a small partial fragment of the universe, or he is a microcosm ( small space), a mirror of the world as a whole?
What is the nature and essence of man? How is he different from animals?
Does what we call freedom exist, and to what extent is a person free? What types of necessity dominate him and can he overcome them?
Is a person a rational being or a being guided by inclinations and passions? What are the capabilities of the mind and what is the extent of the influence of the unconscious on our thinking and behavior.
What is death, how should a person treat it?
What is the meaning of life? Does each of us have a specific purpose and how can we “become ourselves”?
What real place What do love, justice, courage and other most important spiritual values occupy in human life?
There is no final and comprehensive answer to any of these questions. People of each new era give their answers, rethinking their own position in the world. Based on the above, it is necessary to answer the key question for anthropological research: what is the place of man in the world?
The first answer was characteristic of the period of antiquity - this is a cosmocentric answer. It meant that the Cosmos - the world order - is a living, corporeal whole, and man is a microcosm, a small model of a single animate universe.
The second answer is theocentric. It is typical of the Middle Ages. At the origins of history stands a single Creator God, who created the world out of nothing. Man is created in the image and likeness of God; he, like the creator, is endowed with free will. However, man is sinful because he has resisted the will of the creator. God is the provider and judge of all human affairs.
The third answer is anthropocentric. It has dominated philosophy from the beginning of modern times to the present day. Anthropocentrism comes from the fact that we don’t really know anything in the world except ourselves, and we look at the whole world only through the prism of our own human needs and interests. Anthropocentrism elevates a person, but it is fraught with subjectivism, practical and cognitive self-isolation.
The question of the nature of man - also one of the central ones in philosophical anthropology - is the question of his empirical (natural) difference from all other living beings, and the question of his essence is the question of those deep qualities that determine his specificity and are externally manifested in traits inherent in "nature".
Human nature is deeply contradictory, so man is always a mystery to himself. On the one hand, man is a physical, bodily being, subject to all the laws of biology and physiology. He is captured by desires, unconscious impulses are strong in him, he is dominated by instincts and passions, he easily falls into fear and anger. Being, as it were, a “thing among things,” a person is determined by his past (biology).
On the other hand, human nature shows us consciousness, rationality, the ability to clearly understand and comprehend circumstances. A person can cognize the objective characteristics of reality, even if they do not directly respond to his biological needs. Man demonstrates the ability to be moral, to rise above his natural inclinations, and to make free choices. Then it turns out that he is not completely subordinate to the past, and does not resemble a “thing”. Consciousness, reason and freedom are inherent in human nature. A person builds a biography on top of biology.
It is this duality that has always forced philosophers to search for the essence of man, distinguishing him as a special being from the biophysical manifestations of his nature. There are three possible options solutions to this problem.
1. The essence of man is spiritual. This version is typical for all religious and esoteric (secret) teachings. According to it, the true self of a person has no relation to the empirical world. Thus, in accordance with Christianity, God endows man with the unity of spirit and soul, capable of rising above instincts and bodily demands, as well as above any temptations of material life. Man is spiritual and therefore capable of dominion over the flesh. In accordance with esoteric teachings, the true “I” of a person - a spiritual monad (unit) - simply changes from life to life different bodies, which serve only as a means for self-improvement.
2. The essence of man is the mind. This version was formed in the New Age (rationalism). It assumes that the mind is a special independent authority (spirit) and man differs from animals precisely in his mind - the ability to think logically, to know himself and the world. Reason allowed man to stand out from the animal kingdom, using the forces of nature itself, and it is also the key to future happiness and progress in society.
3. The essence of a person is objective-active, sociocultural. The works of Karl Marx played a decisive role in the approval of this version. Man appears here as a being who does not passively adapt to nature, but actively adapts nature to his own needs. He remakes it into labor process, sets more and more new goals, creates a “second, humanized nature” - the world of culture. In work, transforming the surrounding reality, a person manifests himself as reasonable and free, for he creates “by the standards of any kind, including according to the laws of beauty.” Being a working being, man is also a social being. He cannot work outside of communication. The conquest of nature and its transformation into culture is associated with the constant interaction of people, with the formation of social groups. Therefore, the essence of man is “the totality of all social relations.” It is not the biological traits of a person that determine the most essential thing in him, but his social - group affiliation.
Man becomes the subject of philosophy in such a philosophical discipline as philosophical anthropology, which studies man, his specificity in comparison with other living beings, his place in the universe (world), the peculiarities of his existence and worldview. Unlike cultural anthropology, which studies the lifestyle and consciousness of people of specific cultures, philosophical anthropology focuses its attention on the basic features of man as a species. At the same time, it can and does include the study of man as an individual, as a subject of unique experiences (existential problems).
It must be borne in mind that philosophical anthropology was formed as an independent section around the 18th century, but elucidating the specifics of man is the leading task of all philosophizing. Behind epistemological (cognitive-theoretical), ontological, socio-philosophical searches there are always main questions, which Immanuel Kant formulated very well in his system of philosophical anthropology: What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? These three questions, according to Kant, are reducible and contained in the last, fourth question: What is a person?
Philosophical anthropology seeks to understand and poses the following problems:
What is the position of man in the world, what place does he occupy in the hierarchy of things and beings? Is man a random excess of soulless nature, or is he involved in higher powers? Is he only a small partial fragment of the universe, or is he a microcosm (small cosmos), a mirror of the world as a whole?
What is the nature and essence of man? How is he different from animals?
Does what we call freedom exist, and to what extent is a person free? What types of necessity dominate him and can he overcome them?
Is a person a rational being or a being guided by inclinations and passions? What are the capabilities of the mind and what is the extent of the influence of the unconscious on our thinking and behavior.
What is death, how should a person treat it?
What is the meaning of life? Does each of us have a specific purpose and how can we “become ourselves”?
What real place do love, justice, courage and other important spiritual values occupy in human life?
There is no final or comprehensive answer to any of these questions. People of each new era give their answers, rethinking their own position in the world. Based on the above, it is necessary to answer the key question for anthropological research: what is the place of man in the world?
The first answer was characteristic of the period of antiquity - this is a cosmocentric answer. It meant that the Cosmos - the world order - is a living, corporeal whole, and man is a microcosm, a small model of a single animate universe.
The second answer is theocentric. It is typical of the Middle Ages. At the origins of history stands a single Creator God, who created the world out of nothing. Man is created in the image and likeness of God; he, like the creator, is endowed with free will. However, man is sinful because he has resisted the will of the creator. God is the provider and judge of all human affairs.
The third answer is anthropocentric. It has dominated philosophy from the beginning of modern times to the present day. Anthropocentrism comes from the fact that we don’t really know anything in the world except ourselves, and we look at the whole world only through the prism of our own human needs and interests. Anthropocentrism elevates a person, but it is fraught with subjectivism, practical and cognitive self-isolation.
The question of the nature of man - also one of the central ones in philosophical anthropology - is the question of his empirical (natural) difference from all other living beings, and the question of his essence is the question of those deep qualities that determine his specificity and are externally manifested in traits inherent in "nature".
Human nature is deeply contradictory, so man is always a mystery to himself. On the one hand, man is a physical, bodily being, subject to all the laws of biology and physiology. He is captured by desires, unconscious impulses are strong in him, he is dominated by instincts and passions, he easily falls into fear and anger. Being, as it were, a “thing among things,” a person is determined by his past (biology).
On the other hand, human nature shows us consciousness, rationality, the ability to clearly understand and comprehend circumstances. A person can cognize the objective characteristics of reality, even if they do not directly respond to his biological needs. Man demonstrates the ability to be moral, to rise above his natural inclinations, and to make free choices. Then it turns out that he is not completely subordinate to the past, and does not resemble a “thing”. Consciousness, reason and freedom are inherent in human nature. A person builds a biography on top of biology.
It is this duality that has always forced philosophers to search for the essence of man, distinguishing him as a special being from the biophysical manifestations of his nature. There are three possible solutions to this problem.
1. The essence of man is spiritual. This version is typical for all religious and esoteric (secret) teachings. According to it, the true self of a person has no relation to the empirical world. Thus, in accordance with Christianity, God endows man with the unity of spirit and soul, capable of rising above instincts and bodily demands, as well as above any temptations of material life. Man is spiritual and therefore capable of dominion over the flesh. In accordance with esoteric teachings, the true “I” of a person - a spiritual monad (unit) - simply changes from life to life different bodies, which serve only as a means for self-improvement.
2. The essence of man is the mind. This version was formed in the New Age (rationalism). It assumes that the mind is a special independent authority (spirit) and man differs from animals precisely in his mind - the ability to think logically, to know himself and the world. Reason allowed man to stand out from the animal kingdom, using the forces of nature itself, and it is also the key to future happiness and progress in society.
3. The essence of a person is objective-active, sociocultural. The works of Karl Marx played a decisive role in the approval of this version. Man appears here as a being who does not passively adapt to nature, but actively adapts nature to his own needs. He remakes it in the labor process, sets more and more new goals, creates a “second, humanized nature” - the world of culture. In work, transforming the surrounding reality, a person manifests himself as reasonable and free, for he creates “by the standards of any kind, including according to the laws of beauty.” Being a working being, man is also a social being. He cannot work outside of communication. The conquest of nature and its transformation into culture is associated with the constant interaction of people, with the formation of social groups. Therefore, the essence of man is “the totality of all social relations.” It is not the biological traits of a person that determine the most essential thing in him, but his social - group affiliation.
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