Features of the genres of ancient Russian literature. Lecture material: specifics of ancient Russian literature

Option 5

Read the text and complete tasks 1 – 3

(1) While studying the features of ancient Russian literature, researchers have more than once drawn attention to the fact that in different works episodes with similar content are conveyed using the same literary devices, and sometimes in almost the same words. (2) Such monotony in different monuments of ancient Russian literature, some scientists

explained by the meager imagination of medieval authors who could not vividly and originally present the events in the work. (3)<…>Academician D.S. Likhachev convincingly proved in his works that medieval authors consciously sought to imitate, professing the so-called “aesthetics of identity”: they saw artistic dignity literary work is that its author follows an authoritative model.

1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey the MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) Researchers of ancient Russian literature believed that monotony artistic techniques medieval authors is due to the fact that these people were not able to present the material in an original way.

2) One of the most important features of Old Russian literature is that its authors sought to create their works according to a single template.

3) D.S. Likhachev, having refuted the opinion of a number of scientists, proved that in different works of ancient Russian literature, similar episodes are conveyed using the same means intentionally, since the authors consciously focus on known examples.

4) The fact that in the works of ancient Russian literature the reader finds a set of constantly repeating artistic techniques became the subject of research by academician D.S. Likhacheva.

5) The use of the same techniques when conveying similar episodes in ancient Russian literature is explained not by the poverty of imagination of medieval authors, as some scientists believed, but by the desire to follow an authoritative model, as evidenced by the works of D.S. Likhacheva.

2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).

Therefore So However, Certainly, Moreover,

3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word FOLLOW. Determine in what sense this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.

FOLLOW , -blowing, -blowing; nesov.

1) Walk, move, move after, directly behind someone.Follow me.

2) Set off, go, move.The train goes to Moscow .

3) Be guided by something, act like someone.S. fashion.

4) Be the result of something., follow from something.This is the conclusion.

5) Bezl. It is necessary, it must.The experience of leading producers should be disseminated more widely.

4. In one of the words below, an error was made in the placement of stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel sound was highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write this word down.

dowry

tamed

mosaic

dose

5. One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word incorrectly. Correct the mistake and write this word correctly.

The most amazing thing is that I can’t write his VERBAL portrait.

His face is very expressive: aristocratic, PREDATORY, long and humpbacked, the most aquiline nose, high cheekbones, deep eye sockets.

Infection weakens the body's RESISTANCE and increases the risk of a new disease.

Mercy is big topic, which finds a HOL in the heart of any person.

Krymov made no distinction between Dobrolyubov and Lassalle, Chernyshevsky and Engels.

6. In one of the words highlighted below, an error was made in the formation of the word form.Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.

WAVE your hand

six SAUCERS

BEST way

SEVEN HUNDRED answers

curtain with tulle

7. Establish a correspondence between grammatical errors and the sentences in which they were made: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

OFFERS

A) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition

B) incorrect construction of a sentence with participial phrase

C) disruption of the connection between subject and predicate

D) violation in construction complex sentence

D) violation in the construction of sentences with homogeneous members

1) St. Basil's Cathedral has not only a rich decor, but also an unusual general composition.

2) I sincerely admired and loved this painting by Surikov; an unknown power emanated from it.

3) The generation of our fathers and grandfathers perceived the reforms with distrust.

4) Tired from a long walk, we wanted to get to the camp as quickly as possible.

5) In 1871–1872, Dostoevsky’s sixth novel was published with the defiant symbolic title “Demons.”

6) Once you see this clearing, you will not be able to forget it.

7) At the group meeting, issues of attendance and whether it was possible to take tests early were discussed.

8) Gorky could vividly depict the life of tramps, since he knew the life of these people well from the inside.

9) Contrary to expectations, service in the regiment was full of surprises, often pleasant.

8. Identify the word in which the unstressed vowel of the root being tested is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.

pl..sneeze

rel..mother

give me a hint

festival..val

unacceptable

9. Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write down these words by inserting the missing letter.

pr..deeds (temple), pr..increased

in..south, confiscation

p..yesterday, nar..singing

s..ate (apple), super..bright

before..groovy, vz..small

10. Write down the word in which the letter E is written in the blank.

grow..grow

arrogant

man..k

de-energize (line)

11. Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.

hide..hide

wounded..in (hand)

possessed (passerby dog)

expected..my

unnoticed

12. Determine the sentence in which NOT is spelled together with the word. Open the brackets and write down this word.

People who (DID NOT) WANT to submit to the pressure of militant indifference came to the aid of the city, memory, and art.

He imagined himself as a martyr and partly even proudly thought that the cup had not yet been drunk to the bottom, that he would still suffer for his honesty.

I shook her hand twice; the second time she pulled it out, (NOT) SAYING a word.

The French were repelled at all points, but we (DID NOT) have enough strength to cross the river that same day and complete the defeat.

Let it be (NOT) IN MY opinion, I am ready to compromise.

13. Determine the sentence in which both highlighted words are written CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write down these two words.

(DURING) THE CONTINUATION of the sea voyage, we (NOT) TIMES found ourselves in storms.

It was not THAT easy to lure Chekhov into a political party: he expressed his protest against injustice and cruelty (IN) HIS OWN.

(B) DIFFERENT from others, Zelensky was ready to speak, although he perfectly understood what Rybin had in mind when he made the appointment.

“(WHY) are you so sad?” – Maria asked with excitement in her voice, tilting her head (ON) TO THE SIDE.

WHATEVER the guest said, he knew how to (TRULY) ignite and inspire his interlocutor...

14. Indicate all the numbers in the place of which NN is written.

I patiently examined the sandbank and the fresh wash of pebbles in search of interesting pebbles; a light breeze was blowing, the waves were gentle and calm. It seemed to me that I was wandering in a mystery (3), abandoned (4) by everyone in the world.

15. Punctuate . Specify two sentences in which you need to putONE comma. Write down the numbers of these sentences.

1) The motif of desolation and rotting, necrosis and degradation is closely connected with the image of Plyushkin in Gogol’s “Dead Souls”.

2) Revolution and Civil War not only changed the socio-political situation in the country but also influenced the thoughts and attitudes of people.

3) The appearance of a stranger in the city was talked about the next day and a week later and even a month later.

4) Every day I tried to learn something new and did not want to waste a single hour or a single minute.

5) And in the morning the gray and hazy sea still roared and heavy splashes of surf flew onto the embankment.

16. Place all punctuation marks:

In the evening, grandfather Trofim (1), putting on a sheepskin coat (2), left the hut and appeared on the threshold only a couple of hours later with a bundle of firewood; covered with (3) gray frost (4) he looked like Santa Claus.

17. Place all the missing punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.

“I have a presentiment,” said the doctor, “that (1) poor Grushnitsky (2) will be your victim...

The princess said that your face is familiar to her. I noticed to her that (4) it’s true (5) she met you in St. Petersburg, somewhere in the world... I said your name... She knew it. It seems (6) your story made a lot of noise there... The princess began to talk about your adventures, adding (7) probably (8) her comments to the social gossip...<…>If (9) you want, I will introduce you...

18. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.

Late German romantics they represented passions as external, often deceptive and hostile forces to man (1) as a toy in the hands of (2) of which (3) he is (4) and likened love to rock.

19. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence.

We did not know (1) that in these rude hearts there is enough space (2) to serve as a battlefield between God and the devil (3) and (4) that the idea of ​​merging with the people or being separated from them is important only for us (5) and not for

public consciousness.

20. Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error,excluding unnecessary word. Write this word down.

Now the steppe opened up, distant and silent, now low, blood-stained clouds, and now people, the steam engine, and the thresher all at once drowned in the blackening darkness.

Read the text and complete tasks 21 – 26

(1) The sky was overcast with evil clouds, the rain sadly pounded the windows and made me sad. (2) In a thoughtful pose, with his vest unbuttoned and his hands in his pockets, the owner of the city pawnshop, Polikarp Semyonovich Iudin, stood at the window and looked at the gloomy street.

(3) “Well, what is our life? - he reasoned in unison with the crying sky. - (4) What is she? (5) Some kind of book with a lot of pages on which more suffering and grief are written than joys... (6) Why was it given to us? (7) After all, God, the good and omnipotent, did not create the world for sorrows! (8) But it turns out the other way around. (9) There are more tears than laughter..."

(10) Judah took his right hand out of his pocket and scratched the back of his head.

(11) “Well,” he continued thoughtfully, “in terms of the universe, obviously, there was no poverty, corruption and shame, but in reality they exist. (12) They were created by humanity itself. (13) It itself gave birth to this scourge. (14) And for what, one might ask, for what?”

(15) He took out left hand and sadly passed it over his face.

(16) “But how easily one could help people’s grief: one would only have to lift a finger. (17) For example, there is a rich funeral procession. (18) A set of horses in black blankets is carrying a magnificent coffin, and a line of carriages is driving almost a mile behind. (19) The torchbearers step forward with lanterns. (20) Cardboard coats of arms are dangling from the horses: an important person is being buried, the dignitary must have died. (21) Has he done at least one good deed in his entire life? (22) Did you warm the poor man? (23) Of course not... tinsel!

- (24) What do you want, Semyon Ivanovich?

- (25) Yes, I find it difficult to evaluate the costume. (26) In my opinion, it is impossible to give more than six rubles for it. (27) And she asks for seven; He says the kids are sick and need to be treated.

- (28) And six rubles will be too much. (29) Don’t give more than five, otherwise we’ll go bankrupt. (30) Just take a good look around to see if there are any holes or stains left somewhere...

(31) “Okay, sir, so this is life that makes you think about human nature. (32) Behind the rich hearse is a cart, on which a pine coffin is loaded. (33) Only one old woman trudges behind her, splashing through the mud. (34) This old woman, perhaps, is burying her breadwinner son... (35) But let me ask if the lady sitting in the carriage will give her even a penny? (36) Of course, he won’t, although maybe he will express his condolences...”

-(37) What else is there?

- (38) The old woman brought a fur coat... how much should I give?

- (39) Rabbit fur... (40) Nothing, strong, worth five rubles. (41) Give three rubles, and interest, of course, forward... (42) “Where, in fact, are people, where are their hearts? (43) The poor are dying, but the rich don’t even care..."

(44) Judah pressed his forehead to the cold glass and thought. (45) Tears appeared in his eyes - large, shiny, crocodile tears.

(according to A.P. Chekhov*)

* Alexander Pavlovich Chekhov (1855–1913) - Russian writer, prose writer, publicist, elder brother of Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.

21. Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.

1) The city pawnshop is on the verge of bankruptcy, so Judin, the owner of this pawnshop, cannot afford to engage in charity.

2) The lady in the carriage gave one kopeck to the old woman who was burying her son that day.

3) Funeral processions - rich and poor - led Polikarp Semyonovich to talk about the poor and the rich.

4) The owner of the pawnshop, despite his philanthropic reasoning, strictly looks after the financial interests of the establishment.

5) Polikarp Semyonovich is convinced that it is very easy to help people.

22. Which of the following statements arefaithful ? Please provide answer numbers.

Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) Sentence 2 contains a description.

2) Sentences 11–14 present the narrative.

3) Proposition 23 contains the answer to the question formulated in sentences 21–22.

4) Sentences 34–36 present the reasoning

5) Proposition 45 explains the reason for what is said in sentence 44.

23. From sentences 39–45, write down antonyms (antonymous pair).

24. Among sentences 15–23, find one(s) that is related to the previous one using a coordinating conjunction and a personal pronoun. Write the number(s) of this sentence(s).

25. “Chekhov’s stories are compact in form and deep in content, and the author avoids direct value judgments - his voice sounds quiet, but at the same time firm and distinct. This is facilitated by a complex composition and, of course, competent selection figurative and expressive funds. In the presented fragment it is worth noting the trope – (A)__________ (“angry clouds” in sentence 1, “gloomy street” in sentence 2), lexical device – (B)__________ (“hanging out” in sentence 20, “we’ll burn out” in sentence 29 , “travels, spanking...” in sentence 33), syntactic device – (B)__________ (sentences 3, 14, 21). It is worth paying attention to such a technique as (G)__________ (sentence 11), which becomes, perhaps, one of the main ones in the construction of this text.”

List of terms:

1) phraseological units

2) antithesis

3) epithets

4) colloquial vocabulary

5) rows homogeneous members offers

6) interrogative sentences

7) lexical repetition

8) hyperbole

9) synecdoche

26. Write an essay based on the text you read.

Formulate one of the problems posed by the author of the text.

Comment on the formulated problem. Include in your comment two illustrative examples from the text you read that you think are important for understanding the problem in the source text (avoid excessive quoting).

Formulate the position of the author (storyteller). Write whether you agree or disagree with the point of view of the author of the text you read. Explain why. Argue your opinion, relying primarily on reading experience, as well as knowledge and life observations (the first two arguments are taken into account).

The volume of the essay is at least 150 words.

ANSWERS:

1. Answer: 35|53.

2. Answer:however.

3. Answer: 3.

4. Answer:mosaic.

5. Answer:response.

6. Answer:tulle.

7. 94372

8. Answer:irreconcilable

9. Answer:ate superbright

10. Answer:little man

11. Answer:injuring

12. Answer:was missing

13. Answer:why sideways

14. Answer: 234.

15. Answer: 12

16. Answer: 124

17. Answer: 345678

18. Answer: 14.

19. Answer: 1235.

20. Answer:blackening|blackening.

21. Answer: 345

22. Answer: 134.

23. Answer: 21

25. Answer: 3462

Explanation.

1. A hypocrite, a two-faced person is worthy of ridicule and contempt.

2. The problem of true and false compassion and mercy. (How does true and false compassion manifest itself?)

2. Behind beautiful, compassionate speeches there is not always true compassion. Compassion and mercy are demonstrated by actions, not words.

* To formulate a problem, the examinee may use vocabulary that differs from that presented in the table. The problem may also be cited from the source text or indicated by reference to sentence numbers in the text.

Over the course of seven centuries of development, our literature has consistently reflected the main changes taking place in the life of society.

For a long time, artistic thinking was inextricably linked with the religious and medieval historical form of consciousness, but gradually, with the development of national and class consciousness, it began to free itself from church ties.

Literature has developed clear and definite ideals of the spiritual beauty of a person who devotes himself entirely to the common good, the good of the Russian land, the Russian state.

She created ideal characters of persistent Christian ascetics, valiant and courageous rulers, “good sufferers for the Russian land.” These literary characters complemented the folk ideal of man that emerged in epic oral poetry.

ABOUT close connection These two ideals were very well said by D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak in a letter to Ya. L. Barskov dated April 20, 1896: “It seems to me that the “heroes” serve as an excellent complement to the “hierarchs.” And here and there are representatives of their native land, behind them one can see that Rus', on whose guard they stood. Among the heroes, the predominant element is physical strength: they defend their homeland with broad chests, and that is why this “heroic outpost”, put forward on the battle line, in front of which wandered historical predators, is so good... The “Saints” show another side of Russian history, even more important as a moral stronghold and holy of holies of the future multi-million people. These chosen ones had a presentiment of the history of a great people...”

The focus of literature was on the historical destinies of the motherland and issues of state building. That's why epic historical topics and genres play a leading role in it.

Deep historicism in the medieval understanding determined the connection of our ancient literature with heroic folk epic, and also determined the features of the image of human character.

Old Russian writers gradually mastered the art of creating deep and versatile characters, the ability to correctly explain the reasons for human behavior.

From a static, still image of a person, our writers moved on to revealing the internal dynamics of feelings, to depicting various psychological states of a person, to identifying individual personality traits.

The latter became most clearly evident in the 17th century, when personality and literature began to free themselves from the undivided power of the church and, in connection with the general process of “secularization of culture,” the “secularization” of literature also occurred.

It led not only to the creation of fictional heroes, generalized and, to a certain extent, socially individualized characters.

This process led to the emergence of new types of literature - drama and lyrics, new genres - everyday, satirical, adventure stories.

The strengthening of the role of folklore in the development of literature contributed to its democratization and closer rapprochement with life. This affected the language of literature: the ancient Slavic literary language, which was outdated by the end of the 17th century, was replaced by a new living spoken language, which poured into the literature of the second half of the 17th century in a wide stream.

A characteristic feature of ancient literature is its inextricable connection with reality.

This connection gave our literature an extraordinary journalistic poignancy, an excited lyrical emotional pathos, which made it an important means of political education of contemporaries and which gives it the enduring significance that it has in subsequent centuries of the development of the Russian nation and Russian culture.

Kuskov V.V. History of Old Russian Literature. - M., 1998

Let's start with the fact that they appeared along with the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. The intensity of its spread is indisputable evidence that the emergence of writing was caused by the needs of the state.

History of appearance

Writing was used in various spheres of public and state life, in the legal sphere, international and domestic relations.

After the emergence of writing, the activities of copyists and translators were stimulated, and various genres of Old Russian literature began to develop.

It served the needs and requirements of the church, and consisted of solemn words, lives, and teachings. Secular literature appeared in Ancient Rus' and chronicles began to be kept.

In the minds of people of this period, literature was considered together with Christianization.

Old Russian writers: chroniclers, hagiographers, authors of solemn phrases, they all mentioned the benefits of enlightenment. At the end of the X - beginning of the XI century. A huge amount of work was carried out in Rus' aimed at translation from the ancient Greek language literary sources. Thanks to such activities, ancient Russian scribes managed to become acquainted with many monuments of Byzantine times over two centuries, and on their basis created various genres of ancient Russian literature. D. S. Likhachev, analyzing the history of the introduction of Rus' to the books of Bulgaria and Byzantium, identified two characteristic features of such a process.

He confirmed the existence of literary monuments that became common to Serbia, Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Rus'.

Such intermediary literature included liturgical books, sacred scriptures, chronicles, works of church writers, and natural science materials. In addition, this list included some monuments of historical narrative, for example, “The Romance of Alexander the Great.”

Most of the ancient Bulgarian literature, the Slavic medium, were translations from Greek, as well as works of early Christian literature written in the 3rd-7th centuries.

It is impossible to mechanically divide ancient Slavic literature into translated and original; they are organically connected parts of a single organism.

Reading other people's books in Ancient Rus' is evidence of the secondary nature of national culture in the area artistic word. At first, among the written monuments there was a sufficient number of non-literary texts: works on theology, history, and ethics.

The main type of verbal art became folklore works. To understand the uniqueness and originality of Russian literature, it is enough to familiarize yourself with works that are “outside genre systems”: “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.

Primary genres

The genres of ancient Russian literature include those works that became building material for other directions. These include:

• teachings;
• stories;
• word;
• hagiography

Such genres of works of ancient Russian literature include chronicle story, weather record, church legend, chronicle legend.

Life

Was borrowed from Byzantium. Life as a genre of ancient Russian literature has become one of the most beloved and widespread. Life was considered an obligatory attribute when a person was ranked among the saints, that is, canonized. It was created by people who directly communicate with a person, who are able to reliably tell about bright moments his life. The text was compiled after the death of the one about whom it was spoken. It performed a significant educational function, since the life of the saint was perceived as a standard (model) of righteous existence and was imitated.

The Life helped people overcome the fear of death; the idea of ​​the immortality of the human soul was preached.

Canons of Life

Analyzing the features of the genres of ancient Russian literature, we note that the canons according to which the hagiography was created remained unchanged until the 16th century. First, the origin of the hero was discussed, then space was given to a detailed story about his righteous life, about the absence of fear of death. The description ended with glorification.

Discussing which genres ancient Russian literature considered the most interesting, we note that it was the life that made it possible to describe the existence of the holy princes Gleb and Boris.

Old Russian eloquence

Answering the question about what genres existed in ancient Russian literature, we note that eloquence came in three versions:

• political;
• didactic;
• solemn.

Teaching

The system of genres of Old Russian literature distinguished it as a type of Old Russian eloquence. In their teaching, the chroniclers tried to highlight the standard of behavior for all ancient Russian people: commoners, princes. The most striking example of this genre is considered to be the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh” from the “Tale of Bygone Years”, dating back to 1096. At that time, disputes for the throne between the princes reached their maximum intensity. In his teaching, Vladimir Monomakh gives recommendations regarding the organization of his life. He suggests seeking the salvation of the soul in seclusion, calls for helping people in need, and serving God.

Monomakh confirms the need for prayer before a military campaign with an example from own life. He proposes to build social relations in harmony with nature.

Sermon

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we emphasize that this oratorical church genre, which has a unique theory, was involved in historical and literary study only in the form that at some stages it was indicative of the era.

The sermon called Basil the Great, Augustine the Blessed, John Chrysostom, and Gregory Dvoeslov “fathers of the church.” Luther's sermons are recognized as an integral part of the study of the formation of modern German prose, and the statements of Bourdalou, Bossuet, and other speakers of the 17th century are the most important examples of the prose style of French classicism. The role of sermons in medieval Russian literature is high; they confirm the uniqueness of the genres of ancient Russian literature.

Historians consider the “Words” of Metropolitan Hilarion and Cyril of Turvo to be examples of ancient Russian pre-Mongol sermons, which give a complete picture of the creation of composition and elements of artistic style. They skillfully used Byzantine sources and based on them they created good own works. They use a sufficient amount of antitheses, comparisons, personifications of abstract concepts, allegories, rhetorical fragments, dramatic presentation, dialogues, and partial landscapes.

Professionals consider the following examples of sermons designed in an unusual stylistic design to be the “Words” of Serapion of Vladimir and the “Words” of Maxim the Greek. The heyday of the practice and theory of preaching art occurred in the 18th century, they discussed the struggle between Ukraine and Poland.

Word

Analyzing the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will pay special attention to the word. It is a type of genre of ancient Russian eloquence. As an example of its political variability, let us name “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This work causes serious controversy among many historians.

The historical genre of ancient Russian literature, to which “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” can be attributed, amazes with the unusualness of its techniques and artistic means.

In this work, the chronological traditional version of the narrative is violated. The author first moves into the past, then mentions the present, uses lyrical digressions that make it possible to write in various episodes: Yaroslavna’s cry, Svyatoslav’s dream.

"Word" contains different elements oral traditional folk art, symbols. It contains epics, fairy tales, and there is also a political background: Russian princes united in the fight against a common enemy.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is one of the books that reflect the early feudal epic. It is on a par with other works:

• "Song of the Nibelungs";
• "The Knight in Tiger Skin";
• "David of Sasun".

These works are considered single-stage and belong to one stage of folklore and literary formation.

The Word combines two folklore genre: lamentation and glory. Throughout the entire work there is a mourning of dramatic events and glorification of princes.

Similar techniques are characteristic of other works of Ancient Rus'. For example, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” is a combination of the lament of the dying Russian land with the glory of the powerful past.

As a solemn variation of ancient Russian eloquence, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, authored by Metropolitan Hilarion, appears. This work appeared at the beginning of the 11th century. The reason for writing was the completion of the construction of military fortifications in Kyiv. The work contains the idea of ​​complete independence of Rus' from the Byzantine Empire.

Under the “Law,” Hilarion notes the Old Testament, given to the Jews, which was not suitable for the Russian people. God gives a New Covenant called “Grace.” Hilarion writes that just as Emperor Constantine is revered in Byzantium, the Russian people also respect Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who baptized Rus'.

Tale

Having examined the main genres of ancient Russian literature, we will pay attention to stories. These are epic texts telling about military exploits, princes, and their deeds. Examples of such works are:

• “The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky”;
• “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu Khan”;
• "The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka River."

The most widespread genre in ancient Russian literature was the military story. Various lists of works relating to him have been published. Many historians paid attention to the analysis of stories: D. S. Likhachev, A. S. Orlova, N. A. Meshchersky. Despite the fact that traditionally the genre of the military story was considered the secular literature of Ancient Rus', it integrally belongs to the circle of church literature.

The versatility of the themes of such works is explained by the combination of the heritage of the pagan past with the new Christian worldview. These elements give rise to a new perception of military feat, combining heroic and everyday traditions. Among the sources that influenced the formation of this genre at the beginning of the 11th century, experts highlight translated works: “Alexandria”, “Devgenie’s Act”.

N.A. Meshchersky, engaged in a deep study of this literary monument, believed that “History” had the greatest influence on the formation of the military tale of Ancient Rus'. He confirms his opinion with a significant number of quotations used in various ancient Russian literary works: “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, the Kyiv and Galician-Volyn Chronicles.

Historians admit that Icelandic sagas and military epics were used in the formation of this genre.

The warrior was endowed with courageous valor and holiness. The idea of ​​it is similar to the description epic hero. The essence of military feat has changed; the desire to die for great faith comes first.

A separate role was assigned to princely service. The desire for self-realization turns into humble self-sacrifice. The implementation of this category is carried out in connection with verbal and ritual forms of culture.

Chronicle

It is a kind of narrative about historical events. The chronicle is considered one of the first genres of ancient Russian literature. In Ancient Rus', it played a special role, since it did not just report some historical event, but was also a legal and political document, and was confirmation of how to behave in certain situations. The most ancient chronicle is considered to be “The Tale of Bygone Years,” which came down to us in the Ipatiev Chronicle of the 16th century. It tells about the origin of the Kyiv princes and the emergence of the ancient Russian state.

Chronicles are considered “unifying genres”, which subordinate the following components: military, historical stories, the life of a saint, words of praise, teachings.

Chronograph

These are texts that contain a detailed description of the time of the 15th-16th centuries. Historians consider “Chronograph according to the Great Exposition” to be one of the first such works. This work has not reached our time in full, so information about it is quite contradictory.

In addition to those genres of ancient Russian literature that are listed in the article, there were many other directions, each of which had its own distinctive characteristics. The variety of genres is a direct confirmation of the versatility and uniqueness of literary works created in Ancient Rus'.

Question No. 1

Main features of Old Russian literature.

Old Russian literature - 10th – 12th century

Peculiarities:

1. Handwritten character. There were not individual handwritten works, but collections with specific purposes.

2. Anonymity. This was a consequence of society’s attitude towards the writer’s work. It is rare that the names of individual authors are known. In the work, the name is indicated at the end, title and in the margins with evaluative epithets "thin" and "undignified". Medieval authors did not have the concept of “authorship.” The main task: to convey the truth.

Types of anonymity:

3. Religious character. Everything is explained by God's purpose, will and providence.

4. Historicism. The author has the right to write only historically reliable facts. Fiction is excluded. The author is convinced of the accuracy of what is stated. Heroes are historical figures: princes, rulers standing at the top of the hierarchical ladder of feudal society. Even stories about miracles are not so much the imagination of the author as accurate records of the stories of eyewitnesses or the participants themselves.

5. Patriotism. The works are filled with deep content, heroic pathos of serving the Russian land, state, and homeland.

6. main topic ancient Russian literature - world history and the meaning of human life.

7. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in the power, the ultimate triumph of good and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and defeat evil.

8. Feature artistic creativity The ancient Russian writer also has the so-called “literary etiquette”.

9. This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what and how should be depicted, writing and is based on book Christian culture and developed forms of oral poetic creativity. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, and visual means of folk art.

10. The traditions of Old Russian literature are found in the works of Russian writers of the 18th–20th centuries.

The word is imbued patriotic pathos of glorifying Rus', as equal among all states of the world. The author contrasts the Byzantine theory of the universal empire and the church with the idea of ​​equality of all Christian peoples. Proves the superiority of grace over the law. The law was extended only to the Jews, but grace was extended to all nations. In summary, the new covenant is a Christian creed that has worldwide significance and in which every people has the full right to freely choose this grace. Thus, Hilarion rejects the monopoly rights of Byzantium to the exclusive possession of grace. According to Likhachev, the author creates his own patriotic concept of history, where he glorifies Rus' and the enlightener Vladimir. Hilarion exalts Vladimir's feat in the adoption and spread of Christianity. He lists the prince's services to his homeland, emphasizes that the Christian faith was adopted by Russians as a result of free choice. The work put forward demand for the canonization of Vladimir as a saint, also the author glorifies the activities of Yaroslav, who successfully continued his father’s work in spreading Christianity. The work is very logical. The first part is a kind of introduction to the second – the central one. The first part is a comparison of Law and Grace, the second is praise to Vladimir, the third is a prayerful appeal to God. In the first part it is observed sign of antithesis- a typical technique of oratorical eloquence. Hilarion widely uses book metaphors, rhetorical questions, exclamations, repetitions and verbal rhymes. The word is a model for scribes of the 12th-15th centuries.

Question #10

The Walk of Abbot Daniel

Already in the 11th century, Russian people began traveling to the Christian East, to “holy places.” These pilgrimage journeys (a traveler who visited Palestine brought with him a palm branch; pilgrims were also called kalikas - from the Greek name for the shoes - kaliga, worn by the traveler) contributed to the expansion and strengthening of international relations Kievan Rus, contributed to the development of national identity.

So, V beginning of XII V. "The Walk of Abbot Daniel" arises. Daniel committed pilgrimage to Palestine in 1106-1108 Daniel undertook a long journey, “compelled by his thoughts and impatience,” desiring to see the “holy city Jerusalem and promised land», and “for the sake of love, for the sake of these holy places, I wrote down everything I saw with my eyes.” His work is written “for the sake of the faithful people”, so that when they hear about “these holy places,” rushed to these places with thought and soul and thus they themselves accepted “from God an equal reward” with those who “reached these holy places.” Thus, Daniel attached to his “Walk” not only cognitive, but also moral, educational significance: his readers and listeners must mentally make the same journey and receive the same benefits for the soul as the traveler himself.

Daniel's "walk" is of great interest detailed description“holy places” and the personality of the author himself, although it begins with etiquette self-deprecation.

Talking about a difficult journey, Daniel notes how difficult it is to “experience and see all the holy places” without a good “leader” and without knowing the language. At first, Daniel was forced to give from his “meager earnings” to people who knew those places, so that they would show them to him. However, he was soon lucky: he found St. Savva, where he stayed, his old husband, “the book of Velmi,” who introduced the Russian abbot to all the sights of Jerusalem and its environs. This land.”

Daniel shows great curiosity: he is interested nature, city layout and character of buildings of Jerusalem, irrigation system near Jericho. Some interesting information Daniel reports about the Jordan River, which has gentle banks on one side and steep banks on the other, and in every way resembles the Russian river Snov. Daniel also strives to convey to his readers the feelings that every Christian experiences when approaching Jerusalem: these are feelings of “great joy” and “shedding of tears.” The abbot describes in detail the path to the city gates past the pillar of David, the architecture and size of the temples. Great place The “Walk” is occupied by legends that Daniel either heard during his journey or read in written sources. He easily combines canonical scripture and apocrypha in his mind. Although Daniel’s attention is absorbed in religious issues, this does not prevent him from recognizing himself as the plenipotentiary representative of the Russian land in Palestine. He proudly reports that he, the Russian abbot, was received with honor by King Baldwin (Jerusalem was captured by the crusaders during Daniel's stay there).. And when the lamp set by Daniel on behalf of the entire Russian land was lit, but the “flask” (Roman) one was not lit, he sees in this a manifestation of God’s special mercy and favor to the Russian land.

Question #12

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” was found in the early 90s of the 18th century by the famous lover and collector of Russian antiquities A.I. Musin-Pushkin.

“The Word” is the pinnacle of literature created during the period of feudal fragmentation.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is dedicated to the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians in 1185 of Novgorod-Seversky Prince Igor Svyatoslavich with a few allies, a campaign that ended in a terrible defeat. Author calls on the Russian princes to unite to repel the steppe and to jointly defend the Russian land.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" with genius power and insight reflected the main disaster of its time - the lack of state unity of Rus' and, as a consequence, the weakness of its defense against the onslaught of the steppe nomadic peoples, in quick raids that ravaged old Russian cities, devastated villages, drove the population into slavery, penetrated into the very depths of the country, everywhere bringing death and destruction with them.

The all-Russian power of the Kyiv prince had not yet completely disappeared, but its importance was falling uncontrollably . The princes were no longer afraid of the Kyiv prince and sought to capture Kyiv, to increase their possessions and use the fading authority of Kyiv to their advantage.

In the Lay there is no systematic account of Igor’s campaign. Igor’s campaign against the Polovtsians and the defeat of his army is for the author a reason for deep thought about the fate of the Russian land, for a passionate call to unite and defend Rus'. This idea - the unity of Russians against common enemies - is main idea works. The ardent patriot, the author of “The Lay,” sees the reason for Igor’s unsuccessful campaign not in the weakness of the Russian soldiers, but in the princes who are not united, act separately and ruin native land, they forget all-Russian interests.

The author begins his story with a memory of how alarming the beginning of Igor's campaign was, what ominous signs - an eclipse of the sun, the howling of wolves through the ravines, the barking of foxes - it was accompanied. Nature itself seemed to want to stop Igor, not to let him go further.

The defeat of Igor and its terrible consequences for the entire Russian land seem to force the author to remember that not long ago the Kiev prince Svyatoslav, with the united forces of the Russian princes, defeated these same Polovtsians. is transported mentally to Kyiv, to the tower of Svyatoslav, who has an ominous and incomprehensible dream. The boyars explain to Svyatoslav that this dream is “in hand”: Igor Novgorod-Seversky suffered a terrible defeat.

And so Svyatoslav plunged into bitter thoughts. He utters the “golden word”, in which he reproaches Igor and his brother, the buoy of Vsevolod, for the fact that they disobeyed him, did not respect his gray hair, alone, without collusion with him, they arrogantly went against the Polovtsians.

Svyatoslav's speech gradually turns into an appeal by the author himself to all the most prominent Russian princes of that time.

The author sees them as powerful and glorious.

But then he remembers Igor’s young wife, Yaroslavna. He quotes the words of her mournful cry for her husband and for his fallen soldiers. Yaroslavna cries on the city wall in Putivl. She turns to the wind, to the Dnieper, to the sun, yearns and begs them for the return of her husband. As if in response to Yaroslavna’s plea, the sea began to gush at midnight, and tornadoes swirled on the sea: Igor is escaping from captivity.

The description of Igor's flight is one of the most poetic passages in the Lay. The Lay ends joyfully with Igor’s return to the Russian land.

and singing his glory upon entering Kyiv. Despite the fact that “The Lay” is dedicated to the defeat of Igor, it is full of confidence in the power of the Russians, full of faith in the glorious future of the Russian land. The call for unity is permeated in the “Word” with the most passionate, strongest and most tender love for the homeland.“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is a written work

oh.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” became the main phenomenon not only of ancient literature, but also of modern literature - the 19th and 20th centuries.“The Word” is a direct response to the events of Igor’s campaign . It was a call for an end to princely civil strife, for unification to fight against an external enemy.

This call is the main content of the Word. Using the example of Igor's defeat, the author shows the sad consequences of political fragmentation in Rus' and the lack of cohesion between the princes. The word not only tells about the events of Igor’s campaign, and also represents the passionate and excited speech of a true patriot . His speech is sometimes angry, sometimes sad and mournful, but. always full of faith in the motherland.

The author is proud of his homeland and believes in its bright future The author is a supporter of princely power , which would be capable of curbing the arbitrariness of petty princes.
The author embodies his call for unity in the image of the Motherland, the Russian land. In fact, the main character of the word is not Igor or any other prince. The main character is the Russian people, the Russian land. Thus, the theme of the Russian land is central to the work.

Using the example of Igor’s campaign, the author shows what such disunity among the princes can lead to. . After all, Igor is defeated only because he is alone.
Igor is brave but short-sighted, goes on a hike despite bad omens - a solar eclipse. Although Igor loves his homeland, his main goal is to gain fame.

Speaking of female images, it is important to note that they are imbued with tenderness and affection, the folk principle is clearly expressed in them, they embody sadness and care for the Motherland. Their crying is deeply national in nature.

The central lyrical element of the plot is Yaroslavna’s cry. Yaroslavna – a collective image of all Russian wives and mothers, as well as the image of the Russian land, which also mourns.

No. 14 Russian pre-revival. Emotionally - expressive style. "Zadonshchina"

Russian pre-renaissance - mid-14th - early 15th centuries!

This is a period of expressive-emotional style and patriotic upsurge in literature, a period of revival of chronicle writing, historical narration, panegyric hagiography, appeal to the times of independence of Rus' in all areas of culture: literature, architecture, painting, folklore, political thought, etc.

The Russian Pre-Renaissance of the XIV-XV centuries was the era of the greatest spiritual figures, scribes and painters. The names of Rev. served as the personification of the national spiritual culture of that time. Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm and Kirill Belozersky, Epiphanius the Wise, Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev and Dionysius. During the Pre-Renaissance period. coinciding with the gathering of Russian lands Around Moscow, there was an appeal to the spiritual traditions of ancient Kievan Rus, and attempts were made to revive them in new conditions. We are, of course, talking about the traditions of Russian asceticism. In the era under review, these traditions were strengthened, but they acquired a slightly different character. The activities of ascetics during the formation of the Moscow state in the second half of the 14th century became socially, and to some extent, politically active. This was reflected in ancient Russian literature of that period. Especially a shining example The works of Epiphanius the Wise can serve - “The Lives” of Sergius of Radonezh and Stephen of Perm.

There comes a period in Russian history when a person somehow begins valued as a person, there is a discovery of its historical significance and internal merits. In the literature, increasing attention is paid to the emotional sphere, and interest in human psychology is emerging. This leads to expressive style. Dynamic descriptions.

An emotionally expressive style is developing in literature, and in ideological life “silence” and “solitary prayer” are becoming increasingly important.

Attention to the inner life of man, demonstrating the fluidity of what is happening, the variability of everything that exists, was associated with the awakening of historical consciousness. Time was no longer represented only in the forms of changing events. The character of the eras changed, and first of all, the attitude towards the foreign yoke. The time has come to idealize the era of Russian independence. Thought turns to the idea of ​​independence, art - to the works of pre-Mongol Rus', architecture - to the buildings of the era of independence, and literature - to the works of the 11th–13th centuries: to the “Tale of Bygone Years”, to the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, to “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, to the “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, to the “Life of Alexander Nevsky”, to the “Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, etc. Thus, for the Russian Pre-Renaissance, Rus' during the period of independence, Pre-Mongol Rus' became its “antique”.

There is an increasing interest in the internal states of the human soul, psychological experiences, and the dynamics of feelings and emotions. Thus, Epiphanius the Wise in his works conveys feelings of delight and surprise that fill the soul. Literature and art in general embody the ideal of beauty, spiritual harmony, the ideal of a person who devotes himself to serving the idea of ​​​​the common good

According to DS Likhachev, “The focus of attention of writers of the late XIV - early XV centuries. turned out to be separate psychological states a person, his feelings, emotional responses to events in the outside world. But these feelings, individual states of the human soul are not yet united into characters. Individual manifestations of psychology are depicted without any individualization and do not add up to psychology. The connecting, unifying principle - the character of a person - has not yet been discovered. Man's individuality is still limited by the straightforward classification of it into one of two categories - good or evil, positive or negative."

It is important to note that the emergence of man as a measure of all values ​​in Rus' is only partial. This is how man, the titan, the man at the center of the Universe, does not appear. So, despite the existence of a pre-renaissance period, the Renaissance itself never comes!!!

Pushkin's words " The Epoch Times The Renaissance had no influence on it (Russia).

"Zadonshchina"

Degree book"

Created in 1563 on the initiative of the Metropolitan Macarius by the royal confessor Andrei - Athanasius - “The Grave Book of the Royal Genealogy.” The Work makes an attempt to present the history of the Russian Moscow State in the form of genealogical continuity from Rurik to Ivan the Terrible.
History of the state presented in the form of hagiobiographies of rulers. Period the reign of each prince is a certain facet in history.
So the book is divided into 17 degrees and facets. Introduction – a lengthy life of Princess Olga. In each facet after the author's biography, the most important events are outlined. At the center of the story are the personalities of the autocratic princes. They endowed with the qualities of ideal wise rulers, brave warriors and exemplary Christians. The compilers of the Degree Book try to emphasize the greatness of the deeds and the beauty of the virtues of the princes, the psychologist introduces the characteristics of the heroes, trying to show their inner world and pious stories.
The idea of ​​a autocratic form of government in Rus' is being pursued, power is surrounded by an aura of holiness, the need for resigned submission to it is proven.

Thus, in the Degree Book, historical material acquired topical political significance, everything is subordinated to the task of the ideological struggle to strengthen the autocratic power of the sovereign in Rus'. The degree book, like chronicles, serves as an official historical document, relying on which Moscow diplomacy conducted negotiations in the international arena, proving the original rights of Moscow sovereigns to own Russian territories.

Also An important part of the period of the second monumentalism is the work of Ivan the Terrible and the Tale of Peter and Fevronia.

No. 18 The work of Ivan the Terrible

Ivan groznyj was one of the most educated people of his time, had phenomenal memory and erudition.

He founded the Moscow Printing Yard, By his order, a unique literary monument was created - the Facial Chronicle.
And the works of Ivan the Terrible - the most famous monument Russian literature of the 16th century. Messages from Tsar Ivan the Terrible - one of the most unusual monuments ancient Russian literature. The central themes of his messages- international the importance of the Russian state(the concept of Moscow - “the third Rome”) and the monarch's divine right to unlimited power. The themes of the state, ruler, and power occupy one of the central places in Shakespeare, but are expressed in completely different genres and artistic means. The power of influence of Ivan the Terrible's messages lies in the system of argumentation, including biblical quotes and extracts from sacred authors; facts from world and Russian history to draw analogies; examples from personal impressions. In polemical and private messages, Grozny uses facts from personal life. This allows the author, without cluttering the message with rhetoric, to significantly enliven the style. A fact conveyed briefly and accurately is immediately remembered, receives an emotional overtones, and imparts the urgency necessary for polemics. The messages of Ivan the Terrible suggest a variety of intonations - ironic, accusatory, satirical, instructive. This is only a special case of the extensive influence on messages of living spoken language of the 16th century, which is very new in ancient Russian literature.

The works of Ivan the Terrible - REALLY GREAT LITERATURE.

Basic literary monuments , created by Ivan the Terrible, this is the Message of the Terrible to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and Correspondence with Andrei Kurbsky.

Message from Ivan the Terrible to Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery to Abbot Kozma of the monastery. Around 1573.

Written regarding violation of the monastic decree exiled there by the Terrible boyars Sheremetev, Khabarov, Sobakin.

Message permeated with caustic irony escalating into sarcasm, in relation to the disgraced boyars, who “introduced their own lustful regulations” into the monastery. Grozny accuses the boyars of destroying the monastic rule and this leading to social inequality. Ivan the Terrible attacks the monks, who were unable to curb the temper of the boyars. Ivan the Terrible's words are imbued with irony arising from self-deprecation: “woe is me” O. And further, the more Grozny talks about his respect for the Kirillov Monastery, the more caustic his reproaches sound. He shames the brethren for allowing the boyars to violate the rules, and thus it is not known, the tsar writes, who took tonsure from whom, whether the boyars were the monks or the monks were the boyars.”

Grozny ends the letter with an angry, irritable appeal, forbidding the monks to bother him with such problems. According to Likhachev, the Message is a free improvisation, passionate, written in the heat of the moment, turning into an accusatory speech. Ivan the Terrible is confident that he is right and is annoyed that the monks are bothering him.

In general, Ivan the Terrible’s messages are evidence of the beginning of the destruction of the strict system of literary style and the emergence of an individual style. True, at that time only the king was allowed to declare his individuality. Realizing his high position, the king could boldly break all the established rules and play the roles of either a wise philosopher, or a humble servant of God, or a cruel ruler.

An example of a new type of life is precisely the “Life of Ulyaniya Osorgina” (Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya, The Tale of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya)

“The Tale of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya” is the first biography of a noblewoman in ancient Russian literature.(at that time, a noblewoman was not the highest stratum of society, rather the middle class).

Main features of the product:

1. Life writes relative of the saint(in this case son)

2. The medieval principle of historicism is violated. The work must convey the most important historical events, the heroes are major figures, and not a simple married woman with children.

3. The story is a clear indication that liter becomes closer to the reader.

Written by the son of Ulyana Druzhina at the beginning of the 17th century. The second level of anonymity, little is known about the author. The son is well acquainted with the facts of the heroine’s biography, her personal qualities, and her moral character is dear to him. Positive character of a Russian woman is revealed in the everyday surroundings of a rich noble estate.

The qualities of an exemplary housewife come to the fore. After marriage, Ulyany’s shoulders fall on the responsibility of managing a complex household. A woman pulls a house, pleases father-in-law, mother-in-law, sister-in-law, monitors the work of slaves, herself resolves social conflicts in the family and between servants and masters. So, one of the sudden riots of the courtyards leads to the death of her eldest son, but Ulyaniya resignedly endures all the hardships that befall her.

The story truthfully and accurately depicts the situation married woman in a large family, its lack of rights and responsibilities. Running the household consumes Ulyanya, she doesn’t have time to go to church, but nevertheless she is a “saint.” Thus, the story affirms the holiness of the feat of highly moral worldly life and service to people. Ulyaniya helps the hungry, cares for the sick during the “pestilence”,

The story of Ulyaniya Lazarevskaya creates the image of an energetic, intelligent Russian woman, an exemplary housewife and wife, enduring all trials with patience and humility.

Which falls to her lot. So Druzhina depicts in the story not only the real character traits of her mother, but also paints the general ideal appearance of a Russian woman as it seemed to a Russian nobleman of the early 17th century. In biography The squad does not completely depart from the hagiographic tradition. So Ulyaniya comes from “God-loving” parents, she grew up in “piety” and “loved God from a young age.” In the character of Ulyany the inherent traits of a true Christian can be traced - modesty, meekness, humility, tolerance and generosity (“doing immeasurable alms.” As befits Christian ascetics, although Ulyaniya does not go to the monastery, she in old age indulges in asceticism
: refuses carnal “coitus with her husband”, walks in winter without warm clothes. The story also uses traditional hagiography Motives of religious fiction: Demons want to kill the Hive

, but she is saved by the intervention of St. Nicholas. In some cases, “demonic machinations” have very specific manifestations - conflicts in the family and rebellion of “slaves”. As befits a saint,
Juliana has a presentiment of her death and dies piously; later her body works miracles.
Thus, The Tale of Juliania Lazarevskaya is a work in which elements of an everyday story are intertwined with elements of the hagiographic genre, however, the everyday description still prevails. The story is devoid of the traditional introduction, lamentation and praise. The style is quite simple.

The story of Juliania Lazarevskaya is evidence of growing interest in society and literature in the private life of a person, his behavior in everyday life. As a result, as a result of the penetration of such realistic elements into hagiography, the hagiography is destroyed and turns into the genre of a secular biographical story.

No. 21 “The Tale of the Tver Otroche Monastery”.

17th century The historical story gradually turns into a love-adventure novella , which can be easily traced in the Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery. DS Likhachev in selected works

I studied this interesting work in detail, so we will rely on his opinion. “The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery,” undoubtedly composed in the 17th century, tells about The conflict intensifies because both heroes of the story - both the former groom and the future husband - are connected by friendship and feudal relations: the first is a servant, the “youth” of the second.

A remarkable feature of the story is that it is not based on the usual conflict between good and evil in medieval stories. In “The Tale of the Tver Otroch Monastery” no neither evil characters, no evil beginning at all . In it there is not even social conflict : action takes place as if in an ideal country where exist good relations between the prince and his subordinates . The peasants, boyars and their wives strictly follow the prince’s instructions, rejoice at his marriage, and happily meet his young wife, a simple peasant woman. They come out to meet her with children and offerings, and are amazed at her beauty. All the people in this story are young and beautiful. Several times the beauty of the heroine of the story is persistently spoken of - Ksenia. She is pious and meek, humble and cheerful , has “a great mind and walked in all the commandments of the Lord.” Youth Gregory, Xenia's fiancé, is also young and handsome (his expensive clothes are mentioned several times in the story). He always “stood before the prince,” was “loved by him dearly,” and was faithful to him in everything. The young Grand Duke Yaroslav Yaroslavich received no less praise . They all behave as they should and are distinguished by piety and intelligence. Ksenia’s parents also behave ideally. None of characters didn't make a single mistake. Little of, everyone acts as planned . The youth and the prince see visions and carry out the will revealed to them in these visions and signs. Moreover, Ksenia herself foresees what is about to happen to her. She is illuminated not only with bright beauty, but also with a bright vision of the future. And yet, the conflict is obvious - an acute, tragic conflict, forcing all the characters in the story to suffer, and one of them, the youth Gregory, to go into the forests and found a monastery there.. She obediently does what is destined for her and what she cannot help but do. By this, the author seems to free her from the burden of responsibility for the decisions she makes; in essence, she does not decide anything and does not change Gregory; she only follows what was revealed to her from above. Of course, this intervention from above weakens the earthly, purely human nature of the conflict, but this intervention is told in the story with the utmost tact. The intervention of fate is not ecclesiastical in nature. Nowhere is it said about Ksenia’s visions, about her prophetic dreams, the voice she heard or something similar. Ksenia has the gift of clairvoyance, but this clairvoyance is not ecclesiastical, but rather folkloric in nature. She knows what must happen, but why she knows is not told to the reader. She knows as a wise man knows the future. Ksenia is a “wise maiden”, a character well known in Russian folklore and reflected in ancient Russian literature: let us remember the maiden Fevronia in “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” of the 16th century.

But, in contrast to the fairy-tale development of the plot, in “The Tale of the Tver Youth Monastery” everything is transferred to a more “human plane”. The story is still far from being immersed in everyday life, but it is already developing in the sphere of ordinary human relationships. The plot itself: the foundation of the Tver Otroche Monastery.
When it turns out that Ksenia has been given to another, Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavovich, Grigory dresses in a peasant dress and goes into the forest, where “build yourself a hut and a chapel.” The main reason that Gregory decides to found a monastery is not a pious desire to devote himself to God, but unrequited love.

The founding of the monastery and the prince’s help in its construction finally confirm the main idea of ​​the story, that everything that happens happens for the betterment of the world. “The monastery still stands today through the grace of God and the prayers of the Most Holy Theotokos and the Great Saint Peter, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Russia, the Wonderworker.”“The Tale of the Tver Youth Monastery” has the features of an epic plot. It is similar to the translated chivalric novel by its love theme; as in "Bova",

we meet here a classic love triangle and the twists and turns within this triangle that are beyond the reader’s foresight. Fate is inescapable, but it promised the prince a happy love, and Gregory - an unhappy one. The youth has nothing more to look forward to in this world; he must build a monastery only in order to please the Lord and become “blessed.” Thus, on the ladder of Christian moral values carnal, earthly love turns out to be one step higher - a conclusion apparently not intended by the author.

The Tale of "Grief - Misfortune"

One and outstanding works literature of the second half of the 17th century.

Central theme: theme of the tragic fate of the younger generation trying to break with old forms family and household way of life, Domostroevsky morality.

The plot of the story is based on the tragic life story of Young Man, who rejected his parents’ instructions and wished to live of his own free will, “as he pleases.” Appearance in general - a collective image of a representative of the younger generation of his time - an innovative phenomenon. Per liter

The historical personality is replaced by a fictional hero, embodying the typical traits of an entire generation. Well done, he grew up in a patriarchal family living according to the principles of Domostroy. He was surrounded by the love and care of his parents. But because of this, he has not learned to understand people and understand life, so he wants to break out from under his parents’ wing and live according to his own will. He is too gullible, and this gullibility and belief in the sanctity of the bonds of friendship destroys him, but he does not want to give up and wants to prove that he is right by going to a foreign country. The reason for the further misadventures of the Young Man is his character. He is ruined by boasting about his happiness and wealth. This is the moral - “but the word of praise has always rotted.” From this moment on, the image of Grief appears in the work, which personifies the unfortunate fate of a person. The young man, who rejected parental authority, is forced to bow his head before Grief. “Good people” sympathize with him and advise him to return to his parents. But now it’s just

Gore

Medieval picture of the world. Russian ancient and medieval culture
Many religious, Orthodox values ​​entered the ancient Russian picture of the world quite organically and naturally and became entrenched in it for a long time. First of all, it should be noted that the assimilation and understanding of Christian dogma and cult, and all worship, proceeded to a greater extent in the language of artistic imagery as the closest to the consciousness of ancient Russian people. God, spirit, holiness were perceived not as theological concepts, but rather as aesthetic and praxeological categories, more as living (mythological, according to A. F. Losev) rather than as symbolic.
Beauty was perceived in Rus' as an expression of the true and essential. Negative, unseemly phenomena were considered as deviations from the truth. As something transitory, not related to essence and therefore actually having no existence. Art acted as the bearer and exponent of the eternal and imperishable - absolute spiritual values. This is one of its most characteristic features and, moreover, one of the main principles of ancient Russian artistic thinking in general - Sofian art, which consists in the deep feeling and awareness by the ancient Russians of the unity of art, beauty and wisdom and in the amazing ability of Russian medieval artists and scribes to express artistic by means of the basic spiritual values ​​of one’s picture of the world, the essential problems of existence in their universal significance.
Art and wisdom were seen by the people of Ancient Rus' as inextricably linked; and the terms themselves were perceived almost as synonyms. Art was not conceived by the wise, and this applied equally to the art of speech, icon painting or architecture. Starting his work, opening the first page, the Russian scribe asked God for the gift of wisdom, the gift of insight, the gift of speech, and this plea was by no means just a traditional tribute to the rhetorical fashion of his time. It contained true faith in the Divinity of creative inspiration, in the high purpose of art. .
The best expressive means The icon served as the sophia of the ancient Russian artistic and religious picture of the world. The icon, this “window” into the world of spiritual, transcendental religions, was also one of the most important paths to God. At the same time, in Rus', not only the direction of this path from the bottom up (from man to the “mountain world”) was highly valued, but also back - from God to man. God was understood by medieval Russian consciousness as the focus of all positive properties and characteristics of the “earthly” understanding of good, virtue, moral and aesthetic perfection, brought to the limit of idealization, that is, acting as an ideal extremely removed from human earthly existence. Among its main characteristics, holiness, “honesty,” purity, and luminosity most often appear—the main values ​​on which religion is based.
Another component of the traditional picture of the world - holiness - in the broadest Old Russian Orthodox understanding is sinlessness, and in the strict sense “God alone is holy.” In relation to a person, holiness means a state that is as far removed from sin as possible; It also means a state of special isolation of a person from the general mass. This singularity (or separation) is manifested in extraordinary good deeds of the individual, in speeches marked by wisdom and insight, and in amazing spiritual qualities. After the adoption of Christianity in ancient Russian spirituality, heroes of a very special kind appeared next to the holy heroes - passion-bearers. The first Russian passion-bearers are Boris and Gleb. However, brothers, warrior princes do not perform valiant feats of arms. Moreover, in a moment of danger, they deliberately leave the sword in its sheath and voluntarily accept death. The images of the passion-bearing saints were, in the words of G.P. Fedotov, a genuine religious discovery of the newly baptized Russian people. Why?
Old Russian people saw, first of all, in the behavior of Boris and Gleb, a readiness for the unconditional implementation of Christian ideals: humility, meekness, love for one’s neighbor, even to the point of self-sacrifice, revealed not in words, but in deeds.

Features of Old Russian literature.

Russian literature XI-XVII centuries. developed under unique conditions. It was entirely handwritten. Printing, which appeared in Moscow in the middle of the 16th century, very little changed the nature and methods of distributing literary works.

The handwritten nature of literature led to its variability. When rewriting, scribes made their own amendments, changes, abbreviations, or, conversely, developed and expanded the text. As a result, the monuments of ancient Russian literature for the most part did not have a stable text. New editions and new types of works appeared in response to new demands of life and arose under the influence of changes in literary tastes.

The reason for the free handling of monuments was also the anonymity of ancient Russian monuments. The concept of literary property and author's monopoly was absent in Ancient Rus'. Literary monuments were not signed, since the author considered himself only an executor of God's will. The literary monuments were not dated, but the time of writing of this or that work is established with an accuracy of five to ten years using the chronicle, where all the events of Russian history are accurately recorded, and this or that work, as a rule, appeared “hot on the heels of the events” of history itself .

Old Russian literature is traditional. The author of a literary work “dresses” a given topic in a “literary outfit” corresponding to it. As a result, the works of Ancient Rus' are not fenced off from each other by strict boundaries, their text is not fixed by precise ideas about literary property. This creates some illusion of inhibition literary process. Old Russian literature developed strictly according to traditional genres: hagiographical, apocryphal, circulation genre, teachings of the church fathers, historical stories, didactic literature. All these genres are translated. Along with translated genres, the first Russian original genre appeared in the 11th century - chronicle writing.

Ancient Russian literature is characterized by “medieval historicism”, therefore artistic generalization in Ancient Rus' is built on the basis of a single specific historical fact. The work is always attached to a specific historical person, while any historical event receives a purely church interpretation, that is, the outcome of the event depends on the will of God, who either has mercy or punishes. The “medieval historicism” of Russian literature of the 11th-17th centuries is in connection with another important feature of it, which has been preserved and developed in Russian literature up to the present day - its citizenship and patriotism.

Called to consider reality, follow this reality and evaluate it, the ancient Russian writer already in the 11th century perceived his work as a work of service home country. Old Russian literature has always been particularly serious, trying to answer the basic questions of life, calling for its transformation, and possessing diverse and always high ideals.

Peculiarities.

1. Ancient literature is filled with deep patriotic content, heroic pathos of serving the Russian land, state, and homeland.

2. The main theme of ancient Russian literature is world history and the meaning of human life.

3. Ancient literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing the most precious thing for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep belief in the power, the ultimate triumph of good and the ability of man to elevate his spirit and defeat evil.

4. A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism. The heroes are mainly historical figures. Literature strictly follows fact.

5. A feature of the artistic creativity of the ancient Russian writer is the so-called “literary etiquette”. This is a special literary and aesthetic regulation, the desire to subordinate the very image of the world to certain principles and rules, to establish once and for all what should be depicted and how.

6. Old Russian literature appears with the emergence of the state and writing and is based on bookish Christian culture and developed forms of oral poetic creativity. At this time, literature and folklore were closely connected. Literature often perceived plots, artistic images, and visual means of folk art.

7. The originality of ancient Russian literature in the depiction of the hero depends on the style and genre of the work. In relation to styles and genres, the hero is reproduced in the monuments of ancient literature, ideals are formed and created.

8. In ancient Russian literature, a system of genres was defined, within which the development of original Russian literature began. The main thing in their definition was the “use” of the genre, the “practical purpose” for which this or that work was intended.

The originality of ancient Russian literature:

Works of ancient Russian literature existed and were distributed in manuscripts. Moreover, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections. Another feature of medieval literature is the absence of copyright. We know of only a few individual authors, book writers, who modestly put their name at the end of the manuscript. At the same time, the writer supplied his name with such epithets as “thin”. But in most cases, the writer wished to remain anonymous. As a rule, the author’s texts have not reached us, but later lists of them have been preserved. Often, scribes acted as editors and co-authors. At the same time, they changed the ideological orientation of the work being copied, the nature of its style, shortened or distributed the text in accordance with the tastes and demands of the time. As a result, new editions of monuments were created. Thus, a researcher of ancient Russian literature must study all available lists of a particular work, establish the time and place of their writing by comparing various editions, variants of lists, and also determine in which edition the list most closely matches the original author's text. Such sciences as textual criticism and paleography (studies the external signs of handwritten monuments - handwriting, lettering, the nature of writing material) can come to the rescue.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is historicism. Its heroes are predominantly historical figures; it allows almost no fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about “miracles” - phenomena that seemed supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the invention of an ancient Russian writer, but rather accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the people themselves with whom the “miracle” happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state and the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian person, capable of sacrificing what is most precious for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in man's ability to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, “listening to good and evil indifferently.” Any genre of ancient literature, be it a historical story or legend, hagiography or church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Touching primarily on state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of words, in the power of persuasion. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to ensure that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

The literature of Ancient Rus' expressed and defended the interests of the upper echelons of feudal society. However, it could not help but show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings or in the forms of typically medieval religious heresies. The literature vividly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groups within the ruling class, each of which sought support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected national interests, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the nationality of ancient Russian literature.

In the 11th – first half of the 12th century, the main writing material was parchment, made from the skin of calves or lambs. Birch bark played the role of student notebooks.

To save writing material, the words in the line were not separated and only paragraphs of the manuscript were highlighted with red initial letters. Frequently used, well-known words were written abbreviated under a special superscript - title. The parchment was pre-lined. Handwriting with regular, almost square letters was called charter.

The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were bound into wooden boards.

Features of Old Russian works

1. The books were written in Old Russian. There were no punctuation marks, all words were written together.

2. Artistic images were influenced by the church. Mostly the exploits of saints were described.

3. Monks wrote books. The writers were very literate; they had to know the ancient Greek language and the Bible.

3. In ancient Russian literature there were a large number of genres: chronicles, historical stories, lives of saints, words. There were also translated works of a religious nature.
One of the most common genres is the chronicle.