1. Truman Capote - "Summer Cruise"
Truman Capote is one of the greatest American writers of the 20th century, author of such bestsellers as Breakfast at Tiffany's, Other Voices, Other Rooms, In Cold Blood and The Meadow Harp. We bring to your attention the debut novel written by the twenty-year-old Capote, when he first arrived from New Orleans to New York, and for sixty years was considered lost. The manuscript for "Summer Cruise" surfaced at Sotheby's in 2004, and was first published in 2006. In this novel, Capote, with unsurpassed stylistic grace, describes the dramatic events in the life of high-society debutante Grady McNeil, who remains in New York for the summer while her parents sail to Europe. She falls in love with the parking lot attendant and flirts with her childhood friend, remembers her past hobbies and dances in fashionable dance halls...

2. Irving Shaw - "Lucy Crown"
The book includes one of the most famous novels by American prose writer and playwright Irwin Shaw, “Lucy Crown” (1956). Like the writer's other works - "Two Weeks in Another City", "Evening in Byzantium", "Rich Man, Poor Man" - this novel opens up to the reader a world of fragile connections and complex, sometimes unpredictable relationships between people. The story of how one mistake can turn the entire life of a person and his loved ones upside down, of unappreciated and destroyed family happiness, is told in deceptively simple language, amazes with the author’s knowledge of human psychology and invites the reader to reflection and empathy.

3. John Irving - "Men Not Her Life"
An undoubted classic modern literature The West and one of its undisputed leaders plunges the reader into a mirror labyrinth of reflections: fears from children's books once popular writer Ted Cole is suddenly overgrown with flesh, and now the fabulous mole man turns into a real maniac killer, so that almost forty years later Ruth Cole, the writer’s daughter, also a writer, collecting material for the novel, becomes a witness to his cruel crime. But first and foremost, Irving's novel is about love. The atmosphere of condensed sensuality, love without shores and restrictions fills its pages with a certain magnetic force, turning the reader into a participant in a magical action.

4. Kurt Vonnegut - "Mother Darkness"
A novel in which the great Vonnegut, with his characteristic dark and mischievous humor, explores inner world... a professional spy reflecting on his own direct participation in the destinies of the nation.

Writer and playwright Howard Campbell, recruited by American intelligence, is forced to play the role of an ardent Nazi - and gets a lot of pleasure from his cruel and dangerous masquerade.

He deliberately piles absurdity upon absurdity, but the more surreal and comical his Nazi “exploits” are, the more they trust him, the more more people listen to his opinion.

However, wars end in peace - and Campbell will have to live without the opportunity to prove his non-involvement in the crimes of Nazism...

5. Arthur Haley - "Final Diagnosis"
Why did Arthur Hailey's novels captivate the whole world? What made them classics of world fiction? Why, as soon as “Hotel” and “Airport” came out in our country, they were literally swept off the shelves, stolen from libraries, given to friends “in line” to read?

Very simple. The works of Arthur Haley are a kind of “slices of life”. Life at the airport, hotel, hospital, Wall Street. A closed space in which people live - with their joys and sorrows, ambitions and hopes, intrigues and passions. People work, fight, fall in love, break up, achieve success, break the law - that’s life. That's what Hayley's novels are like...

6. Jerome Salinger - "The Glass Saga"
“Jerome David Salinger’s series of stories about the Glass family is a masterpiece of American literature of the 20th century, “a blank piece of paper instead of an explanation.” Zen Buddhism and nonconformism in Salinger’s books inspired more than one generation to rethink life and search for ideals.
Salinger loves the Glasses more than God loves them. He loves them too exclusively. Their invention became a hermit's hut for him. He loves them to the point that he is ready to limit himself as an artist."

7. Jack Kerouac - "Dharma Bums"
Jack Kerouac gave a voice to an entire generation in literature for his short life managed to write about 20 books of prose and poetry and became the most famous and controversial author of his time. Some branded him as a subverter of foundations, others considered him a classic of modern culture, but from his books all beatniks and hipsters learned to write - to write not what you know, but what you see, firmly believing that the world itself will reveal its nature.

A celebration of the outback and the bustling metropolis, Buddhism and the San Francisco poetic revival, Dharma Bums is a jazz-improvised tale of the spiritual quest of a generation that believed in kindness and humility, wisdom and ecstasy; generation, the manifesto and bible of which was another Kerouac novel, “On the Road,” which brought the author worldwide fame and entered the golden fund of American classics.

8. Theodore Dreiser - "American Tragedy"
The novel "An American Tragedy" is the pinnacle of the work of the outstanding American writer Theodore Dreiser. He said: “No one creates tragedies - life creates them. Writers only depict them.” Dreiser managed to portray the tragedy of Clive Griffiths so talentedly that his story does not leave the modern reader indifferent. A young man who has tasted all the charm of the life of the rich is so eager to establish himself in their society that he commits a crime for this.

9. John Steinbeck - "Cannery Row"
The inhabitants of a poor neighborhood in a small seaside town...

Fishermen and thieves, small traders and swindlers, “moths” and their sad and cynical “guardian angel” - a middle-aged doctor...

The heroes of the story cannot be called respectable; they do not get along well with the law. But it is impossible to resist the charm of these people.

Their adventures, sometimes funny, sometimes sad, under the pen of the great John Steinbeck, turn into a real saga about a Man - both sinful and holy, vile and ready for self-sacrifice, deceitful and sincere...

10. William Faulkner - "The Mansion"
"The Mansion" is the last book in William Faulkner's trilogy "Village, Town, Mansion", dedicated to the tragedy of the aristocracy of the American South, which was faced with a painful choice - to maintain former ideas of honor and fall into poverty, or to break with the past and join the ranks nouveau riche businessmen making quick and not very clean money from progress.
The mansion in which Flem Snopes settles gives the title to the entire novel and becomes the place where inevitable and terrible events take place that rock Yoknapatawaw County.

“The Rider on a White Horse” (1888) is the result and pinnacle of T. Storm’s work, a true pearl of German prose of the 19th century. The story of the courageous and talented dam builder Hauke ​​Heyen, whimsically combining the features romantic tradition and realism, reveals many parallels with the dramas of Ibsen and, first of all, with Goethe’s Faust. The legends and superstitions of Friesland, one of the northern lands of Germany, are so skillfully woven into the complex fabric of the novel that this author’s work is itself perceived as a folk story full of poetry and drama...

Who touched my BlackBerry? Lucy Kellaway

Awesome satirical novel, written based on the most notorious “column useful tips"throughout American history" corporate culture"! Epistolary prose of the 21st century in emails! "Martin Lux", the virtual ideal of the modern yuppie, the Internet incarnation of Lucy Kellaway, gives advice to readers and admirers on all imaginable and inconceivable occasions. But what if this character one day takes on a life of his own? How will he survive in the “harsh reality”? Of course, non-standard!

The Dark Side of the Sun Emilia Prytkina

Emilia Prytkina became famous as the author of witty novels about the adventures of resilient city women on the path to love, family and career. The socio-psychological drama “The Dark Side of the Sun” will surprise fans of the writer. This is a fascinating story of a large family and at the same time the history of an entire country, the path to forgiveness and liberation from the past, the life of besieged Armenia in the 90s of the last century. By reading this book, everyone will understand something important ABOUT THEMSELVES! The secret of birth... It poisons the lives of Arev and Lusina. In the first days of their lives, the twin sisters were separated and given away...

Villages John Updike

John Updike. Classic of world literature. Author of the legendary "Centaur", "The Witches of Eastwick", "Let's Get Married", "Rabbit, Run" and many more works included in the golden fund of 20th-century prose. For the first time in Russian - a bright and controversial novel by the great American writer, which caused a lively discussion in the world press. The story of a man who loved sex more than anything in the world, but at the same time treated the female body with truly religious worship... The story of an unusual personality - from her formation to the last hour. Story…

House of the Spider PAUL BOWLES

The heroes of the novel - the cynical writer Stenham, the American tourist Lee and the young apprentice potter Amar - find themselves at the center of a political hurricane - the uprising of Moroccans against the French colonialists in the ancient city of Fez. Soon there will be no trace left of their measured life. Recognized as one of the most important achievements of American fiction of the 20th century, the novel by Paul Bowles (1910–1999) has acquired particular relevance today because it demonstrates the origins of the Islamic extremism that has captivated the world.

Batya's invasion. The story of the death of the Russian... Viktor Porotnikov

If the merciless Horde stands at the gates of your city, if the prince and his retinue have already fallen in battle, when Mongol arrows obscure the sun, battering rams destroy the walls, and countless enemy hordes, like locusts, climb into the gaps and climb ladders - they rise to defend their homes both old and young, and even women take up the sword. There will be no people running, no people begging for mercy, no people surrendering. This city will fight until last straw blood and will die with honor - just like his princess, who threw herself from the bell tower with her baby son in her arms...

This is us, Lord!... Konstantin Vorobyov

The stories of Konstantin Vorobyov can be called the first big truth about the war that broke through to us through literature. Vorobyov's stories about the war are written in the tradition of the great Russian prose of the 19th century, and with the terrible, unvarnished truth they turn the soul upside down.

Rat King China Mieville

"The Rat King" is one of the most striking debuts in English prose at the turn of the century. One morning, Sol Garamond is awakened by the sound of his door being kicked in. The police take him to prison and accuse him of murdering his own father. But the ghost of city dumps penetrates Sol’s cell like an elusive shadow and leads him to freedom. The ghost introduces himself as the Rat King and tells him that Sol also has royal blood in his veins. And that the almighty Pied Piper is on his trail...

Blade Stephen King

Killer - or victim? Kidnapper - or savior? A humble student of a famous criminal - or a hero capable of bringing his teacher's work to true genius? A novel that, according to critics, is not inferior in psychological depth and plot tension to the best masterpieces of American prose of the twentieth century!

Russian fantastic prose XIX - early XX... Alexander Kuprin

This collection includes fantastic works by classic writers: Osip Senkovsky, Nikolai Polevoy, Konstantin Aksakov, Vladimir Odoevsky, Alexander Kuprin, Mikhail Mikhailov and others. Their fantastic stories revealed a whole gallery of themes, images, plots, which in one way or another explore the relationship between two worlds - otherworldly (irrational, elemental-sensual, metaphysical) and existing material, material. The reader is forced to constantly choose between the rational and the supernatural, but it is interesting that the conflict...

Not for adults. Time to read! Marietta Chudakova

The famous literary historian of the 20th century, a world-famous expert on Bulgakov’s work and the author of his “Biography”, as well as the author of the most fascinating detective story for teenagers “The Cases and Horrors of Zhenya Osinkina” talks about books that, at any cost, should be read before the age of 16 - under no circumstances later! Because the books on this Golden Shelf, collected for you by Marietta Chudakova, are so cunningly written that if you are late and start reading them as adults, you will never get the pleasure that is contained in them just for you -...

Volume 1. Prose by Ivan Krylov

This publication of the Complete Works of the great Russian fabulist Ivan Andreevich Krylov is carried out by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated July 15, 1944. During the life of I. A. Krylov, the collected works were not published. Many prose works, plays and poems remained lost in periodicals of the late 18th century. Only collections of his fables were published many times. Several attempts have been made to publish Complete collection works, however, it was not possible to achieve this completeness due to a number of...

Why was Stalin killed? Crime of the century Sergei Kremlev

The fact that Stalin was killed is now recognized even by many complete anti-Stalinists. There is much more debate about why this was done. “Liberal” history cheaters are trying to reduce everything to a banal struggle for power. In his new book, Sergei Kremlev irrefutably proves the falsity of their arguments. This book reads like a gripping documentary detective story. It is impossible to tear yourself away from this book. Investigating the circumstances of Stalin's death, the author not only exposes his killers, but also reveals the true motives of this crime of the century.

My age, my youth, my friends and girlfriends Anatoly Mariengof

Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof (1897 - 1962), poet, prose writer, playwright, memoirist, was a prominent figure in the literary life of Russia in the first half of our century. One of the founders of the poetic group of imagists, which had a certain influence on the development of Russian poetry in the 10-20s. He had a close personal and creative friendship with Sergei Yesenin. The author of more than a dozen plays that were staged in the country's leading theaters, numerous collections of poetry, two novels - "The Cynics" and "Catherine" - and autobiographical trilogy. His memoir prose long years…

The end of the nylon age Josef Skvorecki

Josef Škvorecký (b. 1924) is a classic of modern Czech literature, prose writer, playwright and musical critic, living in Canada. The collection "The End of the Nylon Age" is made up of the writer's most famous and controversial works, created in the strange and eerie time between Hitler's occupation of the Czech Republic and the Soviet invasion. Shkvoretsky’s short novel “Bass Saxophone” was recognized as the best literary work of all time about jazz. Musical prose by Josef Shkvoretsky - for the first time in Russian.

“The Worlds of the Strugatskys: Time of Students, XXI Century” is a unique project that allows you to once again plunge into the unique atmosphere of the works of the Strugatsky brothers. The first collection of the project, “The Most Important of the Arts,” is a kind of response from modern science fiction writers to restless filmmakers and is dedicated to the release of the film “Inhabited Island.” A dozen films have already been made based on the books of the Strugatsky brothers. Their work was addressed by such famous film directors as Andrei Tarkovsky, Alexander Sokurov, Fyodor Bondarchuk, Alexey German and...

Prose from the Julio Cortazar Observatory

Preface by the translator for the online publication Realizing that the translation of “Prose from the Observatory” will not be published in any publishing house in the near future, since the era of copyright and format currently determine publishing policy, the translator decided to publish it online. He will be glad if this little-known work by Julio Cortazar finds its reader. The text of this publication differs slightly from the text posted online. First of all, the presence of a short author’s preface and photographs of the observatory in Jaipur,…

At the turn of the century. Diary of the rector Sergei Yesin

Esin Sergey Nikolaevich is a famous writer, playwright and publicist. His stories and novels: “Imitator”, “Memoirs of a forty-year-old”, “R-78”, “Types”, “Gladiator”, “We only live twice”, “Running in reverse side" are widely known to readers. His Diaries cover the last three years of the 20th century. Here is the life of the country, the life of the Literary Institute. A. M. Gorky, of which he is the rector, the life of the author himself and many people around him. The diaries published in thick magazines were in demand by readers as greedily as the writer’s prose.

Introduction

Philosophy of literary criticism

1The relationship between philosophy and science

2Literary criticism in the system of scientific knowledge

2 US literature of the early 20th century

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Romantic and socially acute, unique in its history and original approach to problems, persecuted in its homeland and recognized in other countries - American literature is of particular interest for philosophical understanding.

Literary criticism as a scientific discipline examines not only creative methods, but also pays a lot of attention to the history of literature. This interest can be expressed in different ways: the history of a particular literary movement, the history of literature of a particular country, etc.

The turn of the 19th-20th centuries in many ways became a landmark moment for US literature - new authors received recognition, the public’s gaze fell on problems that for a long time hidden or hushed up, new cultural and literary trends emerged.

The relevance of this work is due to the need to obtain theoretical knowledge in the field of American literature.

The object of the study is the literature of the 19th - 20th centuries. The subject is US literature of this period.

Purpose of the work: to structure knowledge about US literature of the specified period, fill gaps and identify main development trends.

In achieving this goal, the following tasks were identified and solved:

)Searching for information on a given topic;

)Analysis and processing of received information;

)Identification of the main features of American literature of the 19th-20th centuries.

The abstract consists of two chapters, an introduction, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. Philosophy of literary criticism

1 The relationship between philosophy and science

For the most complete understanding of the connection between philosophy and science, it is necessary to define these concepts. Philosophy is a special form of social consciousness and knowledge of the world. It develops a system of knowledge about the fundamental principles and foundations of human existence, explores and generalizes the most essential characteristics of human relationships with the world. The Modern Encyclopedia gives the following definition of philosophy - it is a worldview, a system of ideas, views on the world and the place of man in it. Philosophy explores various forms of human relations with fibroids: cognitive, socio-political, value-based, ethical and aesthetic. Based on theoretical and practical knowledge about these relationships, philosophy reveals the relationship between subject and object. Similar definitions can be found in other sources.

Summarizing many definitions, we can say that philosophy is generalized knowledge about the world and about man’s place in it. Philosophy deals with the search and establishment of the most general laws and patterns in the world: in nature, in society, in the relationship between man and the surrounding reality.

Science can be defined as a special kind cognitive activity, aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world. In the Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary we find the following definition: science is a sphere of human activity, the main task of which is the development and theoretical schematization of objective knowledge about reality; a branch of culture that did not exist at all times and not among all peoples.

Special sciences are addressed to the phenomena and processes of real reality that exist objectively, independently of either man or humanity. They are not interested in the moral aspect of human life; in their searches they do not take into account the categories of good and evil. Science formulates its conclusions in theories, laws and formulas, excluding from the spectrum of research the scientist’s attitude to the phenomena being studied and the social consequences to which this or that discovery may lead.

According to B. Russell, all special sciences face unknown facts about the world, but “when a person enters the border areas or goes beyond them, he falls from science into the sphere of speculation.” Sciences are characterized by an orientation towards daily life, solving specific issues that determine the quality of life. While philosophy considers the most general forms human experience, which do not always give concrete practical results.

It is obvious that not a single scientific discipline, including philosophy, can absorb the entire volume of knowledge about the world. This fact determines the deep continuity between the private sciences and philosophy. At a certain stage, philosophy has the characteristics of a science: it forms its principles and laws on the basis of specific scientific material obtained empirically through specific sciences; philosophy, in turn, forms the methodological foundation for further scientific growth. Special sciences need a philosophical understanding of the knowledge accumulated by them.

In the 19th century, a special direction of philosophical research emerged, the so-called. philosophy of science. The need to develop a special philosophical methodological base for a particular science appears as the theoretical component grows scientific knowledge. Elements of the problems of philosophy of science are found already in ancient philosophy, but the own problems of this discipline have been identified only since the New Age.

The subject of studying philosophy of science is the structure and development of scientific knowledge as a whole. The philosophy of science chooses as its basis the problems of science as an epistemological (epistemology - theory of knowledge) and sociocultural phenomenon.

The place of the philosophy of science in the structure of scientific knowledge is determined by the ability to realize the epistemological and sociocultural needs of science with the help of its internal, historically formed concepts and problems. The philosophy of science gives consciousness constructive and critical functions regarding existing scientific and cognitive practice.

The own problems of philosophy of science, as a separate discipline, are formed in the works of W. Whewell, J.S. Mill, O. Comte, G. Spencer, J. Herschel. Due to the fact that in the 19th century the social role of scientific work increases so much that it becomes a form of professional activity, the works of these and other authors led to the formulation of a specific normative-critical task: to bring scientific-cognitive activity into line with a certain philosophical and methodological ideal.

The path traveled by the philosophy of science from the moment of self-determination as a separate scientific discipline became the basis modern image Sciences. Its most important feature is that scientific knowledge, without differences in subject and method, turns out to be socially and culturally relative, as well as historically changeable. On this basis, it is expected to overcome the confrontation between the natural sciences and the humanities. The search for the unity of scientific knowledge now occurs not only on the basis of the natural sciences, but also on the basis of the humanities. However, at the same time, such concepts as truth and objectivity practically disappear from the reasoning of philosophers of science. The main thing in the philosophy of science turns out to be central concept methodology of the humanities - the concept of interpretation, and the role of a unified methodological basis modern science, in this case, philosophical hermeneutics begins to claim.

The current state of philosophy of science is determined by two reductionist trends. The naturalistic tendency involves the dissolution of the philosophy of science in interdisciplinary studies, such as synergetics, cognitive science, and scientific studies. The humanitarian trend leads to the transformation of the discipline into literary studies, anthropology, and cultural studies. Maintaining belonging to the sphere of philosophical research is possible only taking into account the heuristic potential of the scientific field, critical reflection against the background of a deeper development of those fundamental goals and values ​​that form the core of the rationalistic worldview.

2 History of literary criticism

As mentioned above, the development of philosophy of science tends to expand the “functional field”. Not only applied and natural sciences, but also the humanities are turning to solving global philosophical issues. In the system of philosophical knowledge about the humanities, one can distinguish separately such areas as philosophy of mind and philosophy of language. These areas stand out because, due to their interdisciplinary setting, they are broader in scope than the philosophy of psychology and the philosophy of linguistics.

Within the framework of the philosophy of language, literary criticism can be distinguished as a discipline capable of forming philosophical knowledge. This scientific field so authoritative that now one can often find references to literary works as the most striking examples in the field of sociology, political science, history. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia gives the following definition of literary criticism: it is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. According to the authors of the encyclopedia, literary criticism is currently one of the most complex and dynamically developing systems of scientific knowledge. Literary studies also include the so-called. auxiliary disciplines: textual criticism, or text criticism, paleography, bibliography, bibliography.

It is worth saying that the boundaries of the science that studies literature are quite wide. Except general issues related to the process of development of literature, the subject of study of literary scholars becomes the work itself, the laws of its construction, the specifics of a particular text, etc. Literary criticism is conventionally divided into two main parts - theoretical and historical literary criticism. Theoretical literary criticism deals with the theory of literature, or poetics. She explores the basic elements of fiction: image, genera and species, styles, etc.

Literary history, on the contrary, is interested primarily in specific elements of literary criticism. The subject of her research is the originality of various national literatures, literary periods, directions and trends, and the creativity of individual authors. The history of literature considers any literary phenomenon in historical development.

Historical poetics has the features of the two above-mentioned directions - theory and history of literature. Like literary theory, it separates literary forms: genres, styles, types of plots and characters, etc. But unlike literary theory, historical poetics examines these forms in development (for example, changes in the novel as a genre are traced).

The history of literary criticism has its roots in the deep past. Discussions about art are found in the most ancient monuments that have survived to this day - in the Indian Vedas (10-2 centuries BC), in the Chinese “Book of Legends” (12-5 centuries BC), in the ancient Greek "Iliad" and "Odyssey" (8-7 centuries BC), etc. In Europe, the first concepts of art and literature were developed by ancient thinkers. Already in the works of Aristotle “Rhetoric” and “Metaphysics” the formation of the actual literary disciplines - the theory of literature, stylistics and poetics - takes place. His essay “On the Art of Poetry” contains the first systematic presentation of the foundations of poetics. It opened a centuries-old tradition of special treatises on poetics, which over time acquired an increasingly normative character. In the 18th century The first historical and literary courses were published: “The History of Italian Literature” (1772-82) by J. Tiraboschi, “The History of English Poetry” (1774-81) by T. Wharton, as well as the “Lyceum, or Course”, built on a historical consideration of the types of poetry ancient and modern literature" (1799-1805) J. Laharpe.

Over time, the large-scale field of literary criticism gives rise to a number of pan-European methodological schools. One of the first among them was the mythological school. Its philosophical basis was the works on aesthetics of F. Schelling and br. A. and F. Schlegel.

The influence of the romantic theory about art as a way of self-expression of the creative spirit served as the basis for the biographical method (S.O. Sainte-Beuve, “Literary-Critical Portraits,” 1836-39). It is worth noting that this method to one degree or another runs through all modern literary studies. The biographical method gave rise to psychological theories of creativity, widespread in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century. The cultural-historical school, which was based, among other factors, on determinism in literary criticism, was especially influential.

At the end of the 19th century. in Western European literary criticism there are tendencies towards the emergence of a comparative approach in the study of literature. This is facilitated by the development of cultural, historical and psychological methods(“Scientific criticism”, 1888, E. Henneken, France; “Main trends in European XIX literature century,” 1873-1890, G. Brandes, W. Wundt, D. N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky).

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. a spiritual-historical (or cultural-philosophical) school took shape. In their theory, representatives of this school (V. Dilthey) neglected the social and class motives of experience, developing the principle of “historicism” (in relation to the change of artistic styles and forms). Moments were also not taken into account artistic structure, because art dissolved in the flow of the general worldview inherent in the era.

A special place in the Western literary tradition has been occupied by movements based on the philosophy of existentialism. Existentialists interpreted a poetic work as a self-sufficient, self-contained truth; the existentialist “interpretation” avoids the traditional genetic approach, taking the work out of its socio-historical context.

Modern literary criticism is a science that comprehensively studies fiction, its origins and social connections; the specifics of verbal and figurative artistic thinking, the nature and functions of artistic creativity, general and local patterns of the historical and literary process. In recent decades, research in the field of poetics has revived, which is characterized by a clear focus on understanding the formative, substantive principles of literature; this highlighted the problem of the work as a complex system capable of being incorporated into a changing historical and social context.

Before modern literary criticism The main task is to develop mechanisms for adequate interpretation of a literary text. A literary critic must be able to establish a dialogue with a work of literary art and make this dialogue interesting for the reader or listener. Simply put, the researcher must see and understand the literary text something that a non-expert won’t notice or won’t be able to explain. The level of qualification of a literary critic is precisely determined by the ability to solve these problems. The more extensive the knowledge, the more subtle and non-standard the commentary, the higher the level of the philologist-literary critic.

US literature at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries

At the beginning, I would like to make a short excursion into the history of the United States of the period of interest to us, because... Without knowledge of the main historical events, understanding literary processes and analyzing texts is impossible.

The United States of America is one of the youngest countries. The exploration of the continent by Europeans began in the 16th century; Before their appearance, the territory of the future world power was inhabited by Indian tribes. By the 18th century, Europeans had colonized the entire North American continent. In 1774, 13 English colonies began military operations in the struggle for independence. The result of their victory on July 4, 1776 was the formation of a new sovereign state.

Throughout the 19th century, the territory of the United States increased due to the acquisition of Louisiana from the French, Florida from the Spaniards, and the conquest of other lands. The seizure of local states was accompanied by either the forced removal of Indian people to reservations or the complete destruction of the population.

In 1861, disagreements arose between the southern and northern states related to economic and cultural issues, as a result of which a Confederation of 11 southern states arose and declared their secession. At the beginning of the civil war, the southerners won several victories, but in the end it ended with the victory of the northern states and the preservation of the federation.

The end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries was marked by a tremendous economic recovery in the United States due to the influx of immigrants from other continents. On April 4, 1917, America entered the First World War. Until this time, the state preferred to take a neutral position in relation to events in Europe. At this moment, the United States was creating zones of influence in the countries of the Pacific Ocean, the Caribbean and Central America. After the war in 1929, a sharp jump in the country's economy gave way to a terrible crisis. During the Great Depression, production fell significantly and unemployment increased. On December 7, 1941, as a result of the bombing of an American base at Pearl Harbor by Japanese fighters, the US Army entered the Second world war with Japan. After December 11, 1941, America entered into military conflict with Italy and Germany. The Americans deployed all their military operations mainly in the Pacific territory. After the Tehran Conference on June 6, 1944, the US Army was involved in the defeat of the German army on the Atlantic coast of France. The fighting against Japan was successful in South-East Asia and on the Pacific Islands. On August 6, 1945, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, and on August 9, a bomb was dropped on another Japanese city - Nagasaki. On September 2, 1945, Emperor Hirohito of Japan signed the act of surrender.

1 US literature of the late 19th century

Literary scholars call the end of the 19th century late American romanticism. During this period, a sharp division occurred in the country's literary space caused by the Civil War between North and South. On the one hand comes the literature of abolitionism, which, within the framework of romantic aesthetics, protests against slavery from ethical and general humanistic positions. On the other hand, the literature of the South, idealizing the traditions of the slave system, defends a historically doomed and reactionary way of life.

Motives of opposition to anti-humanistic laws occupy a significant place in the works of such writers as Longfellow, Emerson, Thoreau and others. We can observe the same motives in the works of H. Beecher Stowe, D. G. Whitier, R. Hildreth and others. A complex fusion of romantic and realistic elements is the work of the greatest American poet Walt Whitman. Dickinson's work is permeated with a romantic worldview - already beyond the chronological framework of romanticism. Romantic motifs are organically included in the creative method of F. Bret Harte, M. Twain, A. Beers, D. London and other US writers of the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

It should be noted that American romanticism differs significantly from European romanticism. The affirmation of national identity and independence, the search for a “national idea” runs through all the art of American romanticism. The culture of the United States did not have the centuries-old experience that Europe had at that time - by the end of the 19th century, the new nation had not yet had time to “acquire” objects and realities for which romantic associations could be attached (such as the tulips of Holland and the roses of Italy). But gradually, in the books of Irving and Cooper, Longfellow and Melville, Hawthorne and Thoreau, the phenomena and facts of American nature, history, and geography acquire a romantic flavor.

The theme of the Indians became no less significant for American romanticism. Indians in America from the very beginning have been associated with a very complex psychological complex - admiration and fear, hostility and guilt. The image of the “noble savage”, the life of the Indians, its freedom, naturalness, closeness to nature could become a romantic alternative to capitalist civilization in the books of Irving and Cooper, Thoreau and Longfellow. In the works of these authors we see evidence that the conflict between the two races was not fatally inevitable, but that the cruelty and greed of the white settlers were to blame for it. The works of American romantics make the life and culture of Indians an important component of US national literature, conveying its special imagery and flavor. The same applies to the perception of another ethnic minority - black Americans of the southern states.

In American romanticism, within a single creative method there were marked regional differences. The main literary regions are New England (northeastern states), the middle states, and the South.

The atmosphere of the American South is conveyed by the works of D. P. Kennedy and W. G. Simms. It is worth noting that the authors were not able to completely get rid of the stereotypes of glorifying the virtues of “southern democracy” and the advantages of slave-owning systems. With all these limited features, “southern” romanticism prepares the ground for the formation of a complex, multidimensional, but undoubtedly fruitful “southern tradition” in US literature, which in the 20th century. represented by the names of W. Faulkner, R. P. Warren, W. Styron, K. McCullers, S. E. Grau and others. Southern writers often sharply and rightly criticize the evils of capitalist development in America, the dehumanizing consequences of bourgeois progress, but they do this with politically reactionary positions, arguing that “the slave lives happily on the plantation, without worries.”

The Middle States have been characterized by great ethnic and religious diversity and tolerance from the very beginning. Here American bourgeois democracy is being founded and capitalist relations are developing especially rapidly. The work of Irving, Cooper, Paulding, and later Melville is associated with the middle states. The main themes in the works of the romantics of the middle states are the search for a national hero, interest in social issues, reflections on the path the country has traveled, and a comparison of the past and present of America.

New England romanticism (Hawthorne, Emerson, Thoreau, Bryant, etc.) is characterized primarily by the desire for a philosophical understanding of the American experience, an analysis of the national past, its ideological and artistic heritage. This literature is characterized by exploration of complex ethical issues; important place occupies a revision of the Puritan complex of religious and moral ideas of the Puritan colonists of the 17th-18th centuries, with which a deep continuity remains. New England Romanticism has a strong tradition of moral and philosophical prose, rooted in America's Puritan colonial past. After graduation Civil War In US literature, a realistic direction in literature is developing. A new generation of writers is associated with a new region: it relies on the democratic spirit of the American West, on the elements of folk oral folklore and addresses its works to the widest, mass reader. From the point of view of the new aesthetics, romanticism ceased to meet the requirements of the time. M. Twain, F. Bret Harte and other young realist writers sharply criticized the romantic “impulses”. Their contradictions with the romantics are caused, first of all, by different understandings of the truth of life and ways of expressing it in artistic creativity. American Realists II half of the 19th century V. They strive for maximum historical, social and everyday concreteness; they are not satisfied with the language of romantic allegories and symbols.

It must be said that this denial is of a purely dialectical nature. In US literature of the 20th century. There are romantic motives and they are associated, as a rule, with the search for lost high ideals and true spirituality, the unity of man and nature, with the moral utopia of extra-bourgeois human relations, with a protest against the transformation of the individual into a cog of the state machine. These motifs are clearly visible in the works of the greatest American literary artists of our century - E. Hemingway and W. Faulkner, T. Wilder and D. Steinbeck, F. S. Fitzgerald and D. D. Salinger. US writers continue to turn to them last decades.

american literature novel realistic

2.2 US literature of the early 20th century

The beginning of the twentieth century was marked by significant artistic achievements American literature, which has received wide recognition throughout the world. This was largely due to the influx of immigrants from Europe and the powerful economic development. At the beginning of the century, the conflict between mass literature, bourgeois fiction and pseudo-romantic prose in the style of “refined tradition”, on the one hand, and literature seeking to convey life in its dynamics and contradictions, on the other, became more noticeable. The growth of social movements was important for the development of literature during this period: first, anti-war, then anti-monopoly. Already in the first decades of the twentieth century, three new trends in American literature were distinguished: critical realism, experimental and socialist literature.

An important step Dreiser's novel "Genius" became the literary life of America. This work shows the conflict between true creativity and external circumstances that prevent it from being realized. Dreiser believed that the romance of profit prevails in American society; minds are dominated by the belief that the existing system is the best. In his opinion, Hollywood has captured not only cinematography, but also literature: heroes in American literature have stopped working, poverty has become a myth, and difficulties are resolved through various intrigues.

The growing realistic literature was represented by such authors as Mark Twain, E. Sinclair, J. London and others. Many of them supported the so-called movement. "muckrakers" This group of writers became the founders of the American sociological novel, combining journalistic research with artistic comprehension in their work.

In April 1917, the United States announced its entry into the First World War. America has never fought on its own territory, but its literature was also shaken by the theme of the “lost generation.” Problems related to the war were included not only in the books of those writers who fought on the fronts of Europe, such as E. Hemingway. The war, intertwined with other semantic lines in different works, touches on problems specific to America - big money and the collapse of the American Dream - helps to gain insight and see true value things, lies and selfish falsehood of official slogans. Economic crisis of the 20-30s. pulled all the contradictions into a single knot, exacerbating social conflicts: in the South and West, farms were ruined en masse; in the North and Northeast, violent clashes broke out in mines and factories. T. Dreiser writes about the disasters of the miners of Garlan, Steinbeck told the whole world about the tragedy of the farmers of California and the Far West. The stormy 30s are their most truthful and profound reflection. found in the works of E. Hemingway, W. Faulkner, J. Steinbeck, A. Miller, S. Fitzgerald.

The beginning of the century was also marked by new trends in the development of ethnic cultures. Interest in the work of Indian writers is growing, and the number of publications of works by black Americans is increasing, among which are William DuBois, P.L. Dunbar, C.W. Chesnut. They capture a wide American audience. The influx of immigrants to the United States has given rise to a unique literature, both in English and in the languages ​​of immigrants from different countries who came to America. This phenomenon gave impetus to a new stage in the development of not only US literature, but also culture as a whole.

Characteristic feature American realists were that, while borrowing some formal features of the modernist novel, they retained aesthetic principles critical realism: the ability to create types of enormous social significance, to show circumstances of provincial and metropolitan life that are deeply typical of American reality; the ability to depict life as a contradictory process, as a constant struggle and action, in contrast to the decadent novel, which replaces the image social contradictions withdrawal into the inner world of the hero.

The masters of American prose of the early twentieth century consciously created simple stories, depriving them of the entertaining elements inherent in novels XIX century. In their opinion, this approach to creativity is better able to emphasize the tragedy of the protagonist’s situation. Traditional autobiographicalism continued to fuel the realistic elements of American literature, such as factualism and documentaryism. The authors believed that in the twentieth century the aesthetics of reading should become more intense, so they do not strive, like their predecessors, to convey in the exhibition everything basic about their heroes; Additional effort is required from the reader to assimilate and comprehend the components of the complex composition of the novel.

The beginning of the twentieth century in the United States not only revealed great names to the world community, but also became for the country a difficult transition period from the state of “arrogant youth” to a more mature understanding of things. The “Great Depression” of the 1930s was officially overcome in 1933, but its presence in literature goes far beyond the indicated limits. The experience of these difficult years forever remained in the Americans as an immunity against complacency, carelessness and spiritual indifference. It formed the basis for the further development of the national formula for success and contributed to strengthening the moral foundation of American business, which is reflected in literature.

Conclusion

Literary life The United States at the turn of the century was saturated. Political events, social upheavals and cultural changes taking place in the world were quickly reflected in fiction. It must be said that many reactionary works eventually laid the foundation for entire movements of literature.

I would like to note the main trends that emerged in American literature at the beginning of the twentieth century. In this work, three of them are identified.

The dissonance in literary circles regarding the themes, ideas and forms of works naturally led to a change in the period of romantic literature to realistic literature. The conflict between mass and “noble” literature, based on the nation’s rethinking of itself, led to the formation of the American social novel.

The second trend in US literature was war prose. Despite the fact that the hostilities of World War I did not affect American territory, the American public reacted strongly to them. The authors who touched upon this topic received recognition not only in their country, but also abroad.

I would like to note another trend that emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century and is actively developing to this day - the recognition of ethnic authors. For a long time this area of ​​literature was consigned to oblivion due to domestic policy USA relative to non-white population. The beginning of the century was marked by the “discovery” of ethnic literature. This fact has significantly enriched the literary space of America. Now many non-American American writers have gained worldwide fame.

Bibliography

1.Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov, 3rd ed. T. 1-30. M., “Sov. Encyclopedia", 1969-78.

.Gilenson B.A. American literature of the 30s of the XX century, M. 1974.

.History of US literature: Literature of the early 20th century. Ch. ed. Ya. N. Zasursky, T.5. M., “Heritage”, 2009.

.Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006.

.Moiseeva N.A. Philosophy: A short course. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - 352 p.

.Nikolaev A.I. Fundamentals of literary criticism: tutorial for students of philological specialties. - Ivanovo: LISTOS, 2011

.Fundamentals of literary criticism. Ch. ed. Meshcheryakov V.P., M., “Bustard”, 2003

.Russell B. Wisdom of the West / Ed. V.A. Malinina. - M., 1998

.Modern encyclopedia. 2000.

.Tolmachev V.M. Foreign literature late XIX - early XX centuries. - M.: Academy, 2003.

.Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivina. 2004

.Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010.

.Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science. M.: “Canon+”, ROOI “Rehabilitation” I.T. Kasavin, 2009.

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XIX century - time big changes in the spiritual life of the United States. The industrial revolution and economic success destroyed the strict Puritan injunctions, which condemned art created not by reason, but by feeling. Everything inspired optimistic confidence in the great destiny of America. People naively believed in their unlimited capabilities.

American romanticism

Unlike the European, he was all focused on the future and optimistic. At the same time, he was characterized by longing for what was irretrievably gone, sadness from contemplating the eternal cycle of life. Belief in a better future and prosperity for America reconciled most romantics with the dark sides of life.

Bright representatives of romanticism in literature were the poet Henry Longfellow and the writer Fenimore Cooper, who were so different from each other.

Henry Longfellow (1807-1882) - classic of American literature. His work is a milestone in American poetry of the 19th century. Unlike famous poets and writers, Longfellow fully enjoyed his fame during his lifetime. When he died, mourning was declared not only in the United States, but also in England.

His best work was the poem “The Song of Hiawatha.” She was among the most famous works world literature.

“The Song” was written based on Indian traditions and legends. Longfellow sang in it the Indian national hero of the fabulously harmonious age, Hiawatha, who preached peace between tribes and taught people agriculture and writing. The poem is imbued with a surprisingly touching description of nature and folk legends, the spirit of bright sadness. Calls for harmony in relations between people, between nature and man.

The Indian theme is reflected in five novels by Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), united by a common hero - the hunter and tracker Natty Bumppo: “The Pioneers”, “The Last of the Mohicans”, “The Prairie”, “The Pathfinder”, “The St. John's Wort”. The action of the novels takes place in the 18th century. during the war between England and France in America. F. Cooper bitterly describes the inhumane extermination of Indian tribes and the destruction of a unique culture. The meeting of two civilizations turned into tragedy. Honest and brave Natty Bumppo and his faithful friend Indian chief Chingachgook were also crushed by the world of acquisitiveness and profit.

In the wake of the abolition movement, several talented works emerged. The most significant of them was the novel “Uncle Tom's Cabin” (1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811 - 1896).

The book was a great success among readers. She brought the truth about the horrors of slavery in the American South. Contemporaries said that she played a greater role in the fight for the abolition of slavery than hundreds of propaganda pamphlets or rallies. Performances based on Uncle Tom's Cabin were staged in many theaters in the United States. In Boston, the play ran for 100 days in a row, and in New York, only in one of the theaters - 160 days. Fascinating content, a truthful description of the living conditions of slaves and the morals of plantation slave owners made “Uncle Tom's Cabin” one of the most popular books in world literature. It is still read with undiminished interest.

During the period of democratic rise of the 50s, when the States were shaken by disputes between northerners and southerners and the Civil War was brewing in the country, the poet Walt Whitman (1819-1892) appeared. An ordinary journalist, he published the book “Leaves of Grass” in 1855, which made him a great poet of America and brought him worldwide fame. This only book of the poet was unlike everything that was written before him. People are trying unsuccessfully to unravel this amazing creative takeoff, the “Whitman riddle.”

Whitman called himself the prophet of democracy. He sang of America and its working people to the point of oblivion. He sang the movement of the stars and every atom, every grain of the universe. Peering at the people, he distinguished an individual person, bending over the grass, he saw a blade of grass - a leaf of grass. Furiously in love with life, he rejoiced at its slightest growth and merged with the elements of the surrounding world. The image of “grass” and the poet’s “I” are inseparable:

"I bequeath myself to the dirty earth, let me grow my
favorite herb,
If you want to see me again, look for me at your place
under the soles."

Whitman created his own, truly Whitmanian style. His invention is free verse. The poet described the rhythm of free verse in which “Leaves of Grass” was written: “This verse, like sea ​​waves: they roll in and then retreat - radiant and quiet on a clear day, menacing in a storm.” Unlike the romantic poets, Whitman's poetic speech is surprisingly human and spontaneous:

"The first person you meet, if you want to talk as you pass
With me, why don't you talk to me,
Why don't I start a conversation with you?"

Whitman glorified not only the beauty of man and the beauty of the nature of his country. He sang the praises of railroads, factories, and cars.

"...Oh, we'll build a building
More magnificent than all the Egyptian tombs,
More beautiful than the temples of Hellas and Rome,
We will build your temple, oh holy industry..."

Well, America's great poet was not particularly insightful. Intoxicated by the dream and delighted by the world, he did not see the danger to man and humanity arising from the powerful march of modern industry.

First warnings

Among American writers of the first half of the 19th century. There were many who criticized the negative aspects of American reality. “Liberty, equality and fraternity” came into conflict with life. It was, as one of the romantics put it, dominated by the “almighty dollar.”

While Whitman praised America, Herman Chalkville said many bitter words about it in his famous novel Moby Dick, or the White Whale. Bourgeois civilization, he believed, brings evil and destruction to people. Melville denounced racism, colonization and slavery. Several years before it began, he predicted the American Civil War.

Another famous American writer, Henry Thoreau, sharply criticized bourgeois civilization. He preached the simplification of man, his harmonious relationship with nature. Here is his famous description railway: “Every sleeper is a man, Irish or Yankee. On them, on these people, the rails are laid... and the cars roll smoothly. The sleepers may someday wake up and stand up,” Thoreau prophetically warned.

American realism

The largest American realist writers in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. there were Mark Twain, F. Bret Harte, Jack London and Theodore Dreiser.

Mark Twain (1835-1910) subjected to merciless criticism and ridicule of his main enemies - the “monarchy of money” and religion. Therefore, some of his books could not be published in the USA for a long time. Mark Twain's best works - "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" and "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" - are dedicated to the life of ordinary people in America.

Occupies a special place in American literature Bret Harte (1836-1902). He is famous for his stories and tales from the life of California gold miners. They capture the enslaving power of gold in a fascinating and masterful manner. Harte's works were accepted in Europe as a new word in American literature.

At the end of the 19th century. took a prominent place in American literature short story. O'Henry proved himself to be a virtuoso master of the short story, a light and cheerful short story. The greatest writer of the early 20th century, Jack London (1876-1916), gained fame with his stories. They described a new and unfamiliar world for Americans - fearless and courageous people, gold miners of the North, the world of romance and adventure. The best works of Jack London are the stories “Love of Life”, “The Mexican”, the novels “White Fang” and “Martin Eden”. The story “The White Plague” is a vision of the catastrophe of bourgeois civilization.

The downside of US economic prosperity is depicted on a grand scale in the novels of America's outstanding writer Theodore Dreiser (1871 -1945). The trilogy “The Financier,” “The Titan,” and “The Stoic” tells the story of a “superman” financier who came to the bitter conclusion about the futility of accumulation and money-grubbing. One of the writer’s best works is the novel “American Tragedy.”

Painting

American painting was heavily influenced by Western Europe. It was characterized by romanticism and realism, and from the end of the 19th century - impressionism. Romantic artists were most interested in two big topics- nature and personality. Therefore it was widespread portrait painting. In times of economic prosperity, artists tended to paint rich people and their families. Some kind of special identity american painting hasn't been different yet.

Heart of the Andes. Frederick Church (1826-1900). In the 1850s visited South America, after which he became famous in the United States for his bright and impressive images of exotic landscapes

Mother and Child, 1890. American M. Cassatt became the first woman to achieve recognition among the Impressionists. Paintings on the theme of motherhood are simple, expressive and full of warmth

Only after the Civil War did American artists cease to feel like uncouth apprentices. Their works are becoming more and more “American”.

The most famous American painters of the 19th century. There were representatives of the romantic trend: Cole, Darend and Bingham. The portrait painter Sargent was very popular. However, Winslow Homer is considered to be a typical American artist of the end of the century.

A Light Breeze, 1878. W. Homer (1836-1910). This painting was hailed as the artist's greatest achievement. Children's themes were popular in the second half of the 19th century, as in the days of Huckleberry Finn

Edward Buat's Daughters, 1882. J. Sargent (1856-1925). Born into a wealthy American family in Italy. He spent his entire life in Europe, occasionally making visits to the USA. Created masterly social portraits

Metropolitan Museum of Art

In the 19th century In the USA, collecting works of European painting began. Rich Americans traveled to Europe and bought art treasures there. In 1870 the group public figures and artists founded the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the largest art collection in the United States.

Today it houses about 3 million works of world art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art ranks with the world's largest art museums, such as the Hermitage and Tretyakov Gallery in Russia, the Louvre in Paris or the British Museum in London.

Architecture

American architecture was as eclectic as European architecture. It intricately intertwined elements of the styles you know - Gothic, Rococo and Classicism. In the second half of the 19th century. Americans made a great contribution to the development of world architecture. They are credited with creating steel structures for large industrial and administrative buildings.

It all started with a tragic event. In 1871, the city of Chicago was almost completely burned out by a large fire. It was necessary to rebuild the entire city, which caused a surge of different ideas. A team of architects led by Louis Sullivan designed the skeleton of a commercial skyscraper, based on a steel frame filled with stone and cement. In the 1880s first in Chicago, and then in other cities, the first skyscrapers appeared, becoming a symbol of America's industrial power.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of Modern Times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.

Development of English literature in the 19th century

IN English literature 19th century, as in others national literatures this century, two directions are fighting: romanticism and realism. Romanticism came to England from France (the influence of the revolution of 1789-1794) and subjugated the first half of the 19th century, although some literary scholars believe that true romanticism existed for only a quarter of a century. The beginning of romanticism in England is associated with 1798, when W. Wordsword and S. Coleridge published a book of poems “Lyrical Ballads”. The decline of this direction causes numerous disputes. Some believe that the death of Byron in 1824 brought an end to romanticism, others associate this phenomenon with the work of W. Hazlitt, W. Landor and T. Carlyle, and this is already the middle of the century. Romanticism as a method was most clearly manifested in poetry, and prose invariably contained both features of romanticism and features of realism.

In English romanticism, 3 main movements (generations) can be distinguished:

• 1. poets of the “Lake School” (“Leucists”) - W. Wordsword, S. Coleridge, R. Southey romanticism culture idealism being
• 2. revolutionary romantics - J. G. Byron, P.-B. Shelley, J. Keats
• 3. “London Romantics” - C. Lamb, W. Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt

The founder of English romanticism is William Blake (1757-1827). Blake created his main works back in the 18th century (“Songs of Innocence”, “Songs of Experience”, “The Marriage of Heaven and Hell”) In the 19th century “Milton”, “The Ghost of Abel”, etc. were written. Blake is considered the founder of the cosmic worldview.

Development French literature in the 19th century

Novels by Prospera Merimee

In his short stories, Merimee tries to embody a positive ideal, which he wants to find among the people and in countries that have not yet been spoiled by bourgeois civilization (for example, in Corsica, Spain). However, unlike the romantics, Merimee does not idealize the heroes and their way of life. He objectively portrays the heroes: on the one hand, he shows the heroic and noble sides of their character, on the other, he does not hide their negative sides, due to their savagery, backwardness and poverty. Thus, in Merimee, the character of the hero is determined by the external environment. And in this the writer continues the traditions of realism. At the same time, Merimee pays tribute to romanticism, and this is manifested in the fact that at the center of the writer’s short stories there is always an exceptionally strong personality.

Unlike the romantics, Merimee does not describe the emotions of the characters in detail. The writer is very laconic and depicts the psychology of a person, his experiences through external signs - gestures, facial expressions, actions. The narration is told on behalf of the narrator, who does it casually, reluctantly, as if bored, that is, the manner of narration is always somewhat detached.

The composition of the short stories is always very clear and logically structured. As a realist writer, Merimee depicts not only the climax, but also tells the background of events, gives concise but rich characteristics of the characters. The contrast in Merimee's short stories is manifested in the collision of real reality and dramatic, extraordinary events unfolding against the backdrop of this reality. In general, all the short stories are built on contrast: on the one hand, human vices and base interests, and on the other, selfless feelings, the concept of honor, freedom, nobility.

American literature of the 19th century

Creativity of O'Henry (real name - William Sidney Porter)

The work of this writer begins to take shape in the late 90s. 19th century - early 20th century. Initially, O'Henry had nothing to do with literature - he worked as a cashier in a bank, but already at that time he was interested in the people around him, and the people were completely different. However, gradually the observation of the future writer and a good sense of humor lead to the fact that he begins to publish weekly humorous magazine "Rolling Stone". But soon O'Henry's serene life was turned upside down by a shortage in the bank, and in order to avoid arrest, the writer went to travel and began to engage professionally. journalistic activity. Subsequently, these materials will form the basis of the plots of many works. After some time, his wife’s illness forces O’Henry to return, the jury finds the writer guilty and sends him to prison for 5 years. It was there that, during his night shifts, O’Henry was actively engaged in writing stories.

The first story was written in 1899 under the title "Dick the Whistler's Christmas Stocking." In total, O'Henry wrote 287 stories, which were included in such collections as “4 Million” (1906), “The Burning Lamp” (1907), “The Voice of the City” (1908), “Business People” (1910), “The Circulation of Life "(1910). In 1904 he wrote the adventure-humorous novel "Kings and Cabbages."