This category is an integral part of the form of the state and shows how new bodies are formed, what they are, and on what basis they interact. The form of government also indicates whether the population participates in the formation of the highest bodies of the state, that is, whether they are formed in a democratic or non-democratic way. For example, the highest bodies of the state are formed in a non-democratic way under a hereditary monarchy.

The essential features of this or that form of state cannot be understood and explained by abstracting from the nature of the production relations that have developed at this stage economic development. Thus, the republic of a slave-owning society has more similar properties with a slave-owning monarchy than with a republic of the capitalist period.

Among the factors determining the specificity of a particular form of state, of paramount importance is balance of class forces, social representation of persons in power in a given country and at a given historical period time. Results political struggle for power find their expression in the order of organization and structure of the entire state mechanism, in the totalitarian or democratic methods of its activity.

The form of the state is also known to be influenced by National composition population, level of culture and the traditions that have developed as a result historical development countries (an example would be the monarchical traditions in Great Britain and Japan), and to a certain extent, although indirectly, even the peculiarities of its geographical location.

When analyzing the form of states, the influence of international relations should also be taken into account. Given the modern diversity of economic, political, cultural and other dependencies between countries, even economically powerful states cannot fully develop in international isolation.

Thus, the form of government reveals the method of organizing the supreme state power, the order of formation of its bodies, their interaction with each other and with the population, the degree of participation of the population in their formation.

There are two main forms of government- monarchy and republic. Their supreme bodies differ from each other in order of formation, composition, and competence.

Monarchy- this is a form of government in which all the fullness of state power is concentrated in the hands of one person - a monarch (tsar, king, shah, emperor, sultan, etc.), who performs the functions of head of state, legislative, and, in many ways, executive power .

The monarch inherits power as a representative of the ruling dynasty and exercises it for life and indefinitely. He personifies the state, speaking on behalf of the entire people as the “father” of the nation, and is not legally responsible for the results of his activities.

The listed features are typical for a monarchical form of government. In reality, they are not unconditional and, differing in different ratios, determine the diversity and types of limited and unlimited monarchies. In an unlimited (absolute) monarchy, the monarch is the only supreme body of the state. It carries out legislative functions, manages executive authorities, and controls justice. Absolute monarchy is characteristic of the last stage of development of the feudal state, when, after the final overcoming of feudal fragmentation, the process of formation of centralized states is completed.

In a limited monarchy, the highest state power is dispersed between the monarch and another body or bodies (the Zemsky Sobor in Russian Empire). Limited ones include an estate-representative monarchy and a modern constitutional monarchy, in which the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution, parliament, government and an independent court.

Republic- a form of government in which:

1) state power is transferred (delegated) by the people to a certain collegial, and not an individual body (Senate, Parliament, National Assembly, Federal Assembly etc.), which fulfills its functional purpose in the mode of “checks and balances” with other branches of government;

2) representative power is replaceable and elected for a certain term;

3) the accountability and responsibility of the authorities for the results of their activities are legislated.

Signs of a republic:

1) election and turnover of representative power;

2) collegiality of the board, which allows not only to ensure the control of various branches of government, their mutual restraint from possible arbitrariness, but also to more effectively and responsibly solve each of their specialized tasks;

3) legislatively established accountability and responsibility (political and legal) of the authorities for the results of their activities.

The republican form of government originated in slaveholding states, and found its most striking manifestation in the democratic Republic of Athens. Here the state bodies, including the highest ones, were elected by full citizens of Athens. However, more common in slaveholding states was the aristocratic republic, where the military and land nobility took part in the formation and work of the elected bodies of the supreme state power.

Modern republics are divided into parliamentary and presidential they differ mainly in which of the supreme authorities - parliament or the president - forms the government and directs the work and to whom - parliament or the president - the government is responsible.

In a parliamentary republic Parliament is endowed not only with legislative powers, but also with the right to resign the government by expressing no confidence in it; the government is responsible to parliament for its activities. The President of the Republic is the head of state, but not the head of government. Politically, this means that the government is formed by the party that wins the parliamentary elections. The president, not being the leader of the party, is deprived of the opportunity to direct its activities. The government is led by the Prime Minister (he may be called differently).

Presidential republic is a form of government in which the president directly, under certain parliamentary control, forms a government that is responsible to him for its activities. In presidential republics there is usually no position of prime minister, since most often the functions of head of state and head of government are performed by the president.

It will be important to note that the monarchy and the republic as forms of government have proven exceptional adaptability to different conditions and eras of political history.

Form government– organization of state power, which includes the order of formation, structure and status of the highest bodies of state power and the order of interaction between them. There are monarchical and republican forms of government. I. Monarchy is a form of government in which all state power is concentrated in the hands of one person - a hereditary monarch. An unlimited monarchy is a form of government of an autocratic nature.

This form is typical of slavery and feudalism. It is typical for the modern states of Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia. Limited monarchy - involves the transfer of power by inheritance, but the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution. Characteristic of modern countries: Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Thailand, Sweden, Japan, etc.

1 . There are the following types of monarchy: Slave-owning monarchy. All power is concentrated in the hands of one person. The main type of slave-holding monarchy is a) eastern despotism . This form existed in Babylon, Egypt, and India. It is characterized by the absolute dominance of the ruler and the lack of rights of his subjects. The ruler was at the same time either a living god or the son of a god. Great importance in such states priests, officials, and military men played roles. Sometimes despotism was complemented by - b) theocracy - a form of government in which the head of state was also its religious head. Examples include the Kingdom of Judah in the 10th-6th centuries BC, arab caliphate

in the 7th-10th century, Tibet until the 20th century and the modern Vatican. Another form of slave-holding monarchy is c) Roman monarchy

2 . . Its main feature was the coexistence of monarchical and republican state institutions. The monarch was supported by the army. Subsequently, the Roman monarchy became similar to an eastern despotism. Feudal monarchy - existed within the framework of feudal society. Let's look at the types of feudal monarchy. A) Early feudal monarchy

characterized by the weakness of royal power. Not all power was concentrated in the hands of the monarch. The state consisted of many relatively independent principalities and duchies, and the large feudal lords were to a small extent dependent on the king. B) Estate-representative monarchy - a form of government in which the power of the monarch was combined with the presence of representation bodies (zemstvo councils, parliaments, diets, States General, etc.) of different classes (citizens, clergy, nobles). in the 13th-14th centuries and Russia in the 17th century.

C) Absolute monarchy is a form of government in which the power of the monarch is unlimited, and representative bodies cannot influence political life.

This form was typical for Europe in the 16th-18th centuries and Russia in the 17th-19th centuries.

In the 18th century, both in European countries and in Russia, d)enlightened absolutism began - a form of government in which the monarch carried out reforms for a more reasonable organization of social life (elimination of class privileges, the dominance of large feudal lords and the omnipotence of the church; steps towards religious tolerance, market development , improvement of school education, etc.). 3. During the birth and development of capitalism, an unlimited monarchy is transformed into limited or constitutional monarchy . There are two main varieties constitutional monarchy

: parliamentary and mixed.

A) parliamentary monarchy is a form of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution, especially in the legislative and executive spheres.

The main body that carries out functions in these areas is the parliament and the head of state, appointed by election.

The electoral system in this case looks like this. During the electoral process, parliament is elected; the party that receives the majority of votes forms the government, and the leader of the party with the majority of seats in parliament automatically becomes the head of state. The monarch is not able to influence the activities of parliament and the government; the government is responsible to parliament.

Legislative activity is carried out by parliament, which creates and passes laws; the monarch only approves them. This is a formal procedure; the monarch rarely fails to approve laws adopted by parliament.

B) mixed (dualistic) monarchy - a form of government in which the government is formed not by parliament, but by the monarch and is actually independent of parliament. This form of government is called dualistic due to the fact that there are two independent bodies in the state: the government - protects the interests of the monarch and large feudal lords, and the parliament - protects the interests of the bourgeoisie. This form existed in Germany from 1871 to 1918. II. A republic is a form of government in which government bodies are elected through general elections.

A) democratic republic - a form of government in which everyone participated in the elections of government bodies free citizens. This form was formed in Ancient Greece. In addition to slaves, the following did not take part in the elections: former slaves, persons under 20 years of age and women. The main body was the People's Assembly. It adopted laws, concluded international treaties, resolved issues related to state crimes, etc. The executive power was in the hands of the Council of Five Hundred, which was elected every year and dealt with the distribution government money, control over the implementation of laws adopted by the People's Assembly and the activities of officials, and prepared laws.

B) an aristocratic republic - a form of government in which there were two supreme bodies with legislative functions - the Senate, consisting of a large aristocracy, and the people's assembly, consisting of citizens. This form of government existed in Ancient Rome until the 1st century BC. Magistrates (officials elected from the aristocracy) created laws. Then these laws had to be approved by the people's assembly. After this, the law had to be approved by the Senate. The Senate was not elected by the citizens, but was appointed by the consuls. Consuls were elected by free citizens. The Senate had the power to reject the law or suspend its operation. In case of social tension, the Senate could appoint a dictator.

2. A feudal republic is a form of government in which the highest state body is formed by election at the expense of representatives of the nobility, clergy and merchants.

Only in rare cases did city-states have bodies in which all free citizens participated. An example of such bodies is the veche in Novgorod and Pskov. This form of government was typical for some cities of Medieval Italy, Germany, and Holland. 3. As a result of the formation of capitalist relations, arose constitutional republic. This is the most democratic form of government. It has two varieties: a) parliamentary republic - a form of government in which the main government body is the parliament, which is formed by election. The government is responsible to parliament. It is formed by representatives of the parties that received the majority of votes during the parliamentary elections. Main is the Prime Minister. He is both the head of government and the head of parliament. The leader of the party with the majority in the parliamentary elections becomes the prime minister. The President is elected by parliament and is only a nominal head of state, his role is political life minimal. The first parliament was formed in 1265 in England. Examples of this form of government are modern states: Austria, India, Iceland, Italy, Germany, Switzerland.

B) A presidential republic is a form of government in which a popularly elected president is both the head of state and the head of government.

The government is responsible to the president, not to parliament. The head of government, the prime minister, is appointed by the president. If the president and the government have full executive power, then the parliament serves as the legislative body. George Washington (1732-1799) became the first president in history in the United States in 1789. Examples of this form of government are the USA, France, Russia, Finland, Mexico, Portugal. Inextricably linked. The study of state and law should begin with the origin of the state. The emergence of the state was preceded by a primitive communal system, in which the basis of production relations was public ownership of the means of production. The transition from self-government of primitive society to public administration

lasted for centuries; in different historical regions, the collapse of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the state occurred in different ways depending on historical conditions.

The first states were slaveholding. Along with the state, law also arose as an expression of the will of the ruling class. There are several known historical types states and rights - slaveholding, feudal, bourgeois. A state of the same type may have different shapes

device, government, political regime. State form

• indicates how the state and law are organized, how they function, and includes the following elements:
• form of government - determines who has power;
• form of government - determines the relationship between the state as a whole and its individual parts;

political regime is a set of methods and means of exercising state power and governance in a country.

Form of government Under refers to the organization of the highest bodies of state power (the order of their formation, relationships, the degree of participation of the masses in their formation and activities). With the same type of state there can be various forms of government.

The main forms of government are monarchy and republic.

Monarchy- a form of government in which supreme state power belongs to one person (the monarch) and is inherited;

Republic- in which the source of power - popular majority; The highest authorities are elected by citizens for a certain period of time.

Monarchy can be:

• absolute(omnipotence of the head of state);
• constitutional(the powers of the monarch are limited by the constitution).

A republic can be:

• parliamentary(the president is the head of state; the government is responsible only to parliament);
• presidential(the president is the head of state; the government is responsible to the president);

Presidential republic characterized by the combination in the hands of the president of the powers of the head of state and head of government. Formal hallmark presidential republic is the absence of office prime minister, as well as a strict separation of powers.

The features of a presidential republic are: the extra-parliamentary method of electing the president and forming the government; lack of parliamentary responsibility, i.e. the possibility of dissolving parliament by the president.

IN parliamentary republic the principle of the supremacy of parliament is proclaimed, to which the government bears political responsibility for its activities. The formal distinguishing feature of a parliamentary republic is the presence of the post of prime minister.

In the second half of the 20th century. mixed forms of government appeared, combining the features of presidential and parliamentary republics.

Forms of government

State structure— this is the internal national-territorial organization of state power, the division of the territory of the state into certain component parts, their legal status, the relationship between the state as a whole and its component parts.

Form of government- this is an element of the form of the state that characterizes the territorial organization of state power.

According to the form of government, states are divided into:

• Unitary
• Federative
• Confederation

Previously, there were other forms of government (empires, protectorates).

Unitary state

Unitary states- these are unified states consisting only of administrative-territorial units (regions, provinces, governorates, etc.). Unitary states include: France, Finland, Norway, Romania, Sweden.

Signs of a unitary state:

• the existence of a one-level legislative system;
• division into administrative-territorial units (ATE);
• existence of only one citizenship;

From the point of view of the territorial organization of state power, as well as the nature of interaction between central and local authorities, all unitary states can be divided into two types:

Centralized unitary states are distinguished by the absence of autonomous entities, that is, ATEs have the same legal status.

Decentralized unitary states - have autonomous entities, the legal status of which differs from the legal status of other ATEs.

Currently, there is a clear trend toward an increase in the number of autonomous entities and an increase in the variety of forms of autonomy. This reflects the process of democratization in the organization and exercise of government power.

Federal State

Federal States- these are allied states consisting of a number of state entities(states, cantons, states, republics).

The Federation imposes the following criteria:

• a union state consisting of previously sovereign states;
• the presence of a two-tier system of government bodies;
• two-channel taxation system.

Federations can be classified:

• according to the principle of formation of subjects:
  • administrative-territorial;
  • national-state;
  • mixed.
• on a legal basis:
  • contractual;
  • constitutional;
• on equality of status:
  • symmetrical;
  • asymmetrical.

Confederation

Confederation- a temporary union of states created to jointly solve political or economic problems.

The Confederation does not have sovereignty, since there is no common central state apparatus and a unified system of legislation.

The following types of confederations are distinguished:

• interstate unions;
• Commonwealth;
• community of states.

Political regime

Political regime- a system of methods, techniques and means by which it is carried out political power and is characterized politic system of this society.

The political regime can be: democratic And anti-democratic; state - legal, authoritarian, totalitarian.

Characteristics of the Russian state

Russian state is a democratic federal state with a republican form of government.

Russia includes 89 constituent entities of the Russian Federation: republics, territories, autonomous regions, regions, cities of federal significance, autonomous okrugs. All these subjects are equal. The republics have their own constitution and legislation, the other subjects of the Russian Federation have their own charters and legislation.

In Art. 1 says: “ Russian Federation“Russia is a sovereign federal state created by the peoples historically united in it.”

The unshakable foundations of the constitutional system of Russia are democracy, federalism, republican form of government, and separation of powers.

Concept and basic provisions of constitutional (state) law

Constitutional (state) law is fundamental to the Russian Federation.

Constitutional law enshrines the principles, the basic starting principles that should guide all other branches of law. It is constitutional law that determines the economic system of the Russian Federation, the position of the individual, and fixes government system Russia, the judicial system.

The main normative source of this branch of law is the Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted by popular vote on December 12, 1993. The Constitution established the fact of the existence of Russia as an independent state, which, as is known, happened on December 25, 1991.

Fundamentals of the constitutional system enshrined in the first chapter of the Constitution. The Russian Federation is a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government.

The democracy of the Russian Federation is manifested primarily in the fact that a person, his rights and freedoms are declared by the Constitution to be the highest value, and the state assumes the responsibility to recognize, respect and protect human rights and freedoms. The democracy of the Russian Federation also lies in the fact that the power of the people is manifested during referendums and free elections.

Russia includes a number of equal subjects of the Russian Federation, each of which has its own legislation. This is the federal structure of Russia.

At the same time federal structure of Russia is based on the state integrity of the country and on the unity of the system of state power.

The Constitution emphasizes that federal laws have supremacy throughout the entire territory of Russia, and the integrity and inviolability of the territory of our country is ensured.

The legal nature of the state and law of Russia is manifested in the fact that all the main public relations, all rights and obligations of citizens must be determined by law and fixed primarily at the level of law. In addition, compliance with the law should be mandatory not only for individual citizens and organizations, but also for all government bodies, including higher authorities and management.

The republican form of government in Russia is determined by the presence of three branches of government: legislative, executive and judicial. All of them are in mutual unity and at the same time control each other, ensuring equality of rights for the various branches of government.

The most important principles of the country's economic life are also enshrined in constitutional law. This is, first of all, the unity of the economic space, the free movement of goods, services and financial resources, supporting competition, ensuring freedom of economic activity.

The basis of economic relations are rules relating to property. In Russia, private, state, municipal and other forms of property are recognized and receive equal protection. This principle, which applies to property, also applies to one of the most important assets of the country - land. Earth and others Natural resources may be in private, state, municipal and other forms of ownership.

Ideological and political diversity has been proclaimed and implemented in Russia. Moreover, no ideology can be established as state or mandatory.

Russia is a secular state. This means that no religion can be introduced as a state or compulsory religion, and the church is separated from the state.

The Russian Constitution establishes the basic principles for constructing the legal system and legislation.

The Constitution of Russia has the highest legal force. She is the law direct action, i.e., it can itself be applied in practice and in courts.

All laws are subject to mandatory official publication, without which they are not applied.

Any regulations(not just laws) affecting , cannot be applied unless they are officially published to the public.

Finally, since Russia is part of the community of states of the world, it applies generally accepted world principles and norms of law. The rules of an international treaty to which the Russian Federation participates are considered binding for application on the territory of Russia.

Forms of government determine the structure of the highest authorities, the order in accordance with which they are formed, the competence and period of activity. At the same time, they establish the method of interaction of institutions with each other and with citizens, as well as the degree of participation of the population in their creation. Let us consider further the concept of “form of government” in more detail.

Theoretical aspects

In a narrow sense, the main forms of government represent the actual organization of the highest authorities. Simply put, these are the ways in which a system is formed. In a broad sense, these are methods of organization and interaction of all institutions of power. Forms of government should not be confused with the way the state is structured and the political regime in the country. These characteristics relate to different aspects, but at the same time complement each other.

The meaning of the form of government

This element shows exactly how the highest institutions of power in the country are created and what their structure is. The form of government reflects the principles that underlie the process of interaction between government agencies. It shows the way of building relationships between ordinary citizens and the supreme authorities, to what extent the realization of the rights and freedoms of the population is ensured.

System development

The form of government is the oldest element that began to be studied back in the days of Ancient Greece. At different periods of history this term had different meanings. For example, in the era of an agrarian society, the essence of the form of government consisted only in determining the method of replacing the head of the country - through elections or in the order of inheritance. During the decomposition of feudalism and the transition to industrialization, accompanied by the weakening of royal power, the formation and strengthening of civil representation, the system began to develop. Gradually, it was not the method of transferring power that acquired greater importance, but the method of organizing interaction between the head of the country, the government, and parliament, and the mutual balancing of their powers.

Determination criteria

The form of government is characterized by the following features:

• The method of transfer of power is elective or hereditary.
• Responsibility of the highest institutions of government to citizens. For example, the monarchical form of government does not provide it for the autocrat (unlike the republican one).
• Division of powers between the highest government institutions.

Basic forms of government

There are several types of government organization:

A republic, in turn, can be:

• Presidential.
• Parliamentary.
• Mixed.

Monarchy is of the following types:

• Parliamentary.
• Dualistic.
• Constitutional.
• Estate-representative.
• Limited.
• Absolute.

Mixed forms of government:

Republic

This form of government is characterized by a special procedure for the formation of government. The authorized institution, depending on the type of republic, may be the president or parliament. The forming body coordinates the work of the government. It, in turn, is responsible to the higher institution. In a presidential republic, along with parliamentarism, the powers of the chairman of the government are in the hands of the head.

The president convenes and dissolves the government. The existing parliament cannot provide any significant impact. This form exists in Ecuador, USA. In a parliamentary republic, the president is not vested with any powers. This form exists in Greece, Israel, Germany. Parliament convenes the government and has the right to dissolve it at any time. In a mixed republic, the presidency acts jointly with the parliament. The latter has the power to control the functioning of the government. Such a system operates in the Russian Federation.

Autocracy

A state where the monarch acts as the only supreme body is called an absolute monarchy. Such a system is present in Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia. A limited monarchy is one in which, in addition to the autocrat, there are other institutions that are not accountable to him. Power is distributed among the highest authorities. This system, in turn, comes in two types.

An estate-representative monarchy is characterized by the fact that the monarch’s powers are limited by the tradition of the formation of organs according to the criterion of belonging to a particular estate. In Russia it was the Zemsky Sobor, for example.

In a constitutional monarchy, the power of the autocrat is limited by a special act. It, in turn, is divided into dualistic and parliamentary. The first assumes that the monarch has all executive power, part of the legislative initiative and judicial powers. In such systems, there is a representative body that makes laws. But the monarch has the right to veto them. This system is typical for Morocco and Jordan. In a parliamentary monarchy, the autocrat acts as a tribute to tradition. He is not vested with any significant powers. This system operates in Japan and Great Britain.

Theocratic republic

This form of government combines the main features of the Islamic Caliphate and the modern republican regime. According to the constitution, Rahbar is appointed as the head of the country. He is not elected by the citizens. His appointment is carried out by a special religious council. Influential theologians are present. The president serves as the head of the executive branch. The legislative institution is headed by parliament, consisting of one chamber. The candidacies of the president, deputies of the Mejlis, and members of the government are approved by the Council of Guardians of the Basic Law. It also reviews draft laws for consistency with Islamic law.

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Ticket 13 question 1 Organization of power and social norms of primitive society.

SOCIAL POWER AND NORMS OF PRIMITIVE COMMUNAL SYSTEM

To protect against external environment and sharing food primitive people created associations that were unstable and could not provide the necessary conditions for survival. Economics in primitive communal associations was characterized by an appropriative form, since the obtained food products were distributed equally and provided for the minimum needs of its members.

Primary association of people's organization- a clan in which the relationships of its members were consanguineous in nature. With the development of life, clans united into tribes and tribal unions.

At the head of the clan were leaders and elders whose behavior set an example for others. IN Everyday life the leaders and elders of the clan were recognized as equals among equals. General meeting of all adults was recognized as the highest authority, which also had a judicial function. Relations between tribes were regulated council of elders.

Over time, associations of people began to need social regulation, since they faced the need to coordinate activities that would be aimed at a specific goal and ensure their survival. In the early stages of the primitive communal system human behavior was regulated at the level of instincts and physical sensations establishing numerous prohibitions

in the form of spells, vows, oaths and taboos, since primitive society did not know the norms of morality, religion and law.

The main forms of norms that regulated the behavior of people in the primitive communal system:

1) myth (epic, legend, tradition)– an artistic-figurative or subject-fantastic form of conveying information about forbidden behavior or necessary behavior. Information transmitted through myth acquired the character of holiness and justice;

2) custom– transfer of information of a normative and behavioral nature from generation to generation. In the form of customs, the behavior of people in socially significant situations was fixed, while expressing the interests of all members of society. In their content, customs could be moral, religious, legal, and also include simultaneously moral, religious and legal content. Customs regulated all areas of activity in primitive society. Their strength lay not in coercion, but in the habit of people to be guided and follow custom. Subsequently, customs began to be used in society together with moral standards and religious dogmas;

3) ritual– a set of actions that were performed sequentially and were of a symbolic nature;

4) religious rite– a set of actions and religious signs aimed at symbolic communication with supernatural forces.

Ticket 13 2 question Forms of government: Concepts and types.

Form of government: concept and types

Form of government– organization of the highest state power, the procedure for the formation of the highest bodies of the state and their relationship with the population.

Types of forms of government: 1) monarchy, in which all state power is concentrated in one person - the monarch, who simultaneously performs the functions of the head of state, legislative and executive power, as well as control of justice and local self-government.

Signs of a monarchy:

a) the presence of a sole head of state;

b) transfer of power by inheritance to representatives of the ruling dynasty;

c) exercise of supreme power individually, for life and indefinitely;

d) the absence of specific legal responsibility of the monarch for the results of his activities.

Types of monarchy:

A) absolute(unlimited), in which all state power belongs by law to one person - the monarch (in Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain);

b) constitutional(limited), in which the power of the monarch is limited by other supreme authorities:

– parliamentary– power is exercised by the government, formed by parliament from representatives of the party that wins the elections, and the orders of the monarch acquire legal force only with the consent of the relevant minister who is a member of the government (in England, Denmark, Belgium, Japan, etc.); – dualistic– all state power is divided between parliament and the government formed by the monarch (in Morocco, Bhutan, Jordan, etc.); 2) republic, in which the people transfer state power to elected bodies that perform their functions jointly with the executive and judicial authorities.

Signs of a republic:

a) formal legal recognition of the people as the source of power;

b) transfer of state power by the people to a collegial governing body;

c) separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial branches;

d) turnover and election of representative power;

e) accountability and responsibility (legal and political) of the authorities for the results of their activities.

Types of republics:

A) presidential– power is distributed between the president and parliament (in the USA, Mexico, Argentina);

b) parliamentary– parliament has all the power (in Germany, Italy, India);

V) semi-presidential and semi-parliamentary republics (France, Finland).

There are also mixed forms of government: republic and monarchy (Malaysia), absolute and limited monarchy (Kuwait).

Ticket 14 question 1 The decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the state. The decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the state

The development of social production could not stop at the primitive level. The next evolutionary stage is associated with the transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, fishing, picking fruits) to a producing one - cattle breeding and plow (arable) agriculture. This process, according to archeology and ethnography, began 10-12 thousand. years ago and continued different nations- several thousand years. It was called the Neolithic Revolution , since it occurred in the late Neolithic era (New Stone Age), at the turn of the transition to the Bronze Age, when man learned to smelt and use “soft” colored rocks metals - copper, tin, bronze, gold, silver, and then iron. These stages, as well as the mastery of the culture of agriculture and cattle breeding, including selection, went through all the tribes and peoples who embarked on the path of development of civilization. 8

The emergence of fundamentally new productive forces was associated with major social consequences. Regarding the economic consequences, F. Engels, in accordance with the Marxist concept, noted the emergence of private property of individual families and large social divisions of labor, the first of which he called the separation of pastoral tribes from the entire mass of barbarians. 9

Modern ethnographers and archaeologists assign no less a role in the Neolithic revolution development in IV-III millennium before AD agriculture, which produced incredibly high grain yields in the regions of the Middle East and Ancient Egypt. This is due to the rapid growth of the population of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, the Mediterranean, and a number of other regions of Europe. With the development of agriculture in the I-II centuries. BC. and 1st millennium AD were associated with the increase in the population of Mesoamerica and the flourishing of early agricultural cultures among the Mayan, Aztec, Incas, and Mexican Indians (1st-2nd centuries BC - 1st millennium AD).

From the point of view of modern historical science and ethnography, the Neolithic revolution became possible not only thanks to the emergence of cattle breeding. It was the transition to arable farming that most contributed to the rapid progress of the economy (including cattle breeding), population growth, the development of crafts, art, the emergence of the first cities, writing and other achievements of material and spiritual culture. The culture of the most ancient societies in the transition to civilization was called the early agricultural culture. 10

The main consequence of the Neolithic revolution was the growth of wealth: agriculture and cattle breeding made it possible to obtain an excess of product (surplus product), which the appropriating economy could not provide. On this basis, a regular exchange of products arose between the tribes, which made it possible to accumulate new wealth that had previously been unavailable in a subsistence economy. The surplus of production products also created the opportunity to attract additional labor required to care for livestock and cultivate fields. like this labor brought about wars: prisoners of war began to be turned into slaves, as a result of which “the first major division of society into two classes - masters and slaves, exploiters and exploited” arose. eleven

Here, however, clarification is required. Not everywhere and not always did slavery become the basis of the economy of early agricultural (including cattle-breeding) societies. IN Ancient Sumer, Egypt and in many other societies, the basis of early agriculture was the labor of free rank and file, community members , and property and social differentiation developed in parallel with the functions of managing agricultural work (especially in irrigated agriculture) and distributing products in the form of creating an accounting apparatus and administrative functions in the person of scribes, crop keepers, etc. Important place occupied military functions in such differentiation, the implementation of which led to the division into military leaders, chiefs of squads and ordinary warriors. At the same time, the formation of a class of priests took place, who had great spiritual and cultural influence on society. Finally, thanks to the development trade and crafts, classes (strata) of merchants, artisans and city planners arose.

Early agricultural societies were associated with the emergence of city-states, where the main agricultural population became dependent on urban centers, in which not only crafts and trade, but also administrative, military and spiritual nobility. Therefore, the most ancient type of social differentiation of society was not the division into slave owners and slaves, but the social and functional stratification into unequal groups and layers of society. Such stratification in the form of division into closed castes (varnas, estates, etc.) has been sanctified by religions since ancient times and existed not only in the state, but also in the communal system of early agricultural societies of the Ancient East, Mesoamerica, India, as well as among the Scythians and Persians , other Eurasian tribes 12. Slavery in these societies was originally palace, or family, character and only later was it used in production (for example, in the construction of cities and temples).

The main working population were ordinary community members who made up the lower castes and paid taxes. In addition to cultivating their plots of land and raising livestock, they performed public works to irrigate the lands and served as ordinary soldiers.

Nevertheless, the general conclusion is that the producing economy, as it grew and improved, led to the social division of labor, to social, including class, differentiation, to the property stratification of the population into rich and poor, into masters and slaves or servants, into unequal castes remains true for the period of transition from the tribal system to the first civilizations. Gradually among the peoples of antiquity (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Troy, Carthage and other ancient cities), the division into free and slaves became the main one. In the 1st millennium AD. in Europe, the disintegration of the clan system led to the emergence of a feudal formation.

Another important social consequence of the Neolithic revolution was the transition from tribal community to individual families and the neighboring (peasant) community.

F. Engels called the greatest revolution a revolution in the clan system, which led to the replacement of matriarchy with patriarchy. Class cattle breeding and Agriculture was no longer possible for everyone. family, but in separate families. The family (for most peoples it consisted of representatives of two or three generations) could easily feed and clothe itself. Therefore, the public property of the maternal clan gradually passes into the private property of individual families, which have become independent economic units. At the same time, the head of the family and the owner of the main means of production - livestock, agricultural tools and new products production - becomes the main worker - shepherd and a plowman, a man. In a large family-community, dominance in the house, up to complete power over the woman and children, passes to its patriarchal head - the eldest man in the family. Property and power are inherited by male line, from the father - to the eldest son by right of primogeniture (among the Slavs - to the elder, with the consent of all sons) 13. This not only consolidated the transition to private property families, but inequality was also established among members of the patriarchal family-community. This was an irreparable crack in the clan system.

The emergence of the state among different peoples was caused by a number of other reasons, in addition to social and economic ones.

The clan community was based on personal consanguinity. The clan and tribe had their own territory, and only members of the clan could live on it and have the rights of a member of the community. “Strangers” could only enjoy hospitality or had to be accepted into the clan, blood brotherhood. With the development of the productive economy and exchange, merchants, artisans, sailors and other foreigners began to appear more and more often on the territory of the clan and tribe, participating in economic turnover and intertribal relations. Many of them began to settle in cities.

This stage of evolution is also characterized by the migration of various peoples. As a result, different tribal groups settled on the same territory, the mutual interests of which could not be regulated by the customs of the clan system, which knew only consanguineous ties. Meanwhile, the interests of the “newcomer” population and members of the clan were closely intertwined, without which trade, in which the population was interested, would not have been possible, and dispute resolution would not have been possible. New conditions also required a new territorial organization, covering the rights and responsibilities of both the indigenous population and the newcomers.

Connected with this general territorial interest is the transformation of the former tribal community into a neighboring (peasant) community. Such a community, like a clan, consisted of several families. But unlike the clan, the family was the owner of its property (for example, livestock, buildings) and the product of labor (for example, crops). The neighboring (peasant) community, being a social organism, performed the functions of organizing common affairs (for example, joint use of land, irrigation, deforestation). But she herself was no longer the owner of property and the product of labor. In the neighboring community, various relationships of mutual assistance, donations, and services developed, which were not, however, connected with the public property that existed in the clan community.

One of the most important social conditions for the transition from the tribal system with its social power to the state is the increased importance of wars and the military organization of tribes during the formation of early agricultural and early feudal societies. In connection with the growth of social wealth, wars between tribes were waged mainly for the purpose of robbery and became a means of constant enrichment through the seizure of livestock and slaves. However, the military organization also served to protect the tribes' own interests.

During the period under review, processes are intensified migration to searching for better territory and conquering it. These processes are known in Europe, in particular on the Central European Plain, in Asia (for example, the conquest of the Aryans in India), in Mountainous Peru, where the conquest of other tribes by the Incas took place. In such conditions, not only the conquests, but also the military organization of the tribes itself contributed to the gradual transformation of the public authorities of the tribes into bodies of military democracy in the form of elected military leaders, squads, and troops. In parallel, the power of the military leaders, Basileus, Rex, and the Western Asian and Scythian “kings” was strengthened. . They received significant privileges not only to a better share of the spoils, but also to supreme power, claiming to be inherited, to priority over the people's assembly, which by that time had turned into an assembly of squads and troops. The power of the high priest (among the Egyptians, Babylonians, Sumerians, Scythians), the supreme judge, was gradually concentrated in their hands.

Military life contributed to the unification of related tribes into united people. This, in turn, led to the usurpation by one of the military leaders (kings) of the most powerful tribe of the power of the leaders of other tribes. This is how the formation of statehood occurred in Ancient Egypt, Akkad, among the Scythians, among the Mayan and Incas tribes in Mesoamerica. Therefore, we can say that wars and the strengthening of military organization influenced the nature of the power of tribes turning into a single people, and in some cases not only contributed to the formation of classes or the stratification of society, but also initiated these processes.

Religion had a significant influence on the process of the emergence of statehood, especially among the most ancient peoples. Religion played a major role in uniting individual clans and tribes into single peoples. In primitive society, each clan worshiped its own pagan gods, had his own “totem” (his own “idol”). During the period of unification of tribes, religious norms helped strengthen the power of “kings,” basileus, and supreme (often military) leaders. The dynasties of the new rulers sought to unite the tribes with common religious canons. This was the meaning of the Arthashastra in Ancient India, the cult of the Sun and the god Osiris in Ancient Egypt, the cult of the gods' patronage of the Greek city-states, etc. There was a gradual adaptation of religious norms to consolidate the supreme power of the dominant tribes among the Mayans and Incas, among the Scythians. This power was associated with its transfer from the gods and was secured first by the extension of the electoral term, and then by life and hereditary rule (for example, the Inca clan).

Thus, recognizing the paramount importance of production progress, as well as property and social, including class, differentiation as the reason for the transformation of the primitive communal system into civilized societies and tribal power into the state, modern science cannot assume that these factors exhaust the conditions and reasons for the emergence of the state. Among the latter should be the transformation of the tribal community into separate families and rural communities, the transition to the territorial organization of the population, as well as the intensification of wars and the military organization of tribes, the influence of religion on the unification of tribes into a single people and on the strengthening of the supreme royal state power.