", "Boyar Duma of Ancient Rus'", on the history of serfdom, classes, finance, historiography.

The human personality, human society, the nature of the country - these are the three main historical forces “that build human coexistence...”.

There were few events in Klyuchevsky’s life. One of the historian’s aphorisms: “The main biographical facts are books, major events- thoughts".

He studied at the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University. CM. Soloviev was his scientific supervisor. Klyuchevsky was the best lecturer for the entire period of its existence historical education in Russia.

At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries, Klyuchevsky gradually moved away from teaching activities and devotes all his strength to the creation of his main work, which put his name on a par with the names of Karamzin and Solovyov. The “Course of Russian History” was the result of all his scientific and teaching activities. The author set himself the task of covering a gigantic period from ancient times to the eve of the reform of 1861.

This abstract presents the view of V.O. Klyuchevsky. for one of the key periods of Russian history - the reign of Catherine II.

1. Catherine's position II on the throne

The century of our history, begun by the king-carpenter, ended with the empress-writer. Catherine had to smooth out the impression of a coup through which she came to the throne and justify the illegal appropriation of power.

Catherine made a double takeover: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father. There were rumors in the guard that were alarming for Catherine about the enthronement of Ivanushka, as the former Emperor Ivan VI was called, and also about why Tsarevich Paul was not crowned. It was even rumored in society that in order to consolidate her position on the throne, it would not hurt for Catherine to marry the former emperor. Catherine saw him soon after her accession to the throne and ordered him to be persuaded to take monastic vows. In the guard, circles and “parties” were formed, however, they did not have time to form a conspiracy (not everyone, even the participants in the coup, were satisfied with it, as they were not awarded enough). Catherine was especially alarmed in 1764 by the crazy attempt of the army second lieutenant Mirovich to free Ivanushka from the Shlisselburg fortress and proclaim him emperor - an attempt that ended in the murder of a prisoner who was insane in captivity, a terrible victim of the iniquities, the nursery of which was the Russian throne after the death of Peter I.

Catherine was not so much the culprit as the instrument of the coup: weak, young, alone in a foreign land, on the eve of divorce and imprisonment she surrendered into the hands of people who wanted to save her, and after the coup she could still not control anything. These people, now surrounding Catherine, led by the five Orlov brothers who had been promoted to counts, were in a hurry to reap the fruits of the “great incident,” as they called the June affair. They were strikingly lacking in education. They were not content with the awards they received, with the fact that Catherine gave them up to 18 thousand souls of peasants and up to 200 thousand rubles (at least 1 million in our money) of one-time dachas, not counting lifelong pensions. They besieged the empress, imposed their opinions and interests on her, sometimes directly asking for money. Catherine had to get along with these people. It was unpleasant and untidy, but not particularly difficult. She used her usual means, her inimitable ability to listen patiently and respond affectionately; when in a difficult situation, Catherine needed a little time and patience so that her supporters would have time to come to their senses and begin to have a proper relationship with her. It was much more difficult to justify the new government in the eyes of the people. The deep masses of the people far from the capital did not experience the personal charm of the empress, contenting themselves with dark rumors and simple fact, which could be understood from popular manifestos: there was Emperor Peter III, but his wife, the empress, overthrew him and put him in prison, where he soon died.

These masses, which had long been in a state of ferment, could only be calmed by measures of justice and common benefit that were tangible for everyone.

2. Catherine II program

The popular activities of the new government had to simultaneously follow the national, liberal and class-noble directions. But this triple task suffered from internal contradiction. After the law of February 18, the nobility became contrary to all popular interests and even the transformative needs of the state. Whether for reasons of flexible thought or according to the instructions of experience and observation, Catherine found a way out of the inconveniences of her program. She divided the tasks and carried out each one in a special area of ​​government activity.

National interests and feelings received wide scope in foreign policy, which was given full speed. A broad reform of regional administration and court was undertaken according to the plans of the then leading publicists of Western Europe, but mainly with the native goal of occupying the idle nobility and strengthening its position in the state and society . The liberal ideas of the century were also given their own area. The triple task developed into the following practical program: a strictly national, boldly patriotic foreign policy, complacently liberal, possibly humane methods of government, complex and harmonious regional institutions with the participation of the three estates, salon, literary and pedagogical propaganda of the educational ideas of the time, and a cautious but consistently conservative legislation with special attention to the interests of one class.

The main idea of ​​the program can be expressed as follows: the permissive spread of the ideas of the century and legislative consolidation facts of the place.

3. Foreign policy Catherine II

Foreign policy is the brightest side government activities Catherine, who produced the most strong impression on contemporaries and immediate descendants. When they want to say the best that can be said about this reign, they talk about victorious wars with Turkey, about the Polish partitions, about the commanding voice of Catherine in the international relations of Europe.

After the Peace of Nystadt, when Russia became firmly established in the Baltic Sea, two foreign policy issues remained on the agenda, one territorial, the other national. The first was to push the southern border of the state to its natural limits, to the northern coastline of the Black Sea with Crimea and Sea of ​​Azov and to the Caucasus ridge. This eastern question in its historical production at that time. Then it was necessary to complete political unification Russian people, reuniting the western part, which had been separated from it, with Russia. This Western Russian question .

Count Panin N.I. and his system

They expected the imminent death of the Polish king Augustus III. For Russia, it didn’t matter who would be king, but Catherine had a candidate whom she wanted to see through at all costs. This was Stanislav Poniatowski, a veil born for the boudoir, and not for any throne. This candidacy entailed a string of temptations and difficulties... Finally, the entire course of foreign policy had to be abruptly turned around. Until then, Russia maintained an alliance with Austria, which was joined by France during the Seven Years' War.

At first, after her accession to the throne, still poorly understanding matters, Catherine asked the opinions of her advisers about the peace with Prussia concluded under Peter III. The advisers did not recognize this peace as useful for Russia and spoke in favor of renewing the alliance with Austria. A.P. also stood for this. Bestuzhev - Ryumin, whose opinion she especially valued at that time. But a younger diplomat, a student and opponent of his system, Count N.I., stood next to him. Panin, teacher of Grand Duke Paul.

He was not only for peace, but directly for an alliance with Frederick, proving that without his assistance nothing could be achieved in Poland. Catherine stood strong for some time: she did not want to be an ally of the king, whom she publicly called the villain of Russia in the July manifesto, but Panin prevailed and for a long time became Catherine’s closest collaborator in foreign policy. The alliance treaty with Prussia was signed on March 31, 1764, when election campaigning was underway in Poland following the death of King Augustus III. But this union was just entering integral part into the conceived complex system international relations. After Panin’s death, Catherine complained that she had suffered enough with him as a lazy person during the first Turkish war. She was a white-handed diplomat, an idyllic diplomat. Panin became the conductor of an international combination unprecedented in Europe. According to his project, the northern non-Catholic states, including Catholic Poland, united for mutual support, to protect the weak by the strong. Its “active” members are Russia, Prussia and England. “Passive” - Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Saxony and other small states that had a desire to join the union. The combat purpose of the alliance is direct opposition to the southern alliance (Austro-Franco-Spanish). All that was required of the “passive” states was that in the event of clashes between both alliances they should not pester the southern one and remain neutral. This was the northern system that was sensational in its time. It's easy to notice her discomfort. It was difficult for states so diversely structured as autocratic Russia, constitutionally aristocratic England, soldier-monarchist Prussia and republican-anarchist Poland to act together and harmoniously. In addition, the members of the union had too few common interests and the northern system was not formalized in any international act.

Abstract on the history of Russia

Catherine II spent a very vigorous foreign policy, which ultimately turned out to be successful for Russian Empire. Her government solved several main foreign policy problems.

The first was to reach the shores of the Black Sea and gain a foothold there, secure the southern borders of the state from Turkey and Crimea. The growth in the marketability of the country's agricultural production dictated the need to own the mouth of the Dnieper, through which agricultural products could be exported.

The second task required continuing reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands.

In the 60s of the 18th century, a complex diplomatic game was taking place in Europe. The degree of rapprochement between certain countries depended on the strength of the contradictions between them.

Nowhere have Russia's interests collided so sharply with the position of England and France as in the Turkish question. In September 1768, incited by France and Austria, Türkiye declared war on Russia. Attempts by the Turkish army to break into Russia were paralyzed by troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev. The campaign of 1768-1769 ended in failure for the Turks, but did not bring much success to the Russian army. The turning point came only in 1770, when hostilities unfolded on the lower Danube. P.A. Rumyantsev won two brilliant victories over numerically superior enemy forces at Larga and Kagul (summer 1770). Success was also achieved in the Caucasus: the Turks were driven back to the Black Sea coast.

In the summer of 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of Alexei Orlov inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks in Chesme Bay. In 1771, Russian troops occupied Crimea.

Catherine II's attempt to make peace in 1772 was unsuccessful (the conditions of Turkey were not satisfactory).

In 1773, the Russian army resumed military operations. A.V. Suvorov took the Turtukai fortress on the southern bank of the Danube and in 1774 won a victory at Kozludzha. Rumyantsev crossed the Danube and moved to the Balkans. Türkiye capitulated. In 1774, a peace treaty was signed in Kuchuk-Kainardzhi, according to which the lands between the Bug and the Dnieper, including the sea coast, fortresses in Crimea, were given to Russia, and the Crimean Khanate was declared independent. Freedom of navigation was established on the Black Sea for Russian merchant ships with the right to enter the Mediterranean Sea. Kabarda was annexed to Russia.

The liberated army was deployed to suppress Pugachev's uprising.

The fact that the peace treaty was only a respite was understood in both Russia and Turkey. The issue of Crimea remained controversial. The diplomatic struggle around him did not stop. In response to the machinations of the Turkish government, Russian troops occupied the peninsula in 1783. Türkiye, in an ultimatum, demanded that Crimea be returned to it, that Georgia be recognized as a vassal possession, and that it be granted the right to inspect Russian merchant ships.

Russo-Turkish War 1787-1791 years began with an attempt by Turkey to land troops on the Kinburn Spit, but the attack was repulsed by troops under the command A.V.Suvorova. Then, in 1788, he took the powerful fortress of Ochakov, after which the Russian army launched an offensive in the Danube direction, which resulted in two victories, at Rymnik and Focsani. The capture of the impregnable fortress of Izmail by Suvorov in 1790 significantly brought the conclusion of peace closer.

At the same time, the Russian fleet under the command of one of the most outstanding Russian naval commanders, Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov, inflicted several defeats on the Turks in Kerch Strait and off the islands of Tendra and Kaliakria. The Turkish fleet was forced to capitulate.

In December 1791, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, establishing the border between Russia and Turkey along the Dniester. Russia received Ochakov and Crimea, but withdrew its troops from Georgia.

The second foreign policy task is annexation of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia- was decided by the government of Catherine II through the so-called divisions of Poland, which were carried out jointly with Prussia and Austria.

In October 1763, the Polish king Augustus III died. Russia took an active part in the election of the new king in order to prevent Poland from joining the coalition along with France, Turkey and Sweden. The situation was developing in favor of Russia, since England expected the conclusion of a Russian-English trade agreement that would be beneficial for itself, Prussia was not inclined to quarrel with Russia after the end of the Seven Years' War, France was in a difficult economic situation. In Poland itself, a struggle between different factions for the throne unfolded. After a long struggle, on August 26, 1764, at the coronation diet, S. Poniatowski was elected king of Poland, with the support of Russia. Russia's activity displeased Prussia and Austria, who sought to increase their territories at the expense of Poland. This led to the partition of Poland, which began with the occupation of part of Polish territory by the Austrians.

The Prussian king Frederick II, who dreamed of increasing his lands at the expense of his neighbors, turned to Catherine II with a proposal for a joint partition of Poland between Prussia, Austria and Russia. Since Russian forces were busy in the south in the war against Turkey, refusing Frederick II’s proposal meant transferring the initiative into the hands of Prussia. Therefore, in August 1772, the first agreement on the division of Poland between the three states was signed in St. Petersburg. Part of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands went to Russia, Galicia with the large trading city of Lvov went to Austria, Pomerania and part of Greater Poland went to Prussia.

Second partition of Poland was preceded by an increase in revolutionary sentiment in Europe and, in particular, in Poland in connection with the revolution in France. In 1791, a constitution was introduced there, which, despite a number of shortcomings, was progressive and strengthened Polish statehood, which was contrary to the interests of Russia, Prussia and Austria. In 1793, Russia and Prussia made a second partition: Russia received the central part of Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine; Prussia - the indigenous Polish lands of Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. Austria did not receive its share under the second section. The 1791 Constitution was repealed. The second partition practically made the country completely dependent on Prussia and Russia. The patriotic forces of society rebelled in March 1794.

The movement was led by one of the heroes of the North American War of Independence T. Kosciuszko. After several victories won by the rebels, a significant part of the Russian troops left Poland. T. Kosciuszko promised to abolish serfdom and reduce duties. This attracted a significant part of the peasantry to his army. However, there was no clear program of action; the enthusiasm of the rebels did not last long.

In the second half of the 18th century. Russia's foreign policy was focused on solving problems in two main directions: southern and western (Diagram 123).

First of all, this concerned the southern direction, where there was an intense struggle with the Ottoman Empire for the Northern Black Sea region and it was necessary to ensure the security of Russia’s southern borders.

The implementation of the policy in the western direction was to strengthen Russia's position in Europe and was associated with participation in the partitions of Poland, as well as with opposition to France, in which in 1789–1794. happened bourgeois revolution and whose revolutionary influence was feared by the European monarchical states, and especially the Russian Empire.

Scheme 123

The solution of foreign policy problems related to the southern direction was complicated as a result of clashes with the Ottoman Empire, which led to two Russian-Turkish wars (Diagram 124).

Scheme 124

Russo-Turkish War 1768–1774 The cause of the war was Russian interference in the affairs of Poland, which displeased Turkey. Catherine II supported the Polish king Stanislaw Poniatowski in the fight against the opposition (members of the so-called Bar Confederation). Pursuing one of the Confederate detachments, Russian Cossacks invaded Turkish territory and occupied a settlement there, located on the right tributary of the Southern Bug. In response, on September 25, 1768, Turkey declared war on Russia.

The fighting began in the winter of 1769, when the Crimean Khan, an ally of Turkey, invaded Ukraine, but his attack was repelled by Russian troops under the command of P.A. Rumyantseva.

Military operations were carried out on the territory of Moldova, Wallachia and at sea. The decisive year in the war was 1770, in which brilliant victories were won by the Russian army.

The fleet under the command of Admiral G.A. Spiridov and Count A.G. Orlova circumnavigated Europe, entered the Mediterranean Sea and in Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor on June 24–26, 1770, completely destroyed the Turkish squadron.

On land, the Russian army led by P.A. won a number of victories. Rumyantsev. He used a new infantry combat formation - a mobile square. The troops “bristled” on all four sides with bayonets, which made it possible to successfully resist the numerous Turkish cavalry. In the summer of 1770, he won victories on the tributaries of the Prut - the Larga and Kagul rivers, which made it possible for Russia to reach the Danube.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov took Crimea. In 1772–1773 A truce was concluded between the warring parties and peace negotiations began. However, they did not end in anything. The war resumed. The Russians crossed the Danube; in this campaign, A.V.’s corps won brilliant victories in the summer of 1774. Suvorov. Türkiye started talking about making peace. On July 10, 1774, a peace treaty was signed at the headquarters of the Russian command, in the town of Kyuchuk-Kainarzhi.

Russian-Turkish War 1787–1791 Confrontation between Russia and Ottoman Empire continued. Turkish Sultan Selim III began to demand the return of Crimea, recognition of Georgia as his vassal, and inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. On August 13, 1787, having received a refusal, he declared war on Russia, which was in alliance with Austria.

Military operations began with repelling an attack by Turkish troops on the Kinburn fortress (near Ochakov). The general leadership of the Russian army was carried out by the head of the Military Collegium, Prince G.A. Potemkin. In December 1788, Russian troops, after a long siege, took Turkish fortress Ochakov. In 1789 A.V. Suvorov, with smaller forces, twice achieved victory in the battles of Focsani and on the river. Rym-nike. For this victory he received the title of count and became known as Count Suvorov-Rymniksky. In December 1790, the troops under his command managed to capture the Izmail fortress, the citadel of Ottoman rule on the Danube, which was the main victory in the war.

In 1791, the Turks lost the Anapa fortress in the Caucasus, and then lost a naval battle at Cape Kaliakria (near the Bulgarian city of Varna) in the Black Sea to the Russian fleet under the command of Admiral F.F. Ushakova. All this forced Turkey to conclude a peace treaty, which was signed in Iasi in December 1791.

Strengthening Russia's position in Europe in the second half of the 18th century. was associated with the weakening of the Polish state and its division between the leading European powers (diagram 125).

Scheme 125

The initiator of this process was Prussia. Its king, Frederick II, proposed to Catherine II to divide the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between its neighbors, especially since Austria had already begun the division, since its troops were located directly on the territory of this state. As a result, the St. Petersburg Convention of July 25, 1772 was concluded, which authorized the first partition of Poland. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Russia took control of Central Belarus with the cities of Minsk, Slutsk, Pinsk and Right Bank Ukraine, including Zhitomir and Kamenets-Podolsky. This caused an uprising of Polish patriots led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko in 1794. It was brutally suppressed by Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. The defeat of the rebels predetermined the third and final partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The lands of Courland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus were transferred to Russia. As a result, Russia captured more than half of all Polish lands. Poland lost its statehood for more than a hundred years.

The most important result of the divisions of Poland for Russia was not only the acquisition of vast territories, but also the transfer of the state border far to the west to the center of the continent, which significantly increased its influence in Europe. The reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian peoples with Russia freed them from the religious oppression of Catholicism and created opportunities for further development peoples within the East Slavic sociocultural community.

And finally, in late XVIII V. The main task of Russian foreign policy was the fight against revolutionary France (see diagram 125). After the execution of King Louis XVI, Catherine II broke off diplomatic and trade relations with France, actively helped the counter-revolutionaries and, together with England, tried to exert economic pressure on France. Only the Polish national liberation uprising in 1794 prevented Russia from openly organizing an intervention.

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. was of an active and expansionist nature, which made it possible to include new lands in the state and strengthen its position in Europe.

Foreign policy objectives. The most important foreign policy task facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the southern seas - the Black and Azov. From the third quarter of the 18th century. The Polish issue occupied a significant place in Russia's foreign policy activities. The Great, which began in 1789 French revolution largely determined the direction of the foreign policy actions of the Russian autocracy at the end of the 18th century, including the fight against revolutionary France. On the southeastern borders of Russia the situation was relatively stable.

Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774. TO active actions in the south, the Russian government was pushed by the interests of the country's security, and the needs of the nobility, who sought to obtain the richest southern lands, and developing industry and trade, which dictated the need to access the Black Sea coast.

Türkiye, incited by France and England, declared war on Russia in the fall of 1768. Military operations began in 1769 and were carried out on the territory of Moldova and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and admirals G.A. Spiridov and I.S. Greig, leaving St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov captured Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and taking advantage of the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. Troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way to Istanbul for the main forces led by P.A. Rumyantsev. Türkiye was forced to sue for peace.

It was concluded in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774. Under the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace, Russia received access to the Black Sea, the Black Sea steppes - Novorossiya, the right to have its own fleet in the Black Sea and the right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Türkiye paid an indemnity in the amount of 4 million rubles. The Russian government also achieved the right to act as a defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

Annexation of Crimea. Türkiye did not want to come to terms with Russia's assertion in the Black Sea. In response to Turkey's attempt to return Crimea to its rule, Russian troops in 1783 occupied the Crimean peninsula, which became part of Russia. Sevastopol was founded as a base for the fleet. For his success in annexing Crimea (the old name of Tauris), G. A. Potemkin received a prefix to his title “Prince of Tauride.”

In the spring of 1787, Catherine II, accompanied by the court, the Polish king and European ambassadors, made a trip to Novorossiya and Crimea. In Kherson they were joined by the Austrian Emperor Joseph II. The trip was aimed at getting acquainted with the riches of Novorossiya and the successes of G. A. Potemkin, who headed the administration of the south of Russia, in its development. In addition, the guests had to make sure that Russia had a firm foot on the Black Sea. These results were achieved, although the expression “Potemkin villages,” meaning excessive display, came into use after Catherine’s trip.

Georgievsky Treaty. In 1783, in the city of Georgievsk (North Caucasus), an agreement was concluded between the Georgian king Irakli II and Russia on a protectorate. The Treaty of Georgievsk was signed, according to which Russia accepted Eastern Georgia under its protection.

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791. In the summer of 1787, Türkiye demanded the return of Crimea and opened military operations. A.V. Suvorov defeated the enemy in the battle of Kinburn (near Ochakov, 1787), Fokshanakh and on the Rymnik River (1789).

In 1791, peace was signed in the city of Iasi. According to the Treaty of Iasi, Türkiye recognized Crimea as Russian possession. The Dniester River became the border between the two countries. The territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia. Türkiye recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.

As a result of the Russian-Turkish wars, the economic development of the steppe south of Russia accelerated. Russia's ties with the Mediterranean countries expanded. The Crimean Khanate was liquidated - a constant source of aggression against Ukrainian and Russian lands. Nikolaev (1789), Odessa (1795), Ekaterinodar (1793, now Krasnodar) and others were founded in the south of Russia.

Russian-Swedish War 1788-1790 At the end of the 80s of the XVIII century. Russia had to simultaneously conduct military operations on two fronts. In 1788, Sweden decided to return the lands lost in the Northern War. Military operations took place near St. Petersburg, when the main Russian armies fought in the south against Turkey. The Swedish offensive on land did not produce results, and soon the Swedish king and his troops left Russia. Moreover, Russian troops occupied a significant part of Swedish Finland. Battles at sea went on with varying degrees of success. In 1790, in a Finnish village on the Kymmen River, the Peace of Werel was signed, preserving the previous borders.

Education USA and Russia. One of the significant international events of the third Thursday of the 18th century. was the struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution that led to the creation of the United States of America.

Disagreements between England and Russia had a beneficial effect on the course of the American Revolution. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the “Declaration of Armed Neutrality,” supported by most European countries. Ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense if they were attacked by a belligerent fleet. This resulted in England’s abandonment of attempts to organize a naval blockade of the American coast and objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution.

Partitions of Poland. In the last third of the 18th century. The Polish question became one of the central issues in the field of international relations in Europe. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was experiencing a severe crisis, the cause of which lay in the selfish, anti-national policies of the Polish magnates, who brought the country to collapse.

In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Austria sent its troops into Western Ukraine (Galicia), Prussia - into Pomerania. Russia received the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.

The progressive part of the Polish nobility and the emerging bourgeoisie made an attempt to save the Polish state. In accordance with the Constitution of 1791, the election of the king and the right of “liberum veto” were abolished. The army was strengthened, the third estate was allowed into the Sejm, and freedom of religion was introduced.

The new Polish Constitution was adopted when France was engulfed in the flames of revolution. Fearing the spread of the “revolutionary infection”, and also feeling the decline of their influence in the country, Polish magnates turned to Catherine II for help. Russian troops, and after them the Prussians, entered Poland. The old order was restored.

In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place. Central Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine were transferred to Russia. Prussia received Gdansk and part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers.

In 1794, Polish patriots under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, who sought to preserve the sovereignty of Poland, rebelled. Catherine II suppressed it by sending troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov. This predetermined the third partition of Poland. In 1795, Prussia received Central Poland with Warsaw, and Austria received Southern Poland with Lublin and Krakow. Lithuania, Courland, Volyn and Western Belarus went to Russia. As a result of the partitions, Poland lost its statehood and sovereignty for more than a century. The Polish king abdicated the throne and moved to Russia.

The reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples with Russia had enormous progressive significance. These lands were historically connected by a common economic, political and cultural life. Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples received more favorable opportunities for their further development and were freed from religious oppression. Joining Russia helped Ukrainians and Belarusians maintain their national culture and identity. Within the framework of a single state, three fraternal Slavic people- Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Tsarism in the fight against the revolution in France. In 1789. A bourgeois revolution took place in France. On July 14, the insurgent people of Paris stormed the Bastille. A bourgeois system was established in the country. The Great French Revolution had a huge impact on the entire course of world history. The entire 19th century passed under the sign of the French Revolution.

The fear of the “French infection,” “this terrible monster” (as the nobles called the revolution in France) forced Catherine II to take the most decisive measures to help the counter-revolutionaries. After the execution of King Louis XVI, Russia broke off diplomatic and trade relations with France. The distribution of the works of French educators was prohibited. Together with England, an attempt was made to put economic pressure on France. Inside Russia, repression against progressive people intensified. It was at this time that A. N. Radishchev was exiled to Siberia, N. I. Novikov was arrested. In 1794, an uprising in Poland prevented Catherine II from openly opposing France. Polish events saved the French revolution.

Results of foreign policy. In general, the foreign policy results of the second half of the XVIII V. were positive for the further development of Russia and the peoples inhabiting it.

In Russia, unlike the colonial empires of Western Europe, which had overseas territories, the Russian population lived side by side with the peoples annexed to the empire. Joint work to develop the country's wealth objectively contributed to the rapprochement of peoples and made it possible to survive in the vast expanses of Eurasia. The dominant layer of the annexed lands was organically part of the Russian ruling elite. As a rule, the state almost did not interfere in the internal structure of small nations. The possibility of free movement across the vast territory of the country and its development led to the “cross-band” settlement of its inhabitants. This is how a single geopolitical space was formed on the territory of Eurasia.

Main directions of foreign policy. During the reign of Catherine II, Russia managed to come closer to solving the foreign policy problems that had faced the country for many decades.

The weakening of the military power of Turkey and Crimea made it increasingly possible to ensure Russia's access to the Black Sea.

Russia's allied relations with Austria and Prussia created the opportunity for the return to Russia of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that had been located since the 14th century V composition of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

The task of ensuring the security of Peter's conquests in the Baltic states remained.

The Great French Revolution caused the creation of the first anti-French coalition under the auspices of Catherine II.

All these factors determined the main directions of Catherine’s foreign policy. II.

Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774. The Russian-Turkish wars of the second half of the 18th century were explained not only by Russia’s desire to access the Black Sea, but also by the no less desire of Turkey itself to expand its possessions in the Northern Black Sea region at the expense of Russia.

In 1768, the Russian-Turkish war broke out. It was started by Turkey. The cavalry of the Crimean Khan began advancing from the south into the steppe regions of Ukraine. A huge Turkish army was concentrated on the Dniester River to attack Kiev. In addition to heavily fortified fortresses in the Balkans, Turkey relied on its large and well-armed fleet, which operated in the Black and Azov Seas.

On initial stage During the war, the battles went on with varying degrees of success - due to the surprise of the attack and Turkey's superiority in strength. The chances of victory increased after the appointment of the famous commander, P. A. Rumyantsev, who had distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War, as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. In September 1769, the troops he led entered Iasi and then Bucharest. Another part of the Russian army, operating in the lower reaches of the Don and in the Azov region, occupied Azov and Taganrog. At the same time, a military detachment was sent to help the Georgian population, who had rebelled against the Turks in Imereti.

In July 1770 The Turkish army was defeated by Rumyantsev's troops near the Largi River. A few days later, near the Cahul River, a 17,000-strong Russian detachment defeated the main forces of the Turkish army, numbering 150,000 people.

Meanwhile, the squadron of the Baltic Fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and G. A. Spiridova circled Europe and on July 5, 1770, completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in Chesme Bay. Troops were landed from Russian ships and, together with Greek partisans, waged a successful fight against the Turks.

In 1772 he was transferred from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the Danube Army. Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov. In 1773, the troops he led quickly occupied Turtukai and crossed the Danube.

Having suffered complete defeat, Türkiye was forced to ask for peace. The Russian army was ready to continue the war. But the peasant war that flared up in the country forced the government to make peace. According to the agreement concluded by P. A. Rumyantsev in the town of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi in 1774, the territory between the Southern Bug and the Dnieper with the Kinburn fortress, the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale on the Sea of ​​Azov, Kabarda in the North Caucasus were annexed to Russia. Turkey was also forced to recognize the independence of the Crimean Khanate and the right of the Russian fleet to unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits into the Mediterranean Sea.

However, both sides viewed this agreement as temporary. They were preparing for a new war for the Northern Black Sea region.

Russian-Turkish War of 1787-1791. Another Russian-Turkish war broke out in 1787. The reason for it was the events in Crimea, where a coup took place in favor of the open protege of Turkey and the enemy of Russia. In response to this, in 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto on the termination of the existence of the Crimean Khanate and the annexation of its lands to Russia. As a result, all of Crimea and part of the North Caucasus became part of Russia. In summer 1787 year, Catherine undertook a demonstrative trip to the Crimea (Tavrida) accompanied by the Austrian emperor.

All this caused a storm of indignation in Turkey. In July 1787, the Sultan presented an ultimatum to Russia, in which he demanded the return of Crimea, the restoration of Turkish power in Georgia and the inspection of Russian ships sailing through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Russia refused. In August, the Sultan declared war on Russia, which lasted four years.

Russia's military superiority became immediately obvious. In the fall of 1787, the Turks landed a large landing force on the Kinburn Spit at the mouth of the Dnieper. The troops defending Kinburn under the command of Suvorov defeated and destroyed the landing force. In 1788, troops under the command G. A. Potemkina captured the Ochakov fortress.

In the summer of 1789, decisive battles took place at Focsani and Rymnik, during which Suvorov’s troops defeated the numerically superior Turks.

The main event of the final stage of the war was the siege and capture of the seemingly impregnable fortress of Izmail, which was defended by 35 thousand people. The commandant of Izmail self-confidently declared that “the sky would sooner fall to earth” than the enemy would be able to take this fortress.

The first attempts at the assault did not really bring success to the Russian troops. Only after the appointment of Suvorov as commander did things move forward.

The famous commander began to prepare his troops for the assault. Life-size models of the fortress were created, ladders were prepared for the assault, and soldiers were taught to overcome obstacles. The troops literally trained day and night. “It’s hard in training, but it’s easy in battle,” said Suvorov.

After artillery preparation, on December 11, 1790, the assault on the fortress began. The battle lasted for ten hours, after which impregnable Ishmael fell The Turks lost 26 thousand of their soldiers. Losses on the part of the storming Russians amounted to 2 thousand people. One of the attacking columns was commanded by Major General M. I. Kutuzov.

In the summer of 1791, Russian troops finally defeated Turkish army

in the Balkans. At the same time, the young Russian Black Sea Fleet, led by Fedor Fedorovich Ushakov defeated the Turkish squadron in the Kerch Strait.

Türkiye was completely defeated and asked for peace. According to the Treaty of Iasi in 1791, the Dniester River became the border between the two countries. Türkiye recognized all of Russia's conquests in the Northern Black Sea region.

Russia not only gained access to the Black Sea, but also became a great Black Sea power. The development of fertile Black Sea lands began, and the construction of many ports and cities on them.

Greek project of Catherine II. Immediately after the end of the first war with Turkey, inspired by the successes, Catherine II and her favorite G. A. Potemkin drew up a project for further actions against the enemy, weakened by failures. It was assumed that Turkey would be thrown back from Europe, and the Greek Empire would arise on the liberated Balkan lands with its capital in Constantinople. Catherine named her second grandson, born in 1779, Constantine in honor of the great Byzantine emperor. In the future she wanted to see him as the head

Greek Empire. The empress planned to create a buffer state of Dacia from the eastern Danube principalities, and transfer the western principalities to Austria (together with which she planned to oust Turkey from Europe). This plan caused a great stir in European capitals, since its implementation (which was quite possible) would cause an extraordinary strengthening of Russia's already strong position in Europe. Catherine did not have time to implement these plans.

Russia's participation in the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria and Prussia, allies with Russia, repeatedly suggested that Russia undertake a division of the weakening Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Catherine II did not go against him due to the fact that the Polish king at that time was her protege Stanislav Poniatovsky. However, after Russia’s victories during Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 there was a very real threat of concluding an alliance between Turkey and Austria for a joint fight against it. And then Catherine agreed to the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. IN 1772 Russia, Austria and Prussia divided part of the territories of this state among themselves. Prussia occupied Pomerania, Austria - Galicia, and Russia - eastern Belarus and part of Livonia.

The second partition, in which Prussia and Russia participated, took place in 1793. The reason for it was the revolutionary events in France. The entire Baltic coast of Poland with Gdansk and Greater Poland with Poznan went to Prussia, and Belarus with Minsk and Right Bank Ukraine went to Russia. This meant that many ancient Russian lands became part of Russia.

Meanwhile, an uprising began in Poland under the leadership of Tadeusha Kosciuszko, directed against the division of Polish lands by neighboring states. Taking advantage of the victories of the rebels, Russia, Austria and Prussia again brought their troops into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and suppressed the uprising. It was decided that the Polish state, as a source of “revolutionary danger,” should cease to exist. This meant the third partition of Poland, which took place in 1795 The lands of central Poland with Warsaw went to Prussia. Austria received Lesser Poland with Lublin. The main part of Lithuania, Western Belarus and Western Volyn went to Russia, and the inclusion of Courland in Russia was confirmed.

War with Sweden. In the midst of the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791, the Swedish king, taking advantage of the difficult situation in Russia, made a last attempt to return part of Peter's gains. In addition to demanding the return of the entire Baltic coast conquered by Russia, he demanded that Catherine return to Turkey (with which he was in alliance) all its Black Sea acquisitions. Military operations began in 1788 and proceeded with varying success in Finland and the Baltic Sea. The fate of the war was decided by the Vyborg naval battle in June 1790, which ended in the victory of the Russian fleet. A peace treaty was concluded in July. The war ended without changing the borders between the two countries. Its main result was the conclusion of allied relations between Russia and Sweden, which meant the final recognition by the Swedes of the results of the Northern War.

Policy of "armed neutrality". In 1775, the war of the English colonies began in North America for independence. England turned to Russia with a request to hire Russian troops to take part in the fight against the American rebels. In response, Catherine II not only refused this, but later recognized the independence of the United States of America. In 1780, Russia adopted a declaration of “armed neutrality”, according to which a ship of any neutral state is under the protection of all neutral states. This position was to the advantage of the inhabitants of the American colonies. This greatly affected the interests of England and could not help but worsen Russian-English relations. But at the same time, the foundation was laid for the development of ties between Russia and America.

The struggle of Catherine II with revolutionary France. Revolutionary events in France alarmed Catherine from the very beginning. She was hostile to the convening of the Estates General on May 5, 1789, and especially to the storming of the Bastille on July 14. The Empress declared that she could not allow shoemakers to rule the state in any corner of Europe. She was even more alarmed by reports that some of the representatives of the Russian aristocracy who studied in Paris took part in revolutionary events those days. Soon she demanded that all her subjects leave France.

On Catherine's instructions, the Russian ambassador in Paris was preparing an escape Louis XVI and his family. However, this escape failed, and soon the king and queen of France were executed. The Empress fell ill, and the court was dressed in mourning. From then on, Russia began to form an anti-French coalition of European states and prepare an invasion of revolutionary France. Diplomatic and trade ties between Russia and France were severed. The exiled French nobility, led by the brother of the executed king, began to gather in St. Petersburg. In 1795, the first agreement was concluded between England and Russia to send troops to France. Russia was supposed to field a 60,000-strong army led by Suvorov, and England provided large financial resources for waging war. However, on November 6, 1796, Empress Catherine died, and the campaign did not take place.

The results of Catherine's foreign policy. The foreign policy of Catherine the Great led to a significant increase in Russian territory. It included Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus, the southern Baltic states, the Northern Black Sea region, and many new territories in the Far East and North America. Residents of the Greek islands and the North Caucasus swore allegiance to the Russian Empress. Russia's population increased from 22 million to 36 million people.

Another important result of Catherine II’s foreign policy was the beginning of Russia’s transformation from a great European power to a great world power. “I don’t know how it will be with you, but with us, not a single cannon in Europe dared to fire without our permission,” said Catherine’s chancellor Count A. Bezborodko. The Russian fleet now plied the expanses of not only the coastal seas, but also the Mediterranean Sea, the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, supporting Russia’s foreign policy in Europe, Asia and America with the force of its guns.

However, the greatness of Russia cost its people a colossal effort and enormous material and human losses.

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