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Progress is the progressive movement of humanity towards one highest reasonable goal, towards the ideal of good worthy of universal desire.

The idea of ​​social progress is a product of the New Age. This means that it was at this time that the idea of ​​the progressive, upward development of society took root in people’s minds and began to shape their worldview. There was no such idea in antiquity. The ancient worldview, as is known, was cosmocentric in nature. This means that the man of antiquity was coordinated in relation to nature and the cosmos. And man had to find his place in this eternal cosmos, and not in history.

The idea of ​​social progress was established during the Enlightenment. This era raises the shield of reason, knowledge, science, human freedom and from this angle evaluates history, contrasting itself with previous eras, where, in the opinion of the enlighteners, ignorance and despotism prevailed. The Enlightenmentists in a certain way understood the era of their time (as the era of “enlightenment”), its role and significance for man, and through the prism of so-understood modernity they viewed the past of mankind. The contrast between modernity, interpreted as the advent of the era of reason, and the past of humanity contained, of course, a gap between the present and the past, but as soon as an attempt was made to restore the historical connection between them on the basis of reason and knowledge, the idea of ​​an upward movement in history immediately arose, about progress. The development and dissemination of knowledge was considered as a gradual and cumulative process. The accumulation of scientific knowledge that occurred in modern times served as an indisputable model for such a reconstruction of the historical process for the enlighteners. The mental formation and development of an individual, an individual, also served as a model for them: when transferred to humanity as a whole, it gave the historical progress of the human mind.

Progress (from the Latin progressus - movement forward) is a direction of development that is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect. The credit for putting forward the idea and developing the theory of social progress belongs to the philosophers of the second half of the 18th century, and the socio-economic basis for the very emergence of the idea of ​​social progress was the formation of capitalism and the maturation of European bourgeois revolutions. By the way, both creators of the original concepts of social progress - TURGO And CONDORCE - were active public figures in pre-revolutionary and revolutionary France. And this is quite understandable: the idea of ​​social progress, the recognition of the fact that humanity as a whole, in the main, is moving forward, is an expression of historical optimism characteristic of advanced social forces.

Three characteristic features distinguished the original progressivist concepts.

FIRSTLY, this is idealism, i.e. an attempt to find the reasons for the progressive development of history in the spiritual beginning - in the endless ability to improve the human intellect (the same Turgot and Condorcet) or in the spontaneous self-development of the absolute spirit (Hegel). Accordingly, the criterion of progress was also seen in phenomena of a spiritual order, in the level of development of one or another form of social consciousness: science, morality, law, religion. By the way, progress was noticed primarily in the field of scientific knowledge (Bacon, Descartes), and then the corresponding idea was extended to social relations in general.

SECONDLY, a significant shortcoming of many early concepts of social progress was the non-dialectical consideration of social life. In such cases, social progress is understood as a smooth evolutionary development, without revolutionary leaps, without backward movements, as a continuous ascent in a straight line (Comte, Spencer).

THIRD, upward development in form was limited to the achievement of any one favored social system. This rejection of the idea of ​​unlimited progress was very clearly reflected in Hegel’s statements. He proclaimed the Christian-German world, which affirmed freedom and equality in their traditional interpretation, as the pinnacle and completion of world progress.

If we try to define in general terms REASONS FOR SOCIAL PROGRESS, then they will be the needs of man, which are the generation and expression of his nature as a living and, no less, as a social being. These needs are diverse in nature, character, duration of action, but in any case they determine the motives of human activity. In the process of real life, people are driven by needs generated by their biological and social nature; and in the course of realizing their vital needs, people change the conditions of their existence and themselves, for each satisfied need gives rise to a new one, and its satisfaction, in turn, requires new actions, the consequence of which is the development of society.

PROGRESS CRITERIA

The direction of development, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect, is called in science PROGRESS(a word of Latin origin meaning literally moving forward). The concept of progress is opposite to the concept REGRESSION. Regression is characterized by movement from higher to lower, processes of degradation, and a return to obsolete forms and structures.

Condorcet(like other French enlighteners) considered the criterion of progress development of the mind. Utopian socialists put forward moral criterion progress. Saint-Simon believed, for example, that society should adopt a form of organization that would lead to the implementation moral principle: All people should treat each other as brothers. A contemporary of the utopian socialists, the German philosopher Friedrich WILHELM SCHELLING wrote that the solution to the survey on historical progress is complicated by the fact that supporters and opponents of the belief in the perfectibility of mankind are completely entangled in disputes about the criteria of progress. Some talk about the progress of mankind in the field of morality, others - about the progress of science and technology, which, as Schelling wrote, from a historical point of view is rather a regression, and proposed his solution to the problem: the criterion for establishing the historical progress of the human race can only be a gradual approach to legal structure. Another point of view on social progress belongs to Hegel. He saw the criterion of progress in consciousness of freedom. As the consciousness of freedom grows, society develops progressively.

As we see, the question of the criterion of progress occupied the great minds of modern times, but they did not find a solution. The disadvantage of all attempts to overcome this task was that in all cases only one line (or one side, or one sphere) of social development was considered as a criterion. Reason, morality, science, technology, legal order, and the consciousness of freedom - all these are very important indicators, but not universal, not covering human life and society as a whole.

In our time, philosophers also hold different views on the criterion of social progress. One of the existing points of view is that the highest and universal objective criterion of social progress is the development of productive forces, including the development of man himself. Conclusion about the universal criterion of social progress: that which contributes to the rise of humanism is progressive.

The most important criterion for progress is the level of humanism of society, i.e. the position of the individual in it: the degree of his economic, political and social liberation; the level of satisfaction of her material and spiritual needs; the state of her psychophysical and social health. According to this point of view, the criterion of social progress is the measure of freedom that society is able to provide to the individual, the degree of individual freedom guaranteed by society. The free development of a person in a free society also means the revelation of his truly human qualities - intellectual, creative, moral. The development of human qualities depends on people's living conditions. The more fully a person’s various needs for food, clothing, housing, transport services, and his requests in the spiritual field are satisfied, the more moral the relations between people become, the more accessible to a person the most diverse types of economic and political, spiritual and material activities become. The more favorable the conditions for the development of a person’s physical, intellectual, mental strength, his moral principles, the wider the scope for the development of individual qualities inherent in each individual person. In short, the more humane the living conditions, the greater the opportunities for human development: reason, morality, creative powers.

Social progress

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1.1 Criteria and signs of social progress

All societies are in constant development, in the process of change and transition from one state to another. At the same time, sociologists identify the main forms of social movement and modernization. First, let's look at the essence of the progressive and regressive directions.

Progress (from Latin - movement forward, success) means development with an upward trend, movement from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect. It leads to positive changes in society and is manifested, for example:

In improving the means of production and labor;

In the development of the social division of labor and the growth of its productivity;

In new achievements of science;

In improving people's living conditions.

The criteria for progress are:

1. Complicated social organizations of society (G. Spencer),

2. Changes in the system of social connections and the type of regulation of social relations (Tönnis),

3. Changes in the nature of production and consumption (W. Rostow, D. Bell),

4. The degree of mastery by society of the spontaneous forces of nature, expressed in the growth of labor productivity, the degree of liberation of people from the yoke of the spontaneous forces of social development (K. Marx).

Scientists believe that an important sign of social progress is the growing tendency towards human liberation - i.e. release:

1. from state suppression;

2. from the dictates of the team;

3. from any exploitation;

4. from closed living space;

5. out of fear for your safety and future.

In other words, it is a growing trend towards expanding and increasingly effective protection of the civil rights and liberties of people throughout the world.

Progress can also be seen in human relationships themselves. More and more people understand that they must learn to live together and abide by the laws of society, must respect other people’s living standards and be able to seek compromises, must suppress their own aggressiveness, appreciate and protect nature and everything that previous generations have created. These are encouraging signs that humanity is steadily moving towards relationships of solidarity, harmony and goodness.

Thus, global social progress today includes:

· growth of well-being and social security of people;

· weakening confrontation between people;

· people's desire for peace and cooperation;

· approval of political democracy;

· growth of morality, humanity, spirituality of people;

· improvement of human relations themselves;

· increasing liberation of man;

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Social progress is considered in the school course in a multifaceted way; it becomes possible to see the inconsistency of the process. Society develops unevenly, changing positions like a person. It is important to choose the path that will lead to improved living conditions and preservation of the planet.

The Problem of the Progressive Movement

Since ancient times, scientists have tried to determine the paths of development of societies. Some found similarities with nature: the seasons. Others identified cyclical patterns of ups and downs. The cycle of events did not allow us to give precise instructions on how and where to move the peoples. A scientific problem has arisen. The main directions are laid down in the understanding two terms :

• Progress;
• Regression.

The thinker and poet of Ancient Greece Hesiod divided the history of mankind into 5 eras :

• Gold;
• Silver;
• Copper;
• Bronze;
• Iron.

Rising upward from century to century, a person should have become better and better, but history has proven the opposite. The scientist's theory failed. The Iron Age, in which the scientist himself lived, did not become an impetus for the development of morality. Democritus divided history into three groups :

• Past;
• The present;
• Future.

The transition from one period to another should show growth and improvement, but this approach did not become true either.

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Plato and Aristotle conceived of history as a process of movement through cycles with repeating stages.

Scientists proceeded from an understanding of progress. According to social science, the concept of social progress is movement forward. Regression is an antonym, a contrast to the first concept. Regression is a movement from higher to lower, degradation.

Progress and regression are characterized by movement, its continuity has been proven. But movement can go up - for the better, down - to a return to previous forms of life.

Contradictions of scientific theories

Hesiod reasoned on the basis that humanity develops by learning the lessons of the past. The inconsistency of the social process refuted his reasoning. In the last century, relations of high morality should have been formed among people. Hesiod noted the decomposition of moral values, people began to preach evil, violence, and war. The scientist put forward the idea of ​​a regressive development of history. Man, in his opinion, cannot change the course of history, he is a pawn and does not play a role in the tragedy of the planet.

Progress became the basis of the theory of the French philosopher A. R. Turgot. He proposed viewing history as a constant movement forward. He proved it by suggesting the properties of the human mind. A person constantly achieves success, consciously improves his life and living conditions. Supporters of the progressive path of development:

• J. A. Condorcet;
• G. Hegel.

Karl Marx also supported their faith. He believed that humanity penetrates nature and, by studying its capabilities, improves itself.

It is not possible to imagine history as a line rising forward. It will be a curve or broken line: ups and downs, surges and declines.

Criteria for the progress of social development

Criteria are the basis, the circumstances that lead to the development or stabilization of certain processes. The criteria for social progress have gone through different approaches.

The table helps to understand the views on the development trends of society of scientists from different eras:

Examples of progressive development

Examples of moving forward include the following public phenomena and processes :

• the economic growth;
• discovery of new scientific theories;
• development and modernization of technical means;
• discovery of new types of energy: nuclear, atomic;
• the growth of cities that improve human living conditions.

Examples of progress are the development of medicine, the increase in the types and power of means of communication between people, and the passing of concepts such as slavery into the past.

Regression examples

Society is moving along the path of regression, which phenomena scientists attribute to backward movement:

• Environmental problems: damage to nature, environmental pollution, destruction of the Aral Sea.
• Improving types of weapons that lead to mass death of humanity.
• The creation and spread of atomic weapons across the planet, leading to the death of a huge number of people.
• An increase in the number of industrial accidents that are dangerous for people located in the territory where they are located (nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants).
• Air pollution in large populated areas.

The law defining the signs of regression has not been established by scientists. Each society develops in its own way. Laws adopted in some states are unacceptable to others. The reason is the individuality of one person and entire nations. The determining force in the movement of history is man, and it is difficult to fit him into a framework, to give him a definite plan along which he follows in life.

History shows that no society stands still, but is constantly changing . Social change is the transition of social systems, communities, institutions and organizations from one state to another. The process of social development is carried out on the basis of changes. The concept of “social development” specifies the concept of “social change”. Social development– irreversible, directed change in social systems. Development involves a transition from simple to complex, from lower to higher, etc. In turn, the concept of “social development” is clarified by such qualitative characteristics as “social progress” and “social regression”

Social progress- this is a direction of development of human society that is characterized by an irreversible change in humanity, as a result of which a transition is made from lower to higher, from a less perfect state to a more perfect one. If the sum of the positive consequences of large-scale changes in society exceeds the sum of the negative ones, then we speak of progress. Otherwise, regression occurs.

Regression– a type of development characterized by a transition from higher to lower.

Thus, progress is both local and global. Regression is only local.

Usually, social progress does not mean these or those progressive changes in individual social communities, layers and groups or individuals, but the upward development of the entire society as an integrity, the movement towards the perfection of all mankind.

The mechanism of social progress in all systems consists of the emergence of new needs in various spheres of social life and the search for opportunities to satisfy them. New needs arise as a result of human production activity; they are associated with the search and invention of new means of labor, communication, organization of social life, with the expansion and deepening of the scope of scientific knowledge, and the complication of the structure of human creative and consumer activity.

Very often, the emergence and satisfaction of social needs is carried out on the basis of an open conflict of interests of various social communities and social groups, as well as the subordination of the interests of some social communities and groups to others. In this case, social violence turns out to be an inevitable accompaniment of social progress. Social progress, as a consistent ascent to more complex forms of social life, is carried out as a result of the resolution of contradictions that unfold in the previous stages and phases of social development.

The source, the root cause of social progress, which determines the desires and actions of millions of people, are their own interests and needs. What are the human needs that determine social development? All needs are divided into two groups: natural and historical. Natural human needs are all social needs, the satisfaction of which is necessary for the preservation and reproduction of human life as a natural biological being. Natural human needs are limited by the biological structure of man. The historical needs of man are all social and spiritual needs, the satisfaction of which is necessary for the reproduction and development of man as a social being. None of the groups of needs can be satisfied outside of society, outside of the development of social material and spiritual production. In contrast to natural needs, human historical needs are generated by the course of social progress, are unlimited in development, due to which social and intellectual progress is unlimited.

However, social progress is not only an objective, but also a relative form of development. Where there are no opportunities for the development of new needs and their satisfaction, the line of social progress stops, periods of decline and stagnation arise. In the past, cases of social regression and the death of previously established cultures and civilization were often observed. Consequently, as practice shows, social progress in world history occurs in a zigzag manner.

The entire experience of the twentieth century refuted the one-factor approach to the development of modern society. The formation of a particular social structure is influenced by many factors: the progress of science and technology, the state of economic relations, the structure of the political system, the type of ideology, the level of spiritual culture, national character, the international environment or the existing world order and the role of the individual.

There are two types of social progress: gradual (reformist) and spasmodic (revolutionary).

Reform- partial improvement in any area of ​​life, a series of gradual transformations that do not affect the foundations of the existing social system.

Revolution- a complex abrupt change in all or most aspects of social life, affecting the foundations of the existing system and representing a transition of society from one qualitative state to another.

The difference between reform and revolution is usually seen in the fact that reform is a change implemented on the basis of existing values ​​in society. Revolution is a radical rejection of existing values ​​in the name of reorientation to others.

One of the tools for the movement of society along the path of social progress based on a combination of reforms and revolution in modern Western sociology is recognized modernization. Translated from English, “modernization” means modernization. The essence of modernization is associated with the spread of social relations and the values ​​of capitalism throughout the globe. Modernization- this is a revolutionary transition from pre-industrial to industrial or capitalist society, carried out through comprehensive reforms, it implies a fundamental change in social institutions and people's lifestyles, covering all spheres of society.

Sociologists distinguish two types of modernization: organic and inorganic. Organic modernization is the moment of the country’s own development and is prepared by the entire course of previous development. It occurs as a natural process of progressive development of social life during the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Such modernization begins with a change in public consciousness.

Inorganic modernization occurs as a response to an external challenge from more developed countries. It is a method of “catching up” development undertaken by the ruling circles of a particular country in order to overcome historical backwardness and avoid foreign dependence. Inorganic modernization begins with economics and politics. It is accomplished by borrowing foreign experience, acquiring advanced equipment and technology, inviting specialists, studying abroad, restructuring forms of government and norms of cultural life on the model of advanced countries.

In the history of social thought, three models of social change have been proposed: movement along a descending line, from peak to decline; movement in a closed circle - cycles; movement from higher to lower - progress. These three options have always been present in all theories of social change.

The simplest type of social change is linear, when the amount of change occurring is constant at any given time. The linear theory of social progress is based on the progress of the productive forces. The events of the last quarter of the twentieth century have shown that we will have to give up the idea that changes in productive forces and production relations are taken as the key and, in essence, the only source of development. The rise of productive forces does not guarantee progress. Life shows that an unlimited increase in the material means of life, taken as a blessing, turns out to have disastrous consequences for a person. For a long period, the understanding of social progress was associated with industrial development, with high rates of economic growth and the creation of a large machine industry. The conditions and forms of education for economic, political and social life are subordinated to the development of technical and economic parameters and the achievement of industrial technology. But in the last third of the twentieth century, the euphoria of industrial-technical optimism began to wane. Industrial development not only created a threat to social and cultural values, but also undermined its own foundation. In the West, people started talking about a crisis of industrialism, the signs of which were the destruction of the environment and the depletion of natural resources. The discrepancy between the level of scientific, technical and economic development and the level of satisfaction of human needs is becoming increasingly obvious. The very concept of social progress has changed. Its main criterion is to bring the social structure into conformity not so much with the requirements of technological development, but, first of all, with the natural nature of man.

Cyclic changes are characterized by a sequential progression of stages. According to this theory, social development does not proceed in a straight line, but rather in a circle. If in a directed process each subsequent phase differs from any other that preceded it in time, then in a cyclic process the state of the changing system at a later time will be the same as it was earlier, i.e. will be repeated exactly, but at a higher level.

In everyday social life, a lot is organized cyclically: for example, agricultural life - and in general the entire life of agrarian societies - is seasonal, cyclical in nature, since it is determined by natural cycles. Spring is sowing time, summer, autumn is harvest time, winter is pause, lack of work. The next year everything repeats itself. A clear example of the cyclical nature of social change is the change of generations of people. Each generation is born, goes through a period of social maturation, then a period of active activity, followed by a period of old age and the natural completion of the life cycle. Each generation is formed in specific social conditions, therefore it is not similar to previous generations and brings into life, into politics, economics, and culture something of its own, something new that has not yet existed in social life.

Sociologists of different directions record the fact that many social institutions, communities, classes and even entire societies change according to a cyclical pattern - emergence, growth, flourishing, crisis and decline, the emergence of a new phenomenon. Long-term cyclical changes are associated with the rise and fall of historically specific civilizations. This is what Spengler and Toynbee mean when they talk about civilizational cycles.

About the development of cyclical ideas in the biblical book of Ecclesiastes it is said: “What was, that will be; and what has been done will be done, and there is nothing new under the sun.”

In the records of Herodotus (5th century BC) a scheme is given for applying the cycle to political regimes: monarchy - tyranny - oligarchy - democracy - ochlocracy. In the works of Polybius (200-118 BC), a similar idea is made that all states go through inevitable cycles of growth - zenith - decline.

Social processes can proceed in a spiral, where successive states, although fundamentally similar, are not identical. An upward spiral means repetition of a process at a relatively higher level, a downward spiral means repetition at a relatively lower level.

The topic is closely related to the problems of social change social progress.

One of the first scientific concepts social development as consistent advancement of societies through ascending levels of progress, which is determined increase in knowledge, belongs to A. Saint-Simon.

His ideas were developed by the founder O. Comte. Comte's law of intellectual evolution of mankind directly points to the direction and criterion of social progress - the degree of advancement to the highest in his concept, the scientific (positive) stage of development. G. Spencer, sharing the idea of ​​​​the nonlinear nature of evolution, assumed measure social progress by the achieved degree of complexity of societies. Social evolution is similar to biological evolution and gradually leads to the fact that the world is getting better. In the theory of K. Marx, the issue of social progress was resolved almost unambiguously. Achieving the highest stage of human development - the construction of a classless communist society, where the free labor of free people will reign - is inevitable, although distant in time.

If O. Comte, G. Spencer and E. Durkheim designed concept of progress as a two-way process of differentiation and integration regardless of its beneficial consequences, then L. Ward, N. Mikhailovsky and others believed that progress is about increasing human happiness or reducing human suffering. In one of his first works P. Sorokin indicated that both of these currents are insufficient and they need to be synthesized. Otherwise, the theory of progress risks giving a formula of stagnation instead of a formula for progress.

Most supporters social evolutionism convinced of presence of intellectual and technical progress, however regarding of moral progress, opinions differ. Those who believe that moral progress exists belong to the school of evolutionary ethics . They proceed from the fact that the very presence of morality as the basis for interaction and mutual assistance between people is already the most important factor in the survival of society. Moral evolution does not cancel struggle for existence, but humanizes forcing her to find ever softer ways to fight.

For a long time, the prevailing idea among evolutionists was that evolution is unidirectional for all societies, when each of them goes through successively identical stages of development on the path to progress. In the 20th century this view was found untenable on the basis of anthropological research. It turned out that not only non-Western, but also many European countries developed not according to one, but according to different scenarios, which included a different number and sequence of stages.

On a new basis, the evolutionary approach has been revived in recent years: evolution is not unidirectional, but can go in many directions. According to the theory of evolutionary change by the structural functionalist T. Parsons, societies tend to become increasingly differentiated in their structures and functions, with new structures expected to be more functionally adapted than previous ones.

The position of supporters of cyclical development is significantly different. and periodic economic crises have raised doubts about the overall progressive development of mankind. Thus, the German scientist Oswald Spengler in his book “The Decline of Europe” (1918) substantiated the periodization of the development and decline of cultures by analogy with the stages of the human life cycle, including decline and death. In his opinion, each of the eight cultures he studied existed for about 1000 years. Therefore, if we assume that Western European culture originated about 900 years ago, then its end is already near.

The English historian Arnold Toynbee also believed that the development of civilizations occurs along one path, improving and moving towards decline in similar stages. Arising as a response to any challenge from natural or human factors, civilization flourishes as long as its elite is able to counteract this challenge. Otherwise, there is a split and disintegration of civilization and, due to the increase in internal conflicts, a movement towards decline.

Cyclic theories should also include the sociocultural dynamics of P. Sorokin, which contains a very pessimistic assessment of the prospects for the development of modern Western society.

Another example of cyclical theories is the concept of “world-economy” by I. Wallerstein, according to which Third world countries will not be able to repeat the path, passed by states - leaders modern economy; capitalist world-economy, which originated more than 500 years ago, in 1967-1973. entered into the inevitable the final phase of the life cycle - crisis phase.

Social progress and forecasting in philosophy

Modern is carried out within the framework of scientific and technological progress, which in turn acts as a party social progress.

Issues of social progress were paid attention to by D. Vico, I.G. Herder, A. Turgot, J. Condorsse, O. Comte, K. Marx, F. Engels and others.

Social progress- this is an objective trend of the upward development of humanity, expressed in the improvement of the forms of human life, needs, abilities to satisfy them, in the development of science, technology, technology, the media, medicine, etc.

The question of the criteria for social progress is debatable. Some researchers in as a criterion of social progress call the level of development of the method of production, others in this capacity highlight the level of development of the productive forces of society, others reduce it to labor productivity. It seems that we can accept as the most representative point of view, according to which the level of development of productive forces, expressed in labor productivity, can be accepted as a criterion of social progress.

In the philosophical explanation of the social process two points of view have been fighting for a long time - evolutionary And revolutionary.

Some philosophers preferred evolutionary development of society, while others saw great attraction in revolutionary changes in social life. Obviously, we should be thoughtful about the ways and means of social progress. The course of the latter does not exclude a combination of revolutionary and evolutionary transformations of social life. When carrying out progressive changes and reforms, one should be guided by the fact that their implementation does not result in a decline in the economy, a decrease in the level of development of productive forces and a reduction, but, on the contrary, an increase in the economic wealth of society based on an increase in the level of development of productive forces and labor productivity.

Anticipating the future in various forms has always played an important role in the life of society. The importance of foresight especially increased during turning points in history, during periods of acute social conflicts. This is especially characteristic of the modern era, when it becomes obvious that both the distant and immediate future of humanity will be radically different from its present and recent past.

Foresight- this is knowledge about the future, i.e. about what does not yet exist in reality, but what is potentially contained in the present in the form of objective and subjective prerequisites for the expected course of development. Scientific foresight and social forecasting must contain an answer not only to the question of what can happen in the future, but also answers to questions such as when this should be expected, what forms the future will take and what is the measure of probability of this forecast.

• extrapolation;
• modeling;
• expertise.

The most reliable method of social forecasting is expertise. Any social forecast combines scientific and ideological purposes. There are four types of forecasts: search; normative; analytical; forecast-warning. Anticipating the future is an interdisciplinary study, and it is fruitful only in the process of integrating humanities, natural sciences and technical knowledge.