· story

· written sources

· numismatics

toponymy

· formational

· civilizational

· civilizational

worldview

axeological

· prognostic

· regulatory

· objectivity

social approach

· logical

· dialectical

· chronological

· methodology

principles

1)M.Tikhomirnov

2) B. Rybakov

3) L. Gumilyov

B) “From Rus' to Russia”

B) “Paganism Ancient Rus'»

· ideographic

1)noble historiography

2) revolutionary historiography

3) public school

A) mid-19th V

B) second half of the 18th century

IN) late XVIII V

· historical-systemic

· educational

social memory

· comparative

· comparative

· historical-genetic

· informative

1) N. Karamzin

2) V. Klyuchevsky

3) M. Pokrovsky

B) “Course of Russian history

· subjectivism

· rationalism

· civilization

· in river valleys

weak centralization of power

Topic 3. Russia in the middle: XVI-XVII centuries.

1. Years: 1497, 1581, 1597, 1649 – reflect the main stages:

enslavement of peasants

2. A legislative act that testified to the final approval of serfdom in Russia:

· Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich

3. Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky is:

· elected kings of the Time of Troubles period

4. Mikhail Fedorovich, Alexey Mikhailovich is:

· the first kings of the Romanov dynasty

5. “Reserved summers” are:

· ban on the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another

6. By the end of the 17th century, the following type had been established in Russia

statehood:

autocracy

7. Zemsky Sobor is:

· body of class representation in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries

8. The main goal of the oprichnina terror of Ivan the Terrible was the following:

limit the influence of the boyar class

9. During the reign of Ivan IV, the Khanate had not yet become part of Russia:

· Crimean Khanate

10. “Conciliar Code” of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, adopted in 1649:

completed the enslavement of peasants

11. In the history of Russia they called the “Rebellious Age”:

12. Indicate the year with which the beginning of the Romanov dynasty is associated:

13. The result of the Time of Troubles was:

· election of a new royal dynasty Romanovs

14. F. Grek, A. Fiorovanti, P. Yakovlev and I. Barma are:

· figures of Russian culture of the 15th-16th centuries

15. Does not apply to the reign of the first Romanovs:

· annexation of the Novgorod Republic

16. Monks showed resistance to the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon:

· Solovetsky Monastery

17. Patriarch Nikon and his supporters, when carrying out church reform, relied on:

· Greek samples

18. What year did the liberation of Moscow from Polish invaders date from:

19. During the reign of V. Shuisky, the first agreement between the king and his subjects was adopted:

· "cross-kissing record"

Topic 4. Russia in the 18th century

1. An absolute monarchy is characterized by the following features (indicate the wrong answer):

· functioning of estate-representative authorities

2. The Synod is:

· state governing body Orthodox Church

3. The abolition of the patriarchate by Peter I and the creation of the state governing body of the church - the Holy Synod, had the goal:

· liquidate certain independence of the church and integrate it into the system of government

4. The principle of recruiting a regular army, which was introduced by Peter I:

Recruitment duty

5. Capitation is:

· tax on all men of the tax-paying classes

6. An ideological movement based on the conviction of the decisive role of reason and science in the progress of mankind, criticizing religious fanaticism and absolutist political regimes was called:

· Enlightenment

7. Years of the reign of Peter I:

· 1682-1725

8. A. Menshikov, F. Apraksin, F. Lefort are known in history as:

Petrov's nest chicks

9. State economic policy aimed at fencing national economy from foreign competition through financial incentives for domestic industry is called:

· protectionism

10. Modernization is:

· renewal in all spheres of society

11. St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia in (year):

12. The merging of ideas about statehood, fatherland and the personality of the autocrat into a single whole occurred when:

13. Russia was proclaimed an empire in (year):

14. As a result of the victory in the Northern War, Russia (indicate the wrong answer):

· became a guarantor of existence Ottoman Empire

15. The peasant war during the reign of Catherine II was led by:

· E. Pugachev

16. The passport system in Russia was introduced by:

17. Name the Russian emperor, whose activities gave a powerful impetus to the development of industry, the creation of a combat-ready army and navy, and the laying of the foundations of secular culture and education:

18. The following intended to carry out liberal reforms aimed at the formation of a “new nature of people” in Russia, as a social basis for the European type of development:

· Catherine II

19. The reign of Catherine II:

20. The work of the Legislative Commission and the peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev relate to the reign of:

· Catherine II

21. The laid commission in 1767 was convened for the purpose of:

· creation of new legislation

22. The state that was divided at the end of the 18th century between Prussia, Austria and Russia:

· Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

23. V.V. Rastrelli, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov are:

Russian architects of the 18th century

24. V.I.Bazhenov, F.I.Shubin, F.G.Volkov are:

· figures of Russian culture of the 18th century

25. Choose the correct answers (2). Terms related to international trade:

· protectionism

· mercantilism

26. The main condition for Anna Ioannovna’s accession to the throne was:

· joint rule of the empress with the Supreme Privy Council

27. Choose the correct answers (2). The privileged classes of the 18th century were:

· nobles

28. “Conditions” are:

· conditions for limiting royal power proposed to Anna Ioannovna

29. Choose the correct answers (2). Provisions of the “Charter of Complaint to the Nobility”:

· confirmation of all privileges given after the death of Peter I

· creation of noble societies in provinces and districts

30. Supreme body state power in Russia, created in the 18th century:

31. Choose the correct answers (2). Activities of Paul I regarding the nobility:

· introduction of a tax on nobles to support the local administration

· the possibility of applying corporal punishment to nobles

32. At the beginning of the 18th century, the position of profit-maker appeared in Russia. What does this mean:

· a person obliged to come up with new taxes or duties

War

1. At the VI Congress (June-August 1917), the Bolsheviks returned to the slogan of “Armed uprising”, because (indicate incorrect answer):

· dual power ended with the establishment of autocracy of the Provisional Government

2. An attempt to remove the provisional government and establish military dictatorship the general did:

· Kornilov

3. The slogan “Wage the war to a victorious end” was proclaimed by:

· Provisional government

4. The Provisional Government proclaimed the slogan in relation to the war:

· war to the bitter end

5. The Provisional Government decided to postpone until the Constituent Assembly:

· agrarian and national issues

6. The Provisional Government resolved the following issues:

· about rights, freedoms, the abolition of national-confessional and class inequality, the abolition death penalty and holding a political amnesty

7. Social support of the Bolshevik Party:

· the proletariat in alliance with the peasantry

8. P.N. Milyukov, A.F. Kerensky, A.I. Guchkov are:

· figures of the Provisional Government

9. An alternative to the political development of Russia, which was unlikely after the February Revolution:

return of the autocratic system

10. Bolshevization of the Soviets is:

· the process of strengthening the representation of the Bolshevik Party in the Soviets after the defeat of the Kornilov rebellion

11. To prepare for the armed uprising of 1917, the Bolsheviks and their

the allies created:

· Military Revolutionary Committee

· universal peace without annexations and indemnities

· confiscation and nationalization of landowners, appanages, monasteries and other lands, abolition of private ownership of land and the introduction of equal land use

14. The first Soviet government was called:

· Council of People's Commissars

15. In the first weeks after the Bolsheviks took power in October 1917, the party was banned

· cadets

16. Preparing to overthrow the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks (specify

incorrect unswer):

· recalled from the front and sent the III Cavalry Corps and the “wild division” to Petrograd

17. The Military Revolutionary Committee at 10 a.m. on October 25, 1917, in its appeal “To the Citizens of Russia,” announced:

· about the overthrow of the Provisional Government

18. To support the Provisional Government when it pursues democratic policies and to criticize when it does not do so was called for:

· Mensheviks

19. In 1917, the program contained the following: To defend the revolution, transfer the land to those who cultivate it, and support the fair demands of the workers:

20. The first part of the action program proposed by V.I. Lenin's Bolsheviks in April 1917 had the slogan “All power to the Soviets,” and the second:

· “No support for the Provisional Government!”

21. The main role in the defeat of the Kornilov rebellion was played (lo):

· Bolsheviks who called on the people to defend the revolution

22. What crisis of the Provisional Government was associated with P.N. Milyukov’s note to the allies, confirming Russia’s military obligations:

April

24. After V.I. Lenin returned from emigration to “ April Theses"a fundamentally new course was put forward: the development of the bourgeois-democratic revolution into a socialist

25. During the negotiations in Brest-Litovsk, the position of “no war, no peace, but we disband the army” was taken by the head of the Soviet delegation:

· L.D. Trotsky

26. The civil war in Russia began with:

· from the speech of the Czechoslovak Corps and the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly

28. The peace treaty between Russia and Germany during the First World War was signed (month, year):

March 1918

29. As a result of the Civil War in Russia:

· Soviet power was established everywhere

30. The first Soviet Constitution was adopted in (year):

31. According to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, Soviet Russia lost territories

· Poland, Lithuania, part of Latvia and part of Belarus

32. The policy of “war communism” was characterized by:

· introduction of surplus appropriation, ban on free trade, ban on land leasing and hiring work force, naturalization of wages

33. constituent Assembly was dissolved by the Bolsheviks as follows

· it refused to recognize the decrees Soviet power

34. Political situation in the Russian village at the end of the Civil War

war is characterized by:

growth of anti-government protests by peasants

35. Surplus appropriation is:

· the obligation of peasants to hand over to the state all surplus grain and other agricultural products

36. Match the steps civil war and their content:

1) end of May - November 1918

3) spring - end of 1919

A) the defeat of P.N. Wrangel in Crimea

B) the fight against “democratic counter-revolution”

37. Match surnames with activities

historical figures:

1) A.S. Antonov

2) L.D. Trotsky

3) F.E. Dzerzhinsky

A) led a peasant uprising in the Tambov province

B) headed the Cheka

B) was the chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council during the civil war

Republic

38. Establish a correspondence between the stages of the civil war and their content:

1) spring - end of 1919

A) liberation of the Far East from invaders

B) fighting with Poland

B) the fight against the army of A.V. Kolchak

39. Establish a correspondence between the activities and surnames of the military leaders of the White Army during the Civil War:

1) commanded the Volunteer Army, gave the directive for the attack on Moscow

2) commanded the troops of southern Russia in Crimea

3) led the attacks on Petrograd

B) P.N. Wrangel

B) N.N. Yudenich

Topic 11. USSR in 1945-1964.

1. Started in the late 1940s. The campaign against cosmopolitanism was as follows:

· organization of persecution of representatives of science, literature and art, affecting mainly the Jewish intelligentsia

2. Post-war political structure of the world in 1940-1950. characterized by:

· the formation of two opposing political and socio-economic systems

6. Important events for the USSR - testing the first in the USSR atomic bomb,

The creation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance took place in (year):

7. Liberalization process political life in the USSR and the revival of the cultural life of the country in the 1950-1960s is called:

· "thaw"

8. All specified dates - 1953, 1956, 1968 are associated with the following events:

· participation of Soviet troops in the suppression of popular uprisings in other countries

9. In the USSR, in the first years after the end of the Great Patriotic War, the following developed at the fastest pace:

· heavy industry

10. In the struggle for supreme power in the party and state after the death of I.V. Stalin did not take part:

· L.I. Brezhnev

11. At the XX Congress of the CPSU there was:

· I.V.’s personality cult exposed Stalin

12. N.S. Khrushchev was head of state in (years):

13. In 1957 there was:

· launch of the first artificial Earth satellite

14. The first artificial Earth satellite was launched in (year):

15. V.M. Molotov, G.M. Malenkov, K.E. Voroshilov are:

· members of the Central Committee who spoke out in 1957 against Khrushchev’s exposure of Stalin’s personality cult

16. Yu. Gagarin’s flight into space occurred in (year):

17. Stalin’s personality cult was condemned at the CPSU Congress in (year):

· at the XX Congress, in 1956

18. The program of the CPSU, adopted at the XXII Congress in 1961, outlined:

· construction of communism in the USSR by 1980

19. Economic management bodies created on a territorial basis in 1957-1965. were called:

· economic councils

20. The creation of the Warsaw Pact and the Caribbean crisis refer to the period of the country’s leadership:

· N.S. Khrushchev

21. The Hungarian crisis of 1956, the development of virgin lands belong to the period of the country’s leadership:

· N.S. Khrushchev

22. Some democratization (“thaw”) and the creation of the “Berlin Wall” date back to the period of the country’s leadership:

· N.S. Khrushchev

23. The state of military-political confrontation between states in peacetime (1940-80s) was called:

· "Cold War"

24. The reason for the beginning of the Cuban missile crisis in 1962 was:

installation of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba

25. What post did N.S. Khrushchev take after the death of I.V. Stalin:

· First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee

26. The USSR's primacy in space and the reduction of the army date back to the period

leadership of the country

· N.S. Khrushchev

27. The reason for the curtailment of economic and political reforms of the 1960s in the USSR was:

· resistance of the party-state nomenklatura

28. The dates 1953, 1964, 1985 in the history of the USSR are associated with (with):

· change of country leaders

29. The collapse of the world colonial system occurred in (decades):

· late 50's - early 60's. XX century

30. The model of international relations that emerged after the Second World War:

bipolar model

31. A.N.Tupolev, S.V.Ilyushin, S.P.Korolev are:

· outstanding scientists and designers

32. The USSR’s economy, destroyed in the Great Patriotic War, was quickly restored thanks to:

· enthusiasm and dedication of the Soviet people

33. The main emphasis in the Fourth Five-Year Plan (1946-1950) was made:

for the restoration of heavy industry

34. Measures to transfer the country from military to peaceful ones in the first two post-war years do not include:

· condemnation of the cult of personality and the beginning of the restoration of socialist legality

35. As a result of the measures taken to restore the national economy and ensure the pre-war level in many sectors, it was possible to achieve by the end:

36. Increased emphasis on the development of the defense industry in the 1950s allowed (insert incorrect answer):

· make the first manned flight into space (Yu. Gagarin)

37. In the post-war five-year plan (1946-1950) (indicate the wrong answer):

· opened the domestic market for foreign goods

38. Economic event not related to the period of leadership of the USSR N.S. Khrushchev:

· creation of farms in agriculture

39. The essence of political reforms N.S. Khrushchev

· attempt to democratize the political system

40. Indicate the correct logical series of dates and names related to the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on the magazines “Zvezda” and “Leningrad”:

· 1946 A.A.Zhdanov, A.A.Akhmatova, M.M.Zoshchenko

41. On behalf of the Soviet government, the work on the creation of nuclear weapons was supervised by:

· L.P. Beria

· actions aimed at limiting the international influence of the USSR, up to the readiness to start nuclear and bacteriological war

43. In the first post-war years:

· the country was returning to the pre-war model economic development

44. Post-war political structure of the world in 1945-1950. characterized by:

· the formation of two opposing political and socio-economic systems (bipolar world)

45. Which factor contributed to the decision in the 1960s? housing problem in the USSR:

· mass industrial production of reinforced concrete building materials

46. ​​Provide a correct list of nuclear physicists who contributed to the development of nuclear and thermonuclear weapons in the 1940-1950s. XX centuries:

· I.V.Kurchatov, A.F.Ioffe, A.D.Sakharov

47. What trends were most characteristic of Soviet literature during the Khrushchev “Thaw”:

· moderate criticism of Stalin's personality cult

48. Which of the following events in post-war history occurred later than others:

· launch of the automatic interplanetary station “Luna-1”, which reached the surface of the Moon for the first time

49. The confrontation between the USSR and the USA over the deployment of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962 was called:

· "Caribbean crisis"

50. The world's first nuclear icebreaker, launched in the USSR, is called:

· "Lenin"

51. New round political repression in the post-war period was manifested in the initiation of:

· "Leningrad case"

52. At the end of the Great Patriotic War, the transition of the economy from military production to peaceful ones began, which was called:

· conversion

53. With the beginning of the Cold War in the second half of the 1940s. connected):

· division of Germany into two states

Topic 1. Introduction to the history of Russia

1. Science that studies not only the laws and patterns of social development in general, but also specific processes of formation, development and transformation various countries and peoples in all their diversity and uniqueness:

· story

2. Specific ways to study historical processes are:

3. The essence of the cognitive function of history is:

· objective reflection of historical events, creation of concepts of the historical process

4. Identification of the patterns of socio-economic and political development of Russia, generalization of the experience of the transformative activities of the state is:

subject of Russian history

5. The principle of objectivity in historical science implies the study of historical reality:

regardless of any attitudes or preferences

6. The most complete information about the historical past is provided by:

· written sources

7. A historical discipline that studies coins as the main source of history:

· numismatics

8. An auxiliary historical discipline that studies the origin of geographical names:

toponymy

9. An approach that is based on the analysis of the laws of class struggle and changes in forms of ownership:

· formational

10. An approach to the study of history that most fully takes into account the development of all aspects of social life:

economy, political system, spirituality, culture:

· civilizational

11. Historical concept, which was developed by N. Danilevsky, A. Toynbee, O. Spengler:

· civilizational

12. The function of history, contributing to the development of an objective, scientifically based vision of the processes of Russian history:

worldview

13. The function of history, giving an assessment of historical processes, transformations carried out in countries, activities historical figures:

axeological

14. The function of history, which allows people who know the laws and patterns of development of historical processes to foresee possible scenarios for the development of events in the country and the world:

· prognostic

15. The function of history, which allows you to influence the behavior and actions of people:

· regulatory

16. The principle of historical science, which requires considering the historical process as it really was, and not as we would like:

· objectivity

17. A principle that requires, when considering historical processes, to take into account national, class, social and other interests:

social approach

18. A method that considers historical processes in their completed, mature form, when the result is already clear:

· logical

19. A method that considers historical processes in their development, interaction and mutual influence:

· dialectical

20. A method based on a consistent study of the development of events from the moment of their occurrence to completion:

· chronological

21. System of principles and methods of historical research:

· methodology

22. The main, fundamental principles of science that exist not in nature, but in the minds of people based on the study of the laws and patterns of development of nature and society:

principles

23. Match the names and works of historians of the twentieth century:

1)M.Tikhomirnov

2) B. Rybakov

3) L. Gumilyov

A) “Ancient Moscow XVII-XV centuries.”

B) “From Rus' to Russia”

B) “Paganism of Ancient Rus'”

24. Description of historical events and phenomena is a method:

· ideographic

25. Match the name historical school and the period of its formation:

1)noble historiography

2) revolutionary historiography

3) public school

A) mid-19th century

B) second half of the 18th century

B) end of the 18th century

26. A method of historical research that establishes the relationships and interactions of objects in their historical development:

· historical-systemic

27. The systematic method of studying history is:

· revealing the internal mechanisms of functioning and development

28. The function of forming civil, moral values ​​and qualities is the function of:

· educational

29. The method of identification and orientation of society, personality is a function:

social memory

30. Which method allows you to solve the problem of identifying the interconnectedness and interdependence of the individual, special, general and universal:

· comparative

31. Comparison of historical objects in space and time is a method:

· comparative

32. A method of historical research that consistently reveals the properties, functions and changes of the reality being studied in the process of its historical movement:

· historical-genetic

33. Identifying patterns historical development is a function:

· informative

34. Match the historians and their works:

1) N. Karamzin

2) V. Klyuchevsky

3) M. Pokrovsky

A) “Historical science and class struggle”

B) “History of the Russian State”

B) “Course of Russian history

35. The approach according to which the course of history is determined outstanding people, got the name:

· subjectivism

36. An approach that considers reason as the only source of knowledge and historical development:

· rationalism

37. A concept that characterizes a set of peoples who have a common mentality, similar spiritual values ​​and ideals, common features of spiritual culture:

· civilization

38. The Great Migration of Nations was:

· resettlement of Turkic, Iranian, Finno-Ugric, Germanic tribes to the territory of the East Roman Empire

39. Primary Eastern civilizations were geographically located:

· in river valleys

40. The characteristic features of Eastern civilization are (indicate the wrong answer):

· individualism as the basis of relationships between people

41. Not a characteristic feature of primary Eastern civilizations:

weak centralization of power

42. The most important features of Western civilization are (insert incorrect answer):

· collectivism as the basis of people's lives

43. Not a characteristic feature of primary Western civilizations:

weak development of private property

Functions.

1. Cognitive function is to identify patterns of historical development. It promotes the intellectual development of students and consists in the very study of the historical path of countries and peoples, in an objective reflection, from the position of historicism, of all the phenomena and processes that make up the history of mankind.

2. The educational function contributes to the formation of civic, moral qualities and values ​​using historical examples.

3. The prognostic function is the ability to foresee the future based on the analysis of historical events of the past and present.

4. The function of social memory is: that historical knowledge acts as a way of identification and orientation of society and the individual.

The method is a way of studying historical processes through their manifestations - historical facts, a way of obtaining new knowledge from facts. Specific methods include:

1) general scientific;

2) actually historical;

3) special - borrowed from other sciences.

Common methods for all humanities are: - logical; - historical.

To study and research Russian history, the following methods are usually used:

1. CHRONOLOGICAL - consists of presenting phenomena in strictly chronological order. ok;

2. CHRONOLOGICALLY PROBLEM - consists of studying and researching history by periods (eras), within periods - by problems;

3. PROBLEM-CHRONOLOGICAL - explores one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its gradual development;

4. SYNCHRONIC - used less often; with its help, it is possible to establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes occurring at the same time, but in different parts of the country or beyond its borders.

Methodology of history

Method - translated from Greek means “the right way,” that is, a way or plan to achieve a certain goal. In a narrow scientific sense, “method” is understood as a method and procedure for studying a subject in order to obtain a more complete result that corresponds to the truth. History as a science uses both general scientific methods and specific scientific methods appropriate to the subject of study.

1. The comparative method involves comparing historical objects in space and time and identifying similarities and differences between them.

2. The systematic method involves the construction of a generalized model that reflects the relationships of the real situation. Consideration of objects as systems focuses on revealing the integrity of the object, identifying the diverse types of connections in it and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

3. The typological method involves the classification of historical phenomena and events based on their common essential features.

4. The retrospective method involves consistent penetration into the past in order to identify the cause of an event or phenomenon.

5. The ideographic method consists of a consistent description of historical events and phenomena based on objective facts.

6. The problem-chronological method involves studying the sequence of historical events in time..

Methodology of history.

Methodology- the doctrine of research methods, coverage of historical facts, scientific knowledge. The methodology of history is based on scientific principles and approaches to the study of historical facts. The fundamental principles of studying historical facts include:

1. the principle of historicism, which involves the study of historical phenomena in development, in accordance with the specific historical situation;

2. the principle of objectivity, which provides for the researcher’s reliance on objective facts, consideration of the phenomenon in all its versatility and inconsistency;

3. the principle of the social approach involves consideration of phenomena and processes taking into account the social interests of various segments of the population, taking into account the subjective moment in practical activities parties, governments, personalities;

4. the principle of alternativeness determines the degree of probability of a particular event, phenomenon, process based on an objective analysis of the real situation.

Compliance with these principles ensures scientificity and reliability in the study of the past. In modern historical methodology there is no unitary (single) platform; it is characterized by a variety of methodological approaches that have emerged as a result of the progressive development and formation of the theoretical foundations of historical knowledge. The most significant and widespread are the following methodological approaches to the study of history: theological, subjectivism, geographical determinism, evolutionism, Marxism and civilizational approach.

History, like any other science, is characterized by its research methods. The first level covers general scientific methods used in all humanitarian fields of knowledge (dialectical, systemic, etc.), the second level directly reflects general historical research methods (retrospective, ideographic, typological, comparative, comparative, etc.). Methods of other humanities and even natural sciences (sociology, mathematics, statistics) are widely used.

Dialectical method contributes to a theoretical reflection of the integrity of the object, identification of the main trends in its change, causes and mechanisms that ensure its dynamism and development.

System method determines the need holistic analysis historical events and phenomena in the totality of the individual, special and general, the diversity of components of the historical process and its internal

Widespread in historical science comparison method (comparative method) - comparison of historical facts, portraits of historical figures in the process of historical knowledge. It is aimed at detecting analogies or their absence in the historical process. The comparative method produces fruitful results when comparing the history of different states and the lives of different peoples.

Closely related to the comparison method typological method (classification method)- based on the classification of historical phenomena, events, objects; identifying the common in the individual, searching for characteristic features for certain types of historical events. Classification is the basis of all types of theoretical constructs, including a complex procedure for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that connect classified objects. This method makes it possible to compare historical phenomena according to similar parameters.

One of the most common methods of historical knowledge is genetic (or retrospective). This is a retrospective disclosure of historical reality, the activities of historical figures, consistent changes in historical reality in the process of development based on cause-and-effect relationships, patterns of historical development. Based on the analysis of the same object in different phases of its development, the genetic method serves to restore events and processes of the past according to their consequences or retrospectively, that is, from what is already known after the lapse of historical time - to the unknown.

Here is what the English historian D. Elton wrote about this: “Since we know how events moved, we are inclined to assume that they must have moved only in this direction and considered the result known to us to be “correct.” The first tendency frees the historian from his main duty - to explain something: the inevitable does not require explanation. Another tendency makes him a tedious apologist for what has happened and encourages him to see the past only in the light of the present.” The researcher must strive for objectivity, must strive to see the features of the era being studied and take a historical approach to the prospects for social development.

Idiographic (individualizing) method characterized by a description of individual historical events and phenomena, processes. This is specific, as much as possible. Full description individual historical phenomenon, allowing to recreate only a local whole, without implying comparative historical research. The idiographic method is aimed at identifying the characteristics of historical phenomena.

Studying historical sources involves the use matching method, mutual verification of information from available documents, various historical sources, which excludes the absolutization of a once-mentioned fact, and, accordingly, speculativeness in historical knowledge, and ensures an approach to the truth in a retrospective display of a historical event or process.

By studying historical documents, the researcher is engaged in observation. However, observation is indirect in nature, since, as a rule, what is studied is what no longer exists, what has sunk into eternity: the conditions in which events developed, the people who took part in them, and even entire civilizations. Observation is carried out on the testimony of individual participants in the events who did not choose the moment of these events, their place in them and often saw far from the most important thing in these historical phenomena. Only the study of various sources, historical observation through sources allows us to paint a more objective picture, to fully present a historical fact and its unique features.

Historical science allows mental or thought experiment, carried out in the imagination of the researcher when an attempt is made to reproduce a particular historical event.

Widespread quantitative method (quantitative, statistical) analysis phenomena - analysis of the dynamics of social processes based on statistical material. The first to enter the quantitative path was economic history, since it always dealt with measurable quantities: the volume of trade, industrial production, etc. She widely used statistical materials characterizing economic processes and economic life of society.

With the help of statistical methods, various empirical data are accumulated and systematically summarized, reflecting various aspects and states of the object of study. Quantitative methods are now widely used in the study of social phenomena of the past. However, when working with quantitative indicators, researchers are faced with two difficulties: for distant eras this information is too scarce and fragmentary, and for the modern period it is enormous in volume.

By extracting information from the source various facts, the researcher compares them with what he knows about the same or similar facts and phenomena. Knowledge independent of sources is what the Polish historian E. Topolsky calls “ non-source": it is given both by one’s own observations of the environment and by various sciences. Based on existing knowledge, the inevitable gaps in the source are filled. In this case, plays a significant role common sense, that is, a guess based on observation, reflection and personal experience.

All of the listed and characterized methods of historical research or methods of historical knowledge are at the same time methods of studying history within the framework of the widespread problem-chronological method- studying historical processes in the interrelation of facts, events and phenomena in chronological order.

Methodology of history

To understand current problems For historical science, it is important to understand not only the features of historical knowledge, the specifics of historical research, but also to get acquainted with various methodological approaches. This necessary condition to optimize not only historical, but also humanitarian training in general at the university.

"Methodological approach"- a method of historical research based on a specific theory that explains the historical process.

Under the term "methodology" one should understand the theory that explains the historical process and determines the methods of historical research.

For many years, only the Marxist-Leninist methodology of history was known in our country. Currently, domestic historical science is characterized by methodological pluralism, when various methodologies are used in historical research.

Theological approach

The theological approach was one of the first to emerge. It is rooted in religious ideas that determined the basis for understanding the development of mankind. For example, the basis of the Christian understanding of the development of society is the biblical model of history. The theological approach thus relies on theories that explain the historical process as a reflection of the Divine plan for human existence. According to the theological approach, the source of the development of human society is the Divine will and people's faith in this will. Proponents of this theory were Augustine, Geoffrey, and Otto. In the 19th century the course of history was determined by the divine providence of L. Ranke. Russian authors of the Christian concept of historical development include G. Florovsky, N. Kantorov.

Subjectivism- this is an idealistic understanding of the historical process, according to which the history of the development of society is determined not by objective laws, but by subjective factors. Subjectivism, as a methodological approach, denies historical patterns and defines the individual as the creator of history, explains the development of society by the will of individual outstanding personalities, the result of their activities. One of the supporters of the subjective method in historical sociology is K. Becker.

Geographical determinism- exaggeration of the importance of the geographical factor in the development of specific societies. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), author of the “Book of Instructive Examples on the History of the Arabs, Persians, Berbers and the Peoples Living with them on Earth,” developed the idea of ​​​​the decisive importance of the geographical environment for the development of society, the dependence of the customs and institutions of each people on the way they earn their livelihood.

Thus, according to the theory of geographical determinism, the historical process is based on natural conditions that determine the development of human society. The diversity of the historical process is also explained by the peculiarities geographical location, landscape, climate. Supporters of this direction include Sh.L. Montesquieu, who expounded in detail the idea of ​​the influence of climate and other natural geographical factors on society, its form of government and spiritual life.

Russia as an entire historical and geographical continent with a special destiny was considered by representatives of the Eurasian school G.V. Vernadsky and N.S. Trubetskoy, V.N. Ilyin, G.V. Florovsky. N.I. Ulyanov, S.M. Soloviev in the history of the development of society was given important nature, geographical environment. N.I. Ulyanov believed that “if there are laws of history, then one of them must be seen in the geographical outlines of the Russian State.” CM. Soloviev wrote: “Three conditions have a special influence on the life of the people: the nature of the country where they live; the nature of the tribe to which he belongs; the course of external events, the influences coming from the peoples who surround him.”

Rationalism- a theory of knowledge that defines reason as the only source of true knowledge and the criterion of reliable knowledge. Descartes, the founder of modern rationalism, proved the possibility of comprehending truth by reason. Rationalism XVII-XVIII centuries. denied the possibility of scientific knowledge of history, considering it as the realm of chance. As a methodological approach, rationalism correlated the historical path of each people with the degree of its advancement along the ladder of universal human achievements in the field of reason. The figures of the Enlightenment most clearly demonstrated their boundless faith in the triumph of progress based on the power of reason.

The rationalistic interpretation of history (world-historical interpretation) in the 19th century is represented by the teachings of K. Marx and G. Hegel. In their opinion, history is universal; there are general and objective laws in it. In the philosophy of G. Hegel, the historical process is represented by three stages: Eastern (Asian), Greco-Roman (ancient), Germanic (European). In the preparatory manuscripts for Capital, K. Marx distinguished pre-capitalist, capitalist and post-capitalist society. It is a description of European civilization. Eurocentrism (recognition of European masterpieces of economics, architecture, military affairs, science as the standard of civilization and European criteria of progress as universal) led to a crisis in the rationalist interpretation of history in the twentieth century.

Evolutionism formed at the beginning of the 19th century. as an anthropological interpretation of the idea of ​​development and progress, which does not consider human society as a society of producers. The classics of evolutionism include G. Spencer, L. Morgan, E. Taylor, F. Fraser. Among Russian scientists, N.I. is considered a supporter of evolutionism. Kareeva. Evolutionism represents the historical process as a unilinear, uniform development of culture from simple to complex forms, based on the fact that all countries and peoples have a single development goal and universal criteria for progress. The essence of evolutionist theory is extremely simple: with a few temporary deviations, all human societies move upward along the path to prosperity. Cultural differences between peoples are explained by their belonging to different stages of historical progress.

Positivism as a theory, arose in the 19th century. The founder of positivism was the French philosopher and sociologist O. Comte, who divided the history of mankind into three stages, of which - theological and metaphysical - have been passed, the highest stage - scientific, or positive, is characterized by the flourishing of positive, positive knowledge. Positivism focuses Special attention influence social factors on human activity, proclaims the omnipotence of science and recognizes the evolution of human society from lower to higher levels, independent of the arbitrariness of the individual. Proponents of positivism ignored the socio-political evolution of society, explaining the emergence of classes and other socio-economic processes by the functional division of labor.

Formational approach

The formational approach is based on Marxist methodology , authored by Karl Marx.

Understanding the development of the historical process within the framework of Marxist methodology is materialistic understanding of history, since the basis of the life of society is determined material production, development of productive forces. TO productive forces refers to a person with his labor skills and skills and means of production , which, in turn, are divided into the object of labor and the means of labor.

The subject of labor is understood as everything towards which human activity can be directed. Means of labor combine the instruments of labor with which a person carries out labor activity, and also what is on modern language could be called production infrastructure (that is, a communications system, storage facilities). The relationships of people in the process of production of material goods, as well as their distribution and exchange are called industrial relations. The dialectical unity of productive forces and production relations is called production method.

An analysis of the dynamics of the relationship between the productive forces and production relations led Marx to the formulation of the law according to which the development of human history occurs. This basic historical law, discovered by K. Marx, was called the law of compliance of production relations with the nature and level of development of productive strength The discrepancy between production relations and the nature and level of productive forces leads to a change in the type of ownership of the means of production, a change in production relations, the development of productive forces and, thus, a change in the nature of the method of production.

But not only the method of production is changing, but also all other components of human society. A new type of property leads to the formation of a new ruling layer (class) and socially lower strata, in other words, it will change social class structure of society. New system industrial relations will be new economic basis. The new basis will lead to the renewal of what is called in Marxism superstructure. The superstructure includes both the system of so-called institutions, among them, for example, the state, and the system of ideas, which may include ideology, morality and much more.

So, the action of the law of correspondence leads to the fact that, along with the breakdown of old production relations, the whole type of society. The type of society that includes the above features is called in Marxism socio-economic formation(OEF). The process of changing socio-economic formations in Marxism is called social revolution.

The history of human society, according to the theory of K. Marx, is a change of socio-economic formations. In the Preface to the “Critique of Political Economy” he identified Asian, ancient, feudal and capitalist formations. On this basis, the Marxist approach to history is called formational approach. According to the formational approach finally formalized in the twentieth century, five socio-economic formations are distinguished in the history of mankind: primitive, slave, feudal, capitalist and communist.

The theory of formations is formulated as a generalization of the historical path of development of Europe. Within the framework of this methodology, human history is unified, and all countries appear to be moving in the same direction: from primitive to communist society. The course of history is determined (predetermined) by socio-economic relations, and a person in the context of a class approach to history is considered only as a component of class and productive forces. The main attention is paid to the class struggle as the driving force of history, when revolutionary development is absolutized and the importance of evolutionary development is downplayed.

Introduction

Interest in history is a natural interest. People have long sought to know their past, looked for some meaning in it, were fascinated by antiquity and collected antiquities, wrote and talked about the past. History leaves few people indifferent - that's a fact.

The question of why history so powerfully attracts a person to itself is not difficult to answer. From the famous French historian Marc Bloch we read: “Ignorance of the past inevitably leads to a misunderstanding of the present.” Perhaps most people would agree with these words. And indeed, as L.N. wrote. Gumilev, “everything that exists is the past, since any accomplishment immediately becomes the past.” And this precisely means that by studying the past as the only reality accessible to us, we thereby study and understand the present. That is why they often say that history is the true teacher of life.

For a person, understanding the present is not only an understanding of the natural and social reality surrounding him, but, first of all, comprehension of himself and his place in the world, awareness of his specifically human essence, his goals and objectives, basic existential values ​​and attitudes, in a word , everything that allows an individual not just to fit into a certain sociocultural context, but also to actively participate in its formation, to be a subject and creator. Therefore, it should be borne in mind that the problem of history is of interest to us from a purely philosophical point of view.

IN close connection With philosophy lies a person’s worldview, therefore, it is also impossible to ignore the role of historical knowledge in its formation. According to B.L. Gubman, “the status of history as an ideological category is determined by the fact that outside of it a person cannot realize his involvement with his people and humanity as a whole.” From here it is clear that history acts as a guarantor of the self-preservation of local cultures and civilizations in all their unique originality and uniqueness, without losing spiritual unity with the rest of humanity. Simply put, history as a common destiny makes a people a people, and not a faceless bunch of two-legged creatures. Finally, one should not lose sight of the fact that history teaches patriotism, thus fulfilling an educational function - a requirement that could not be more relevant today.

It is clear that when studying at a university, the role of history in the course of educational and educational process increases many times over. Students are faced with the task of competent, methodically correct and systematic acquisition of historical knowledge, on the basis of which only the formation of historical consciousness occurs. However, as practice shows, not all students have the experience and skills independent work, understand the specifics of historical science, know how to take notes and prepare for seminar classes. In order to help them with this, this manual was written.

History as a science

The traditional definition of history states that history is a science that studies the past of human society in all its completeness and specificity with the aim of understanding the present and prospects for the future. What is the main thing here? Of course, history is a science. This emphasis is not entirely accidental. The fact is that the concept of history throughout human development changed several times. The “Father of History” is considered to be someone who lived in the 5th century. BC. ancient Greek writer Herodotus. The word “history” itself comes from the Greek historia, which means a story about the past, a story about what happened. Since the main task for ancient historians was to convey to their contemporaries (and descendants) news about certain events that happened in the past, they sought to make their works bright, imaginative, memorable and often embellished facts, gave free rein to imagination, mixed truth with fiction, they invented phrases and entire speeches that they gave to their heroes. Actions and events were most often explained by the will of the gods. Naturally, such history was not science.

It did not become a science even later, in the Middle Ages. And how could it become a science if “the most widespread and popular genre of literary work in this era is the lives of saints, the most typical example of architecture is the cathedral, the icon predominates in painting, and characters from the Holy Scriptures predominate in sculpture”? . However, a lot has changed, and it has changed seriously. In antiquity, they did not think about the exact meaning of history and did not believe in the idea of ​​progressive development. Hesiod, in the epic poem “Works and Days,” expressed the theory of the historical regression of humanity from the happy Golden Age to the dark Iron Age, Aristotle wrote about the endless cyclical nature of existence, and ordinary Greeks relied in everything on the role of blind chance, fate, and fate. We can say that antiquity lived, as it were, “outside history.” The Bible in this regard made a revolutionary revolution, because... expressed a new understanding of history - progressive and straightforward. History was filled with meaning and acquired the features of universalism, because all historical events were now viewed through the prism Christian faith. It should be added that during the Middle Ages there was no complete oblivion of the ancient tradition, which, in the end, predetermined the return of historical thought to the ideas of humanism during the Renaissance.

The crisis of historical knowledge began in the Age of Enlightenment. The 18th century was the heyday of the natural sciences, for which historians were completely unprepared; they are completely confused in trying to explain the dizzying rise of scientific knowledge. In this regard, an opinion was even expressed about the complete bankruptcy of “the historical method, which, despairing of the possibility of finding a genuine explanation, attributes very far-reaching consequences to the most banal causes.” And since the Age of Enlightenment is a time of tough and brutal ideological struggle between supporters of the old order and apologists for the revolutionary restructuring of society on new principles, history has degenerated into simple propaganda.

The crisis continued almost until the end of the century, and only at the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries the situation began to change. By the way, one should not think that this crisis affected only history. No, the time was generally difficult for all humanities, so it is not surprising that the way out of it was inspired, first of all, by changes in philosophical knowledge. And how could it be otherwise? Of course, it was philosophy, as the most crowned of all sciences, as a discipline with the status of a metascience, that was supposed to play the role of a locomotive, followed by other areas of humanities, including history. And so it happened. The changes were so significant that R. J. Collingwood, in his (long-time classic) study “The Idea of ​​History,” called one of the parts (Part III) “On the Threshold of Scientific History.” In his opinion, thanks to the works of Kant, Herder, Schelling, Fichte, and Hegel, history has come close to becoming a science in the strict sense of the word. The establishment of history as a science was finally completed by end of the 19th century century.

So, what is historical science, what are its specifics? Before answering this question, you need to understand what science is in general and what is the difference between the natural sciences and the humanities. Science is understood as the sphere of human activity in which the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality is carried out. Scientific knowledge must certainly meet the criteria of consistency, verifiability and effectiveness. As V.A. writes Kanke, “it is important to understand that every science is multi-level. Information about the phenomena being studied, regardless of their nature, is given in feelings (perceptual level), thoughts (cognitive level), statements (linguistic level).” It is here, at these levels, that the difference between the natural sciences and the humanities lies, and history also belongs to the latter. Natural sciences study natural phenomena, and at the perceptual level, natural science deals with the senses that record the state of affairs in the observed area. At the cognitive level, human mental activity operates with concepts, and the object of statements (i.e. at the linguistic level) are natural processes that are described through universal and individual statements using words denoting concepts. In the humanities, the situation is different. Instead of observed natural phenomena, the scientist deals with the social actions of people, which at the perceptual level are transformed into feelings (impressions, sensations, experiences, emotions, affects). At the cognitive level, they, actions, are comprehended through values. And at the linguistic level, the theory of these actions is presented through universal and individual statements, with the help of which certain human actions are either approved or rejected.

To understand the specifics of historical science, it is very important to always remember that the comprehension of history is a creative and deeply individual process, therefore any good historian necessarily brings into it something of his own, purely personal, interprets history and its tasks in his own way and in the course of his The work focuses on certain details and principles of studying the past. That is why the wealth of historical science consists of the works of so many different authors, such as Thucydides and Karamzin, Mathiez and Pavlov-Silvansky, Solovyov and Taine, Mommsen, Pokrovsky and many, many others. This can be illustrated at least by how history itself is understood by such different scientists as the already mentioned above M. Blok, R.J. Collingwood and L.N. Gumilev.

For example, a prominent representative of the so-called “Annals school,” the French historian Marc Bloch, says that history is the science “of people in time.” As we can see, he puts human and time factors in first place. British neo-Hegelian philosopher and historian Robin George Collingwood understands history as a science that deals with the search for factual data (“the actions of people committed in the past”) and their interpretation. And the creator of the theory of ethnogenesis, Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov, never tires of reminding us of the extreme importance of the geographical factor in historical research.

Further consideration of the specifics of historical science is impossible without turning to the most general and specific methods of historical science, which is the subject of the next chapter.

Basic principles and methods of historical research

The methodology of historical science is quite diverse. “Translated from Greek, methodology means the path of knowledge, or a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system. Methodology is closely related to the theoretical understanding of the subject, process and results of cognition." However, the methodology must be preceded by the most general principles and rules of historical knowledge and approaches to the study of history. They are the foundation without which any methodology will be meaningless.

The general principles of knowledge include the principles of objectivity and historicism. The principle of objectivity is briefly reduced to the impartiality of the research view. A real scientist cannot afford to manipulate facts based on some momentary goals or his own ideological, political, personal, etc. likes and dislikes. To follow the ideal of truth is the high requirement on which generations of scientists and scientific schools. Students studying history at an institute where it is not a core specialty are in this regard no different from some venerable academic who solves the most complex problems of the genesis of feudalism or deciphers ancient manuscripts. In the previous section it was already shown that any historian inevitably introduces a personal element into his studies, that is, an element of subjectivity. However, it is necessary to strive to overcome the subjective view. These are the rules of elementary scientific ethics (how much this is possible is another question). The principle of historicism is that the study of the past should be carried out taking into account the specific historical situation and the interconnectedness and interdependence of the phenomena being studied. Simply put, you cannot take facts and events out of the general context and consider them in isolation, without connection with the rest of the body of historical information.

Unfortunately, our recent past, and often our present, is full of blatant examples of scientific dishonesty and violations of both of the above principles. What is worth just one figure of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, cursed (in the literal sense of the word!) by many historians for “mass terror” and “despotism of power,” although it is reliably known that during all the years of his reign, approximately the same number of people were destroyed as in Contemporary France was cut out in just one St. Bartholomew's Night! But France is far from a leader among European countries according to the number of victims in this era. However, the name of Ivan the Terrible became a symbol of a cruel and inhuman ruler who oppressed his people, but the name of the no less cruel and criminal English king Henry VIII did not. We observe a similar picture in relation to both Russian revolutions - the February and October; many myths have been created around the events of the Great Patriotic War, etc. Examples can be multiplied further, but they all testify to the urgent relevance of the principles of objectivity and historicism in our days.

Approaches to the study of history are classified into subjectivist, objective-idealistic, formational and civilizational. Of these, at present, the first three have already become a property of the past, and now the civilizational approach dominates in historical science, although until recently the formational division of social development was supported by many scientists. The dominance of the civilizational approach is associated with its advantages, since it is based on the recognition of the intrinsic value and uniqueness of all local human communities and their cultures, which excludes the Eurocentric understanding of history as a unidirectional linear progressive process. With this approach, each civilization should be studied based on the logic of its own development and according to its own criteria, and not from the point of view of civilizations of other types.

Regardless general principles, the approach and methodology of research in the process of historical knowledge should avoid two extremes - voluntarism and fatalism. Voluntarism is understood as an excessive exaggeration of the role of the individual in history, so that the entire course of historical development appears as the result solely of the desires and arbitrariness of the subjective human will. History, therefore, appears to be pure chaos, devoid of any patterns. The other extreme is fatalism, i.e. the belief that absolutely everything is predetermined and rigidly determined by the inexorable objective laws of social development, so that conscious and purposeful human activity does not play any significant role in history. It should always be firmly remembered that real story There is a combination of both subjective and objective factors. Exaggerating the role of one of them is fundamentally wrong and unproductive.

Now let's look briefly at the main features of the most known methods historical research. Usually there are three groups of such methods: general scientific, which include the historical, logical and classification (systematization) method; special ones, which include synchronic, chronological, comparative-historical, retrospective, structural-systemic and periodization methods; methods of other sciences used in historical research, for example, mathematical method, method social psychology etc.

Historical method is one of the most frequently used in modern historical science. As N.V. writes Efremenkov, it “involves the study and reproduction of events and phenomena of national or world history as a developing process with its characteristic general, special and individual features.” This method is directly based on chronological and event approaches to the events being studied and the principle of historicism. Historical phenomena are necessarily considered in the context of their era, inseparably from it. The historical process itself, taking into account its integrity, is divided into a number of interconnected stages. The latter is very important, because it allows us to trace the presence of cause-and-effect relationships between events.

Boolean method is very often used along with the historical one, so both of these methods usually complement each other. In most cases, it comes down to analyzing and revealing the role of elements in the study of certain historical phenomena. The functions and meaning of individual facts or events are studied in all their specifics, which makes it possible to determine the essence of the phenomenon as a whole and rise to the level of theoretical understanding of both specific historical details and general patterns. The essence of this method can be defined as filling the entire array of factual materials with conceptual content, resulting in an ascent from the individual and individual to the general and abstract.

It should be noted that the role of logic in scientific knowledge is generally great, but it increases especially strongly when constructing scientific hypothesis or putting forward a theoretical position. It is the application of ideas, methods and the apparatus of scientific logic that makes it possible to solve such issues as the consistency and completeness of the theory, the testability of the hypothesis, the correctness of the chosen classification, the rigor of definitions, etc.

Method of classification (systematization)– this is a special case of using the logical operation of dividing the volume of a concept. Historical facts and events, based on any signs of similarity or difference between them, are grouped by the researcher into a specific system for constant use. There may be several classifications, their number is determined by the needs of scientific work. Each individual classification is based on only one criterion or feature. A classification is called natural if it is based on characteristics that are essential for given facts or events. In such cases it has cognitive significance and is usually called typology. Artificial classification consists of systematizing facts or events according to characteristics that are unimportant to them, which, however, represents a certain convenience for the researcher himself. It should be remembered that any classification is conditional, because usually it is the result of simplification of the phenomena under study.

Synchronous method used to study the parallelism of events occurring at the same time, but in different metas. This method allows us to determine the general and special in events and phenomena in the political, cultural and socio-economic spheres of society. When studying the history of Russia, the relationship between the internal political or economic situation in the country and global development trends can be traced. This method was actively used by the outstanding Russian historian L.N. Gumilev.

Chronological method allows you to study phenomena and events in their interrelation, development and time sequence with recording of changes occurring in them. It is especially useful when comparing historical chronicles, in which there is a close unity of subject matter with the chronology of presentation.

Problem-chronological method is one of the varieties of the chronological method. Its essence lies in the division of one large topic or problem into several specific topics or problems, which are then studied in chronological order, which contributes not only to an in-depth and detailed study of individual elements of the historical process, but also to the comprehension of their interconnectedness and interdependence with each other.

Periodization method (diachrony) is based on the identification of certain chronological periods in the history of society or some individual phenomenon of social life, distinguished by their specific features and characteristics. It is this specificity that is the main criterion for identifying periods, since it expresses the essential content of the phenomena or events being studied. There should be only one criterion, as in the classification method. The method of periodization is used to study the historical process as a whole, some of its individual parts, as well as specific events and phenomena.

Comparative historical method otherwise called the method of historical parallels, or the method of analogy. It consists in comparing two studied objects (facts, events), one of which is well known to science, and the other is not. During the comparison, the presence of certain characteristics is established based on recording the similarities that exist in some other characteristics. This method allows you to find commonalities between the facts and events being studied, but in the course of its use the differences between them must also be taken into account. Currently, the analogy method is most often used when putting forward hypotheses, as a means of understanding the problem and the direction of its solutions.

Retrospective method is sometimes called the method of historical modeling, since its essence is to create a mental model of some phenomenon of the past based on a thorough study of the entire complex of materials at the disposal of the researcher. However, this method should be used with great caution: when creating a model, you cannot neglect even the crumbs of available information, but herein lies the danger of distorted construction of the model - after all, fragmentary and partial information does not give one hundred percent confidence in the purity of the experiment. There is always the possibility that any fact or event was not given due importance or, conversely, that its role was excessively exaggerated. Finally, there still remains the problem of the reliability of the historical sources themselves, which usually bear the stamp of bias and subjectivity.

System-structural method is based on the study of society as a complex system, in turn consisting of a number of subsystems that are in close interaction with each other. With the system-structural method, the researcher’s attention is first drawn to the connections between the elements of the whole. Since subsystems are spheres of social life (economic, social, political and cultural), then, accordingly, all the diverse connections between them are studied. This method requires an interdisciplinary approach to historical research, but it also allows you to thoroughly study the most diverse aspects of life in the past.

Quantitative method used relatively recently. It is associated with the mathematical processing of digital data and quantitative characteristics of the phenomena and processes being studied, which achieves obtaining qualitatively new, in-depth information about the object of study.

Of course, there are other methods of historical research. They are usually based on an interdisciplinary approach to the process of historical knowledge. As an example we can mention method of concrete social research, which actively uses the principles of sociology, or social psychology method, built taking into account psychological factors, etc. However, to summarize a brief overview of historical methodology, two points should be noted: firstly, it is important to remember that in practical work not one, but a combination of two or more methods is usually used; secondly, you should be very careful about choosing a method in each specific case, because an incorrectly chosen technique can only give appropriate results.

Working with literature

In the vast majority of cases, students’ independent work is in one way or another connected with scientific literature, so the importance of skillful handling of printed materials is beyond doubt. This is all the more relevant, because sociological surveys and research today clearly indicate that interest in reading among young people is falling. It is clear that there are many reasons for this - the computerization of our lives, the prevalence electronic means mass media, a limit of free time, etc., however, all this does not negate the main thing, namely: the need to work with literature, and you must be able to work with literature.

Since the amount of published information is already quite large, and is increasing every year, it is worth paying attention to the reading process itself. A student has to read a lot, so great importance should be attached to fast, high-speed reading. A fairly significant amount of specialized and popular science literature is devoted to this issue, and purchasing any teaching aid in a bookstore will not be difficult. However, I would like to make a few fundamental remarks here.

First of all, you need to read a lot. Reading should become a habit. Only those who read a lot will learn to read correctly. It is very useful to set yourself a constant norm for reading, for example, regular familiarization with periodicals (newspapers, magazines) and up to 100 pages of book text per day - this is not counting fiction, which is also necessary to read, if only to broaden your horizons and improve your general cultural level.

Secondly, you need to read carefully and try to understand what you read as you read. To do this, you need to remember the thoughts and ideas of the author, and not individual words, phrases or facts. It doesn't hurt to take notes as you read.

Finally, thirdly, you should read with a quick vertical movement of the eyes - from top to bottom. At the same time, you need to strive to “photograph” the entire page at once and instantly remember the main meaning of what you read. On average, this entire operation should take 30 seconds per page. With persistent and measured training, this result is quite achievable.

Preparation for exams requires a special reading technique. The amount of material that a student needs to repeat or learn by a certain deadline is usually quite large - most often it is a textbook or lecture notes. In this case, you should read it three times. The first time is a quick and introductory reading. The second time you should read very slowly, carefully, thoughtfully, trying to remember and understand what you read. After this, you need to take a break and distract yourself by doing other things. And immediately before the exam, read everything again quickly and fluently, restoring in your memory what you had forgotten.

Now as for working with educational literature. Of course, the most popular and commonly used books are university history textbooks. It should be noted right away that it is best to use them according to the principle “the less, the better.” This is in no way connected with any negative or biased attitude towards certain authors and their textbooks. On the contrary, in general, most institute history textbooks (and there are quite a few of them) are written by quite competent specialists and at a fairly high professional level. Moreover, the textbook is indispensable when preparing for an exam or test; you simply cannot do without it. But in the process of analyzing questions in seminar classes or when students write essays or reports, the role of the textbook should be minimized. Textbooks, for all their differences in author's approaches and style, cover the same set of facts and events, present the same material. Students come to the institute already having experience of studying history at school and a coherent picture of the historical past, so the bulk of historical information provided by textbooks is more or less familiar to them. There is no need to duplicate what has already been learned before.

It is clear that the study of history, in principle, is carried out with the goal of developing an individual’s historical self-awareness, and school is no exception here. But studying history at a university is a qualitatively new, higher stage in this process, which presupposes that a young person acquires the skills and ability of a comprehensive theoretical understanding of both individual historical facts and events, and the entire historical development as a whole. Students themselves must be able to select and analyze historical material, master the methodology of its processing and interpretation - in a word, see history in their own way, and this view must be strictly scientific.

How to achieve this? Of course, through a detailed and detailed study of the most important, controversial or little-known pages of the Russian past. And for this you need to read special scientific research literature: books, articles, monographs written by professionals in their field, the best scientists of the past and present, who have their own point of view and are able to convincingly present it and prove it convincingly. Only by delving into the author’s train of thought, noticing what’s interesting, pitting opposing approaches, opinions and concepts against each other, learning the most latest achievements historical science, you can learn to think historically independently. In a word, you need to focus on the best and highest that inquisitive human thought has created. In textbooks we find only what is necessary, verified, established, intended for memorization and assimilation, so textbooks are best used as reference material where you can find out what, who, where and when.

Of course, every teacher recommends to students what they need to read without fail, and this is usually enough. However, it is desirable that students themselves take the initiative and look for the materials they need for work on their own, since each library has catalogs - alphabetical and thematic. And any scientific monograph must include a list of literature used by the author, by turning to which you can easily navigate in search of the articles and books you need on the topic. Students’ independent selection of literature can only be welcomed, because the skills acquired in this way will be useful not only when studying history, but in general in any scientific research.

Give full review historical literature and the peculiarities of its classification within the framework of this methodological manual is a deliberately impossible task. Let's try to do this at least general outline. We should start with specialized historical journals, the role and importance of which is difficult to overestimate, since the journals have no analogues in terms of efficiency in presenting the latest scientific information, diversity of materials, variety of content and expressed points of view. Historical magazines that can be recommended to students are located both in city libraries and in the library of our institute. These are, first of all, “Domestic History” and “Questions of History”, which regularly publish research by leading Russian and foreign experts on the most different problems history of our country. To a greater extent, this applies to the journal “Domestic History,” whose specialization is already visible from the name, although “Questions of History” also contains very interesting and useful works. An abundance of historical studies, articles, reviews, reviews, etc. The number of materials is so large that, perhaps, any student will be able to find the texts that interest him there. And it should only be recalled that the latest annual issue of any magazine helps to understand this sea of ​​information, which necessarily contains a summary of everything printed for the year in the form of a listing of the names of the authors and the titles of their articles, arranged in thematic order, indicating the journal number and pages, where this article was published.

“Domestic History” and “Questions of History” are not the only periodicals covering the history of Russia. From time to time, something interesting appears on the pages of Novy Mir, Our Contemporary, Moscow, and Zvezda. I would especially like to highlight the Rodina magazine, which regularly publishes thematic issues entirely devoted to individual historical issues and problems. So, for example, No. 12 for 1995 is entirely devoted to the publication of materials about the unknown pages of the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-1940, and in No. 6-7 for 1992 you can find out a lot of interesting things about Napoleon’s invasion of Russia. By the way, the complete set of “Motherland” for several years has been stored in the humanities room of the OIATE.

However, there is no doubt that the main source of information is books, and it is work with them that is particularly effective. Scientific literature on history from the point of view of content, chronology and issues is traditionally divided into large collective works of a generalizing nature, comprehensive studies of individual historical events and collective and individual monographs. In addition, books differ in scientific level, in the quantity and quality of information they contain, in research methodology, and in the system of evidence, which means that the approach to them must be differentiated. Some books require a quick glance, in others you need to read the introduction and conclusions of the author, in others you need to pay attention to the literature used, and in others you need to study individual chapters, others deserve close and thoughtful reading, etc. It is very useful in the process of studying literature to make extracts from it. They may concern both statistical and factual material, as well as the conceptual views of the author or his working methodology, but in any case they greatly help in the work. It is unnecessary to remind that any literature studied by students must necessarily have scientific status. Under no circumstances should one stoop to the writings of certain G.V. Nosovsky and A.T. Fomenko with their “New Chronology” or noisy and scandalous opuses like “Icebreaker” and “Day-M” by Mr. Rezun-Suvorov and a number of other lesser-known, but equally ambitious personalities with their “discoveries”. Unfortunately, recently there have been too many irresponsible writers trying to revise both Russian and (more broadly) world history. This is done, as a rule, by non-specialist amateurs solely for commercial or ideological purposes (the latter, however, is less common now). There is no smell of science in their “creations”, which means that the truth there is worthless. You can only trust literature that has passed the crucible of strict scientific criticism.

A few more words about books that can be recommended to students to help them work independently. It is very useful to read classics of historical thought, such as N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Solovyov and V.O. Klyuchevsky. The name of Karamzin is associated, of course, primarily with his “History of the Russian State” in 12 volumes, which, among other things, is an outstanding literary work, whose style well conveys the flavor of that era when history as a science was in its infancy. You can read Karamzin all at once, in its entirety, but you can also read it selectively, selecting individual chapters for specific seminar classes. The main work of S.M. Solovyov’s 29-volume “History of Russia from Ancient Times,” which even today amazes with its volume and huge amount of carefully collected factual material. Of course, reading all these volumes is a rather difficult task, but to date, extracts from them and abbreviated versions of “History” have been published (more than once) in large editions, familiarization with which would be useful for students studying the past of our country. For example, published in 1989 by publishing houses

Lecture 1. Essence, forms, methods, sources of studying history

History is a complex phenomenon, dating back about 2,500 years. Even in ancient times she was called the “mentor of life.” History is the collective memory of the peoples of the world. IN Ancient Greece considered the patroness of history goddess Clio , who was holding a scroll and a slate stick in her hands, this meant that nothing should disappear without a trace, everything should be recorded and preserved for posterity.

History is a science that studies the features and processes of development of humanity, states, societies, nature in territorial, ethnocultural, socio-economic and political integrity. Each discipline has its own history.

Object of historical science is the development of the human community in all its diversity. Story refers to theoretical disciplines, is a powerful tool for influencing public consciousness. History allows each nation to determine its place in the development of humanity and choose its own development trajectory. They distinguish world (universal) history, the history of the continents of Asia, Africa, Latin America, Europe), the history of individual states (Russia, Germany, Italy, etc.).

The history of Russia is an integral part of world history. Russian history studies the process of the emergence and development of the human community in the territories that were and are part of Russia. For a long time (until the 19th century), historians were interested in wars, uprisings, political processes, and the activities of outstanding personalities.

Historical knowledge originated in ancient times. Initially, surrounding or past events were described. The authors of such works were called logographers (from the Greek “logos” - word, composition), and their work was called history. Herodotus is considered to be the first historian who lived in the U century BC. Historical knowledge was initially clothed in myths, epics, and legends. Since the Enlightenment, history began to respond to the needs of society, and methods of historical knowledge were developed.

The most important feature of historical knowledge is its constant updating. A person who studies history develops a historical consciousness. In science, historical consciousness is usually understood as a set of any ideas that are inherent in society as a whole and its constituent social groups. History is not only the science of the past, it is the science of forward movement human society, the processes of its development.

History embodies the social memory of generations. The more extensive such memory, the richer spiritually the person and society. The study of history contributes to moral development and personality formation, stimulates creative thinking. V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “When determining the tasks and directions of our activities, each of us must be at least a little historian in order to become a consciously and conscientiously acting citizen.”

The systematization of scientific historical knowledge took place during the XYII – XIX centuries. History has its own methodology and principles. In the modern understanding, history is a way of self-knowledge and self-identification of society.

The method of studying historical processes through their manifestations is called methodology (method). Specific methods include general scientific, historical and special (borrowed from other sciences). Common to the humanities are logical and historical methods.

Historical method reproduces phenomena and processes in their chronological development with all the features through which general patterns appear.

Chronological The method presents all phenomena in a strict temporal (chronological) order.

Chronologically problematic The method consists in studying and researching the history of Russia by periods (eras), within periods - by problems.

To establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes that occur at the same time, but in different parts of the country (outside its borders), it is used synchronous method.

For research modern problems used sociological method.

Formation method examines the history of mankind by dividing it into five socio-economic formations (primitive communal, slaveholding, etc.). This method was developed by K. Marx and F. Engels and was the basis of Soviet historical science.

Civilization method popular in Western historiography, it represents the history of mankind as a process of change of civilizations and their coexistence, was developed by the Russian scientist N.Ya. Danilevsky, and was continued by the English scientist historian A.D. Toynbee.

Religious (providentialist) method sees the historical process as the result of the activity of a higher divine power.

Complex method involves the combination of various methods or their elements in historical research.

In the first half of the twentieth century, a revolution occurred in historical science. Became increasingly used interdisciplinary approach (school "Annals" French scientists Lucien Febvre (1878 - 1956), Marc Bloch (1886 - 1944)). They began to create a multi-level picture of the historical past. M. Blok paid attention to historical problems, and this is how the comparative (historical-comparative) method appeared. Instead of historical stories, the principle “The historian is not the one who knows, but the one who seeks” appeared.

In the second half of the twentieth century, based on an interdisciplinary approach, the "new story", it is characterized by a critical attitude towards Marxism, positivism (French scientist Fernand Braudel (1902 - 1985)). The past was considered on the basis of patterns, a new selection of sources, ideals, personal and collective values. This is how it appeared "history of mentalities".

In the 60s, the “ gender history." Historians have sought to write a special “women's history.” The subject of gender history was “women’s problems”, control over the distribution of material and spiritual wealth, issues of power, prestige, etc.

In the 80s of the twentieth century. appeared in historical science "new social history" it is associated with the understanding of history as the social interaction of people. Subdisciplines appeared in the mainstream of social history: “new labor history”, “women’s history”, “peasant studies”, “family history” (microcosmic).

"New Biographical History" determines the behavior of people in certain situations, taking into account cultural traditions, customs in the context of the time in which certain individuals lived. This is a story told through a historical figure.

The most popular modern historical directions include “ history of everyday life." She studies relationships between relatives, living and working conditions, emotional life of people.

Any historian, starting to study historical phenomena and processes, studies what has been written by other authors on this issue, analyzes “written histories.” History as a science is based on precisely established facts that are extracted from historical sources.

History as a science is based on facts and is written from documents. “No documents, no history,” say learned historians. The totality of facts is called sources.

There are sources tangible, written, audio-visual, visual etc. The sources are monuments of material (material) culture (tools, housing, clothing, household items, Egyptian pyramids, temples, etc.). With the advent of writing, written sources appeared (parchment, inscriptions on clay tablets, tombstones, manuscripts, drawings, diagrams, drawings, censuses, urban planning documents, archives - RGIA, GARF, GAKK, etc.), later - photographs, films, video documents. The sources are specialized scientific journals (“Questions of History”, “History”, “Domestic History”, “Voice of the Past”, “Cultural Life of the South of Russia”, etc.), as well as reference books, encyclopedias, and periodicals. Historians subject any sources external and internal criticism, establish reliability, authorship, and determine the quality of the presented material for use by other researchers.

Works on the problem under study are called historiography, they are the basis for writing master's and doctoral dissertations. Historiography – a branch of historical science that studies the accumulation of knowledge on a specific problem, taking into account methodological directions in historical science.

The main functions of historical knowledge include: cognitive – identification of facts and patterns of human development; educational – formation of civil and moral values ​​and qualities of the individual and society as a whole; prognostic - foreseeing the future; social memory – a method of identification and orientation of society and the individual; practical recommendation – development of a scientifically based political course.

Related information.