The essence of management.

Management – choosing goals and means to achieve them.

Management- this is a special type of labor activity, objectively necessary for social production and solving three main tasks:

· Setting goals for the management object;

· Development of means and ways to achieve them;

· Organization joint activities to obtain results adequate to the goals, based on the developed means and methods.

Main functions: planning, organization, motivation and control.

Management structure consists of several blocks

Control mechanism consists of tasks, functions, principles and methods of management.

Managment structure includes types of management, management system, management personnel and technical management tools.

Management process– this is the content of the management process, the organization of management, the technology of the management process, etc.

Management system development mechanism constitutes the organization of improvement of the management system at all levels of the hierarchy.

The Art of Management involves new approaches to the development of activity, creativity, and initiative in management.

T. Peters and R. Waterman, in their bestseller “In Search of Effective Management,” cite seven variables (7C) of successful organizations and management: structure, strategy, system, style, composition of employees, sum of skills, shared values.

Subjects of management- personified, specific persons.

Control objects- enterprises various industries National economy

Evolution of management

Socrates, Plato, A. Macedonian, codes of laws in Greece, etc.

Industrial stage: A. Smith (1723-90), T. Jefferson (1743-1826), R. Owen (1771-1858), J.S. Mill (1806-73) and others, the rapid development of large-scale production, which needed efficient management; managerial SCHOOLS.

1) School of Scientific Management 1885-1920: Taylor - 1911, Gilbert; Increasing labor productivity, rationing, incentives; Scientific research each type of activity; selection of managers and workers based on scientific criteria; collaboration between managers and workers; fair and equal distribution of duties and responsibilities between workers and management.

2) Classical (administrative) school 1920 - 1950: A. Fayol 1916 and M. Weber; were formulated universal functions(planning, organization, motivation, control and coordination) and management principles (14) - Division of labor Power and responsibility Discipline Unity of action Subordination of interests Remuneration Centralization Hierarchy Order Justice Stability of personnel Initiative Corporate spirit. Verber is an ideal bureaucracy.

3) Schools of human relations 1930-1950s: Maslow, Mary Parker Follett, E. Mayo, Likert. People are the main element of an effective organization; E. Mayo (Hawthorne experiments) - It was found that neither working conditions, nor wages, nor other factors affect the growth of labor productivity in the same way as the special relationships that have developed in the group; Maslow's pyramid. The main goal of the school is to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of using its human resources.

4) School of management science (quantitative approach) 1950 – present; R. Luce, L. Klein, R. Ackoff; use of quantitative methods in the process of developing and making management decisions.

Systematic approach to management; C. Bernard, P. Drucker, E. Athos, R. Pascal, T. Petere, R. Waterman and others; The management process as a whole is not just the sum of its parts, but is considered as the unity of all parts that are closely interconnected in the management process.

Situational approach to management. Burns, Woodward, Thompson, Lawrence. The approach is based on the situation, in other words, the specific set of circumstances that have the greatest impact on the organization in this moment. The situational approach allows the manager to understand what management methods and techniques will achieve the organization’s goals in a specific situation. + Process approach

Basic Management Concepts

In practice, the following has developed basic management concepts:

1) management by the principle of exception (the control system should operate only in the presence of noticeable deviations from the standards. Developing this principle, we note that those actions that are initially of a completely trivial nature should not even be measured),

2) management based on the principle of delegation of powers,

3) management through agreement of goals

4) system management through the transfer of rights to other persons and widespread self-regulation based on automated control systems.

The main functional areas of management and the subject of management science.

Rate of change represents the most important variable that limits the time for making a decision and decisively influences the ability to adapt. That is why the rate of change is the subject of management science. The practical contribution of management science to improving management efficiency is hardware and software: communications, information processing, automation of the decision-making process.

Choosing goals and means to achieve them is a subject of practical management.

Forms and methods of state regulation of trade

Law of the Republic of Belarus dated January 8, 2014 No. 128-Z “On state regulation of trade and public catering in the Republic of Belarus”

Principles of government regulation boil down to the following:

1. Respect for equality of rights of subjects

2. Elimination of unlawful interference of government bodies in the activities of trade entities

3. Priority of economic methods of state regulation

4. Ensuring the rights to freedom of choice of trading partner and product

5. Limitation of suppression and prevention of monopolistic activities, development of free competition

6. State protection of consumer rights and freedoms

Forms of government regulation:

legislative or legal;

· economic, including planning, pricing policy, fiscal and monetary policy;

· administrative, divided into organizational-administrative and administrative-economic.

Methods:Direct government regulation - adoption of laws, decrees, regulations. Indirect State regulation is carried out through the means of economic regulators (BNP, monetary policy, pricing policy, customs duties and customs policy, system of payment and bonuses).

Ideals

Goals

Tasks Tasks Tasks

means means means

Classification of goals.

Goals have many aspects and are continuously transformed by changes occurring in the dynamic system striving to achieve these goals. Over time, previously formed organizations develop new, their own needs, which sometimes become prevalent. Therefore, it is very difficult to accurately determine the nature of goals, since initial goals are transformed into acquired goals.

For example, Downes described the types of goals of civil servants as follows:

Ultimate goals associated with the individual’s views on the meaning and purpose of his existence.

Public goals - goals that affect the basic rules of behavior (considerations that should guide decision-making as a member of society).

Main political goals - goals related to social, political and economic policies that an individual believes the government must follow.

Main personal goals related to the private life of employees. This type of goals includes power, money, prestige, comfort, security, job satisfaction, desire to serve the interests of society, etc.

Goals specific to a given organization. There are no fundamental differences between the above list of goals and the list that would include a hierarchy of goals of individuals working in private enterprises.

Perrow proposed the following classification of organizational goals;

1. Public purposes, that are relevant to meeting the needs of society. Government is directly involved in the production of goods and services and serves these purposes. Industrial corporations fulfill this responsibility by devoting some of their resources to it.

2. Results-related goals work of the organization. Such goals are relevant to consumers of the organization's products and change as consumer needs change. We are witnessing a rapid increase in private business activity in areas traditionally served by government entities, and vice versa. This situation causes a rearrangement and interchange of goals, since former consumers and producers often change places.

3. System goals which are of particular importance to system designers. Here Perrow shows interest in studying the influence of the company's employees on the production process and on the structure of the organization, and not on such more specific characteristics as the volume of production, the rate of increase in profits and economic growth, signs of achieving equilibrium, stability, approaching bankruptcy, obsolescence of products, etc. n. The goals of the system, apparently, are its survival and adaptation to changing external conditions. Examples of how corporations succeed or fail are essentially examples of their ability or inability to pursue these changing goals over time. The organization here can be considered as an open system to which the system paradigm can be applied to reveal the dynamic properties of the system and to further use the tools of general systems theory.

4. Goals related to product characteristics. These goals relate to how the organization would like the results of its work, be it products or services. Naturally, these goals influence the organization's strategy. Sometimes these goals are replaced by system goals. This is done when the goal is, for example, to increase the value of shares, and not to increase profits by producing a specific product.

5. Derived goals associated with the influence that organizations, being social entities, have on their environment due to their economic or social content. Carrying assigned social responsibility is included in this category of derivative goals.

The needs of organizations change over time. There are also examples of how differences in attitudes toward goals influence the behavior of different employees in an organization. The definition of goals can be approached from the perspective of: a) the contribution that the organization’s activities make to society, b) the official establishment of goals, c) consumers, performers and personnel of the company.

Decomposition is a method of hierarchizing goals. Using the example of the abstract diagram of the hierarchy of goals given below, we will consider the qualitative expansion of the hierarchy of goals.

Decomposition algorithm:

· identification and formulation of an ideal goal;

· specification of the goal in terms of language, accuracy, attractiveness and achievability.

· breaking down goals into tasks and further verification (setting in

· type being checked).

· selection of means to achieve each task.

12)Fundamental management principles rules. According to Fayol (a representative of the administrative or classical school, in particular):

1) Division of labor (simplification of complex sets of work by reducing the number of goals and the possibility of training in a short time)

2) Authority and responsibility (The right of a person to make decisions gives rise to adequate responsibility for this person)

3) Discipline (respect for formal agreements and applied sanctions)

4)Unity of command (Personnel must receive orders from their immediate superior)

5) Unity of direction (Each group must have a goal, a single plan and one leader)

6) Subordination of personal interests to general ones (The interests of one employee cannot be more important than the interests of the group or company)

7)Staff Remuneration (To ensure support of the enterprise's goals, staff must receive fair pay for their work)

8)Centralization (The ratio of centralization and decentralization is determined by the situation)

9) Scalar chain - a series of executives, starting from the highest official and ending with the lowest.

10)Order (a place for everything and everything in its place)

11) Justice

12) Stability of work place for staff

13) Initiative

14)Corporate spirit.

13)Control functions are divided into general (inherent to each linear manager) and specific.

Four common ones:

1) Planning (what to do?) – work as a result of which certainty is achieved in relation to the future states of the managed object.

2) Organization (how to get the job done?) – work that results in the creation of a formally accepted structure of roles and positions.

3) Management, leadership, motivation (how to ensure effectiveness?) - work on the formation and implementation of staff abilities based on their motivation.

4) Control – checking the results based on a comparison of those actually received (or expected) and those desired.

Also, some authors include coordination and regulation as management functions. The need for this is ensured by the division of labor and structural division within the enterprise. Regulation is a set of restrictions on organizational behavior introduced by Ch. arr. for the predictability of the actions of all participants, allowing members of the organization to independently carry out their part of the work, taking into account and anticipating the reaction of neighbors. An example of regulation in relation to a large system is antitrust policy.

15) The essence of planning. Types and procedure of planning.

Planning tasks: 1) selection of the optimal development strategy for a trading organization based on an analysis of alternatives.

2) Ensuring the sustainable functioning and development of the organization. 3) Formation of organizational, technical and social-ec measures to ensure the implementation of the plan.

4) Coordination of the implementation of plans according to specific deadlines.

Planning principles: 1) accuracy, 2) ranking of objects according to their degree of importance (Pareto) - ABC-a According to timing analysis, 3) Balance of the plan, 4) flexibility of the plan - the possibility of its adjustment, 5) variability of the plan.

Types of plan: 1) according to the degree of coverage: a) general planning, covering all areas of activity, b) partial, covering a certain area.

3) On the subject of planning: a) target, i.e. determination of the commonality of goals and limitations, b) planning of means, c) program planning (volume of implementation), c) planning of actions.

4) By areas of functioning: a) implementation planning, b) investments, c) personnel, d) finance, etc.

5) By terms: a) short-term (up to 1 year), medium-term (2-5 years), c) long-term (5-10 years and above).

6) By coordinating plans over time: 1) sequential, 2) one-time.

7)accounting for data changes: a)rigid, b)flexible,

8) By order in time: a) ordered (current), b) sliding (the plan is extended for the next period), c) extraordinary (virtual).

Steps of the plan: 1) analysis of the situation and factors of internal and external environment(factors: economics, political, market, technological, international, policies of individual countries, access to resources, competitive factors, factors of social behavior)

2) setting goals and objectives,

3)development of strategy, program and plans,

4)Evaluation of alternative plan options,

5) Determination of necessary resources and their distribution according to goals and objectives,

6) Bringing plans to the executors.

14) Basic methods of management (the method of influence of the subject of management on the object of control):

1) Depending on the relationships that develop in the management process: A) social-psychological,

B) ek-e, c) organizational and administrative.

2) Depending on the scale of use: a) general, used for all management functions, b) private, used for certain management functions.

3) From the source controlling the impact: a) centralized impact, b) decentralized impact.

4)Duration of exposure:

a) long-term exposure method,

b) method of operational influence.

5) Depending on the method of developing and making management decisions: a) individual, b) collective, c) collegial.

6) By type of impact: a) direct impact, b) impact through setting tasks, c) impact through the creation of stimulating conditions.

7)Depending on the organizational features of the impact:

A) aimed at preventing undesirable types of activity, b) at correcting problems in activity, c) at encouraging.

Methods and their relationships should be chosen not based on the capabilities of the manager, but based on the range of problems being solved.

When justifying the choice of specific methods, the following is used. criteria: 1) practical significance, 2) cost of use this method, 3) reliability of the method, 4) stability of the solution, i.e. continuation of its use, 5) balance of the method.

16) Strategic planning (SP) and its role.

Object of the joint venture: the environment of the enterprise from the point of view of both significant changes occurring in it, and the position of the enterprise in relation to the environment. The task of the joint venture is to ensure sustainable development enterprises in the long term. For the purposes of a scientifically based joint venture, the macroenvironment, the immediate business environment and the internal environment of the organization are especially important.

The most important tool is SWOT analysis.

Examples of the strengths of a sales organization include:

1) availability of financial resources, 2) the ability to compete professionally, 3) the status of a recognized leader in a certain market segment, 4) full use of economies of scale, 5) the availability of advanced technologies and know-how, 6) low distribution costs, 7) good advertising.

Weaknesses: lack of a clear strategy, narrow range, outdated equipment, lack of required skills and professionalism, lack of a positive image, low profitability, weak distribution channels.

Opportunities: entering a new market, serving additional clients in the previous market, vertical integration.

Cons: increased sales of substitute goods, economic downturn, emergence of strong competitors in the market, changing consumer tastes.

Main stages:

1) determining the general goals of the company includes: defining the mission (the general purpose of the enterprise’s existence). The mission must contain: a definition of the business activity, working principles, values ​​and organizational structure.

2) diagnostic: analysis of the external environment, examination of the internal environment, identification of strengths and weaknesses.

3) Determination of the basic development strategy of the enterprise: analysis of strategic alternatives, justification of strategic development.

4)implementation of goals and basic strategy: structuring goals, defining tactics, defining policies, defining procedures and rules, forming a budget.

There are 3 types of strategies that occupy a fundamental position: SURVIVAL, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT.

17) Basic strategies for enterprise development:

1) Violent (power) is focused on supplying well-known goods to the market at affordable prices. 3 stages of development of the violent: A) proud lion: accelerated growth, profile: specialization in an important, promising and large market segment, profit sufficient for the market segment.

B) Mighty Elephant: average (stable) growth, wide diversification within a large market, profits sufficient to ensure sustainable growth.

C) Clumsy behemoth (350 tons of factories around the world): slow growth, excessive random specialization, certain areas can bring losses.

2) Patient or niche (occupies a narrow market niche and serves non-standard consumers). Patients are sly foxes.

3)Experient (pioneer) – the first signs. They offer something fundamentally new and work with venture capital companies.

4)Commutative – gray mice(what is profitable).

18 )(From the Internet) "Verification is confirmation, based on the provision of objective evidence, that established requirements have been met."

“Validation is confirmation, by the provision of objective evidence, that the requirements intended for a particular use or application have been met.”

It would seem that the definitions almost coincide, and if not completely, then to a significant extent. And, nevertheless, verification and validation are fundamentally different actions.

Let's figure it out.

Already the translation from English of these terms provides some food for understanding the difference: verification - verification, validation - giving legal force.

To make it easier to understand, I’ll immediately give an example of a typical verification: testing a program or testing equipment. With certain requirements in hand, we test the product and record whether the requirements are met. The verification result is the answer to the question “Does the product meet the requirements?”

But not always a product that meets the established requirements can be used in a specific situation. For example, the medicine passed all the required tests and went on sale. Does this mean that it can be used by any specific patient? No, because Each patient has his own characteristics and specifically for this, the medicine can be destructive, i.e. someone (the doctor) must confirm: yes, this patient can take this medicine. That is, the doctor must perform validation: give legal validity to a specific application.

Or another example. The company produces pipes intended for laying in the ground, in accordance with certain specifications ( Technical specifications). The products comply with these specifications, but an order has been received that involves laying pipes along the seabed. Can pipes that comply with the existing specifications be used in this case? It is validation that provides the answer to this question.

It is easy to see that another difference is that verification is always performed, but there may be no need for validation. It appears only when requirements arise related to a specific product application. If a pharmaceutical plant produces drugs, it will only check their compliance with the requirements, and will not deal with the problems of using specific drugs by specific patients. Or the same AvtoVAZ.

Thus, the following can be stated:

verification - is almost always carried out, performed by checking (comparing) the characteristics of products with specified requirements, the result is a conclusion about the conformity (or non-conformity) of the product,

validation - carried out if necessary, performed by analyzing the specified conditions of use and assessing the compliance of product characteristics with these requirements, the result is a conclusion about the possibility of using the product for specific conditions.

19. Enterprise as a system. External and internal environment of the enterprise

An enterprise is an open system that can only exist if active interaction with the surrounding (external) environment.

External environment - this is a set of active economic entities, economic, social and natural conditions, national and interstate institutional structures and other external conditions and factors operating in the environment of the enterprise and influencing various areas his activities.

The external environment is divided into:

microenvironment- the environment of direct influence on the enterprise, which is created by suppliers of material and technical resources, consumers of the enterprise’s products (services), trade and marketing intermediaries, competitors, government agencies, financial institutions, insurance companies and other contact audiences;

macroenvironment, affecting the enterprise and its microenvironment. It includes the natural, demographic, scientific, technical, economic, environmental, political and international environment.

The enterprise must limit negative impacts external factors that most significantly influence the results of its activities or, conversely, more fully use favorable opportunities.

Suppliers - These are different business entities that provide the enterprise with the material, technical and energy resources necessary for the production of specific goods or services.

The main clients of enterprises are consumers of products (services) in different client markets:

Consumer (population purchasing goods and services for personal consumption);

Manufacturers (organizations purchasing products for industrial and technical purposes);

Intermediate sellers who purchase goods and services for their subsequent resale at a profit for themselves;

Government institutions (wholesale buyers of products for government needs);

International (foreign buyers in the previously listed types of client markets).

Marketing intermediaries - these are companies that help an enterprise in promoting, marketing and distributing its products to customers . These include resellers, firms that specialize in organizing product distribution, marketing services agencies, and financial institutions.

Competitors- rivals of the enterprise in the struggle for more favorable conditions for the production and sale of goods, for obtaining the highest profits.

To produce competitive products, enterprises need to constantly study their competitors, develop and follow a certain market strategy and tactics.

Contact audiences- these are organizations that show real or potential interest in the enterprise or influence its ability to achieve its goals. These are financial circles (banks, investment companies, stock exchange, shareholders), the media, various government agencies of representative and executive power, the population and citizens of action groups (public organizations).

A significantly larger number of factors operate in the macroenvironment of an enterprise than in the microenvironment. They are characterized by multivariance, uncertainty and unpredictability of consequences.

Natural factors. The natural environment is characterized by: a shortage of certain types of raw materials, rising energy prices and increased government intervention in the process of rational use and reproduction of natural resources.

Demographic factors. The demographic environment is characterized by: an increase in mortality, a decrease in the birth rate, an aging population, and an increase in the number of employees.

A decrease in the birth rate reduces the need for goods in demographic markets - children's, adolescents, and youth, which forces enterprises to adapt their activities to meet the needs of people of middle, pre-retirement and retirement age. Changes in the structure of the population by age group have led to a reduction labor potential, because In many regions, a minority of the population is of working age. This requires enterprises to develop a strategy for saving human labor through technical and technological re-equipment, increasing the level of mechanization and automation of production processes.

Scientific and technical factors. Scientific and technological progress plays a decisive role in the development and intensification of industrial production. It covers all parts of the process, including fundamental, theoretical research, applied research, design and technological development, the creation of samples of new technology, its development and industrial production, as well as the introduction of new technology into the national economy. The material and technical base of industrial enterprises is being updated, labor productivity is growing and production efficiency is increasing.

Economic forces. The main factors of this environment include: the growth and decline of industrial production, the level and rate of inflation, fluctuations in the exchange rate of the ruble relative to the currencies of other countries, the taxation and credit system, supply and demand in the market, the solvency of counterparties, the level and dynamics of prices, unemployment, etc.

Environmental factors . This environment is characterized by: increased environmental pollution and increased interference in the process of rational use and reproduction of natural resources, tightened government control over the quality and safety of goods.

Political factors. The production and social activities of the enterprise are definitely affected by events occurring in the political environment. It is characterized by: legislative regulation of business activities, increased requirements from government agencies that monitor compliance with laws. Sudden changes in the political situation in the country can lead to changes in business conditions, increased resource costs, and loss of profit.

International factors, which include the internationalization of the world economy, changes in the value of the dollar and euro on the world market, the growth of the economic power of individual states, the formation of the international financial system, the opening of new large markets, etc., have an impact on enterprises engaged in foreign economic activity.

The internal environment of a firm is essentially a response to the external environment.

The main goals that a company sets for itself come down to one general characteristic - profit. In this case, naturally, both the internal and external environment of the company must be taken into account. All variety internal environment enterprises can be reduced to the following consolidated areas:

Ÿ production,

Ÿ marketing,

Ÿ financial management,

Ÿ general management.

This division into areas of activity is conditional and is specified in the general and production organizational structures.

Market - This is the sphere of commodity exchange and the associated set of relations that develop between commodity producers and buyers regarding purchase and sale.

Conditions for the functioning of the market: the implementation of diverse forms of ownership and their equality, the creation of market infrastructure and free competition, which is a regulatory force in a market economy.

The market performs the following functions:

a) regulating (regulates the production and circulation of goods and services);

b) controlling (determines the social significance of the product produced and the labor spent on its production);

c) distribution (establishes the necessary reproduction proportions to ensure a balanced economy);

d) stimulating (encourages reducing individual labor costs and using new equipment);

e) informational (informs about the state of affairs in the economic sphere);

f) sanitizing (cleanses social production of economically weak, uncompetitive economic units).

Market infrastructure constitutes a set of entities that have different areas of activity and provide effective interaction all market counterparties. The most important elements of market infrastructure include: commodity, commodity and raw materials, stock and currency exchanges, commercial information centers, banks, transport and warehouse networks, systems and means of communication.

Thus, the external environment of the enterprise is a single market system with private markets:

Consumption;

Scientific, technical, economic, political information;

Capital;

Work force;

Raw materials, supplies and components.

These markets and the company itself in its internal environment must obey certain “rules of the game” - legislative rules and restrictions.

The enterprise, being integral part external environment, must constantly resolve issues social development not only of its own workforce, but also of local and national significance.

The behavior of economic entities in the market is regulated principles :

n mutual benefit and equality business relations;

n responsibility to the end consumer;

n achieving economic and commercial advantage solely through innovation;

n economical housekeeping;

n compliance with the ethical code of entrepreneurship.

20. Organization as a management function

To achieve your goals and implement your plans, organization is necessary. The main task of the organization as a management function is to form the structure of the object and provide it with everything necessary for normal operation.

For a management specialist organization as a function is a deliberately formalized structure job responsibilities with the distribution of tasks, powers, roles, responsibilities, resources, etc. Collaboration individual workers will be effective only when everyone understands their functions well.

Organization as a management function should contain:

– the presence of goals, which is the result of the implementation of the planning function;

– clear definition and distribution of responsibilities recorded in job descriptions;

– a system for providing the performer with resources, including primarily information;

– forms of providing certain freedom of action to performers.

The general theory of management, the provisions of which are also used in administrative law, introduces the following basic terms.

A system is a set of elements ordered in a certain way, interconnected and forming some kind of integral unity. The integrity of the system means that a complex of objects, considered as a system, has common properties, function and behavior, and the properties of the system are not reducible to the sum of the properties of its elements.

Elements are relatively indivisible parts of a whole, objects or operations that together form a system. Any object can be represented as consisting of elements and must be considered in three aspects: as a whole (system), as part of a more general system, and as a collection of smaller parts (subsystems).

Structure is the natural, stable connections between the elements of the system, reflecting the spatial and temporal O e arrangement of elements and the nature of their interaction. It is the structure that makes the system a certain qualitatively defined whole, since the structure presupposes various interactions of elements with each other, highlighting certain properties of the elements. Structure is the most important characteristic of a system, since with the same composition of elements, but with different interactions between them, both the purpose of the system and its capabilities change.

A function is an external manifestation of the properties of an object (system or its element) in a given system of relations, a certain way of interaction of an object with the environment. Most often, functions appear in the form of actions and reflect the capabilities of the system.

Management is a function of organized systems of various natures (biological, technical, social), ensuring the achievement of their goals, maintaining or changing their structure, and the mode of their activity.

Control is real when there is a known subordination of the object to the subject of control, the controlled element of the system to its control element. Consequently, the control (ordering) influence is the prerogative of the subject of control.

According to management theory, the essence of management is the purposeful influence of the subject of management on the object of management, the result of which is the ordering of the system, ensuring its functioning in full accordance with the laws of its existence and development. This is a purposeful ordering influence, implemented in the connections between the subject and the object and carried out directly by the subject of management. It should be noted that the object is also a subject in the legal sense of the word. Thus, the same subject of administrative law can be both a subject and an object of management in different management relations.

Between the subject of control (managing subject) and the object of control (managed subject), in order to carry out control, there must be direct and feedback connections (the impact of the subject of control on the object is a direct connection, and vice versa - feedback). Management involves not only the internal interaction of the elements that make up the system, but also interaction with the environment external to the system. We can talk about a variety of interacting systems at various levels, which involves the implementation of management functions of both an intra-system and inter-system nature. In the latter case, a higher-order system acts as a subject of control in relation to a lower-order system, which is an object of control within the framework of interaction between them.

Management process is the activity of a management subject aimed at achieving management goals by implementing certain management functions using management methods. As a rule, management processes are very diverse, multidimensional and have a complex structure (consist of large number stages and phases). General management functions are combined into management cycles (contours), consisting of goal setting, forecasting, activity planning, practical implementation of plans, which is accompanied by regulation (coordination, administrative activities), accounting and control, with information and methodological support.

Management functions are the external manifestation of the subject of management, and they can be divided into substantive and instrumental. Subject-based is the answer to the question: what do we manage? (example: healthcare management), and instrumental – how do we manage? (example: planning, control). A control function is an element of the control process (the result of its decomposition) that has its own goal (the result of the decomposition of the overall goal of the system).

Management functions are understood as the most typical, homogeneous and clearly defined types (directions) of activity of the managing entity, corresponding to the content and serving the interests of achieving the main goals of management influence. These usually include: forecasting, planning, organization (formation of a management system and ensuring its normal operation); coordination (ensuring coordinated actions of various participants in relations in the managed area); regulation (establishing the mode of interaction between the subject and the control object); management (authoritative resolution of specific issues arising in the managed sphere); control (monitoring the functioning of the controlled sphere).

Signs of a control system are the presence of:

– goals that must be achieved in the management process;

– subject of management;

– control object;

– criteria for assessing management effectiveness;

– mechanisms of interaction between subjects and objects of management;

– reactions to the external environment (the external environment means a higher organization, legislation, a top-level management system, economic circumstances, market, government declaration, energy tariffs, etc.).

Like any interaction, management can be represented in the most general form as a combination of two components - direct and feedback, the influence of the managing party on the controlled party and the response of the controlled party. Direct influence is provided by power, the opposite is control, or feedback. There cannot be a third term. All other functions are derivatives and can be obtained from these two by the method of sequential decomposition, by dividing into subfunctions.

Functional analysis is a research process based on the decomposition of the control system with the subsequent determination of the static and dynamic characteristics of the constituent elements, considered in conjunction with other elements of the system and the external environment, which includes:

– definition and description of the control process implemented by the system under study;

– decomposition of the general management process into a number of private functions performed by elements of the management system;

– determination of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the processes and management functions under study;

– formation of criteria and assessment of the effectiveness of the management system;

– making a decision on the need to improve the functional characteristics of the control system.

Negative feedback is a feedback effect on the control subsystem that corrects the behavior of the latter in the direction of weakening mismatch factors.

Positive feedback is a feedback effect on the control subsystem that corrects the behavior of the latter in the direction of increasing destabilizing factors. Negative feedback ensures that the system parameters are maintained within specified limits, while positive feedback ensures imbalance and destabilization.

The effectiveness of system management is considered as a measure of the degree to which the operating goal is achieved. An effective solution is selected from a set of solutions using a rule called a management effectiveness criterion (indicator).

Indicators (here) – indicators used for:

– assessments of the real socio-economic situation Russian Federation, its subjects, municipalities, cities, districts, industries, types of activities, enterprises;

– setting the level of social well-being (threshold values ​​of indicators); planning actions to achieve threshold values; monitoring the achievement of planned results; taking regulatory actions; assessment of the activities of public authorities.

The system of indicative economic management is a mechanism of state regulation of the economy, which is based on a set of management goals, criteria for assessing the effectiveness of management, mechanisms of interaction between subjects and objects of management.

The responsibility center is the only body or official responsible for the performance of a particular function.

Now we have to draw very important conclusions that reflect all our subsequent reasoning, their logic, and content. These conclusions contain the structure of the entire management course. We need to identify the key categories of the management concept on which its entire structure is based. A general understanding of management is only the first step.

If management is a specific type of human activity, then there are methodology and organization of management, for methodology characterizes all human activity in the same way as its organization. There can be no unorganized activity. An activity is always expedient and presupposes well-defined approaches and methods for its implementation, a conscious logic of using these methods. This is the methodology of activity, the methodology of management.

If management is a specific type of human activity, then there is socio-economic And organizational and technical aspects this activity. Man is a social being and lives in an environment of interaction of economic interests and relationships, and they cannot but manifest themselves and exist in any type of his activity. But depending on what kind of activity it is, a person’s social and economic relations manifest themselves differently. The organizational and technical aspect of activity characterizes the capabilities of the organization and its specific types. The specifics of management activities determine the specifics of the management organization.

No activity can be carried out without the necessary resources for this activity. resources. What are the management resources, to what extent and how do they reflect the socio-economic and organizational and technical aspects of management? This is a very important issue in understanding management.

Finally, if management is a type of human activity, then it has certain functions, reflecting its content, structure of resources, socio-economic and organizational and technical aspects.

an object And subject management. In other words, any controlled system can be represented as a subject and object of control, a control and controlled system (Diagram 1.5).

If management is influence, then there are system, mechanism and process management.

The concept of “control system” characterizes the statics of control, its static basis, the necessary connections through which and thanks to which influence can be exerted.

The concept of “control process” reflects the dynamics of control, its time characteristics, and technological features.

The concept of “control mechanism” reflects the levers or means of influence, which are the interests and values ​​of a person, expectations and fears, needs and goals, and all of these concepts can be economic, socio-psychological, or organizational. Thanks to them, influence leads to changes in situations, management potential, as it were, turns into the activities of people, into production processes, in the development of the organization (diagram 1.6).

Scheme 1.5.

Scheme 1.6.

? Polemical judgment

Why is the concept of a mechanism put on a par with the concepts of a system and management process? Maybe the mechanism includes all the elements of both the system and the management process?

! Response Judgment

The mechanism helps resolve contradictions between the system and the management process. It includes not functional and authoritative links, like a system, and not operations, like a process, but the means by which influence is carried out. If the performers' interests and values ​​are deformed, influence will be impossible in the presence of links in the management system and the operations that they perform. You can plan development as much as you like, provide resources, etc., but if the staff has no interest in this, the plans will not be implemented. The art of management involves seeing interests and values ​​and shaping them. These are the problems of the control mechanism.

Need for professional management

Today, management is increasingly becoming professional management. A professional management starts with deep knowledge. That is why today, in order to manage successfully, one must learn management, master professional management skills, and develop those abilities that determine the success of management activities.

From early childhood, a person is familiar with the concept of “management”. First he sees how a car is driven; then learns that you can control equipment, the growth and development of plants and animals, as well as the behavior of other people. Thus, he learns that management is diverse and exists in the most various types. This can be the technical control of various kinds of natural and technological processes - the movement of trains and planes, the processing of parts on machine tools. It could be public administration socio-economic life of society through various institutions - the legal system, ministries, departments, local authorities. This may be ideological management, which consists of introducing into the consciousness of members of society the concepts of its development, formed by various political parties and groups. This may be non-state and non-political management of social processes, for example, a movement in defense of peace or the environment. This may finally be the economic management of production and economic activities of commercial and non-profit organizations operating within the framework of market relations. If we comprehend all of the above, we can conclude that management is a conscious, purposeful activity of a person, with the help of which he organizes and subordinates to his interests the elements of the external environment - society, living and inanimate nature, technology. The elements to which this activity is directed form the control object. Usually it has spatial boundaries and a certain existence in time. The director of management activities is called the subject of management, which can be an individual or a group of people. If management is of an official nature, then its subject is organizationally and legally formalized in the form of a position or a set of positions that form a management unit. It is necessary to distinguish the subject of management activities from the subject of management. The last one can only be an individual, a living person. It is through the subjects of management activities, belonging to both the subject and the object of management, that management relations are realized. For example, as a control subject in joint stock company one can consider the board of directors, the headquarters, and the production units as the object. At the same time, the subjects of management activities will be managers of various ranks and performers. Management activity is a specific type labor process, and therefore is characterized by all its inherent elements - the subject of labor, the means of labor and the labor itself, as well as its result. The subject and product of labor in management is information. As a result of management activities, a decision is created on its basis, that is, information on the basis of which the management object can take specific actions. The means of managerial labor are, therefore, everything that will facilitate the implementation of operations with information - from computers, telephones, pens and paper to the organs of the human body. Managerial work belongs to the category of mental labor, carried out by a person in the form of neuropsychic efforts. In addition to managerial work, other types of managerial work may take place in an organization - engineering, design, research, etc. Managerial work exists in three main forms: heuristic, administrative and operator.

Heuristic work comes down to a set of actions to analyze and study certain problems facing the organization, and develop based on this various options their decisions are mainly of a strategic nature - managerial, economic, technical.

Administrative work is a destiny, basically. managers and involves ongoing coordination and assessment of the activities of subordinates. This work comes in several forms. Firstly, orders, secondly, monitoring the work of subordinates, thirdly, organizing the exchange of information that occurs in the process of holding meetings and conferences, receiving visitors, conducting business negotiations, answering letters and phone calls, and walking around workplaces.

Operator work is aimed at technically providing production and management processes with the necessary information. It covers such activities as documentation (registration, reproduction, sorting and storage of various types of documents); primary accounting and accounting (collection of statistical, accounting and other information about production, economic, social and other processes occurring within the organization.

Management is the effective use and coordination of resources such as capital, buildings, materials and labor to achieve given goals with maximum efficiency. This definition is given in the international management handbook. management and management in special management literature are considered from the same positions. Management has become an independent area human knowledge, in science, only in late XIX centuries. Management, as a science, has its own subject of study, its own specific problems and approaches to solving them. The scientific basis of this discipline is the entire amount of knowledge about management, accumulated over thousands and hundreds of years of practice and presented in the form of concepts, theories, principles, methods and forms of management. Over the course of more than a century of history, management science has been developing its theory, the content of which is laws and patterns, principles, functions and methods of purposeful activities of people in the management process. Thus, management is considered as management functions that dynamically change in time and space, the purpose of which is to solve the problems and tasks of the organization.

For all specialties

6. Types of management.

Management

Control object

Subjects of management

Principles of effective management.

Specific Features management, i.e. creativity of managers are implemented using certain principles.

Principles – rules, norms, instructions for action.

The market concept of management required a revision of management principles. New principles related to the informal management model were formulated:

• loyalty to employees;
• responsibility - required condition successful management;
• an atmosphere in the company that promotes the development of employee abilities;
• timely response to environmental changes;
• establishing the share of each employee in the overall results;
• methods of working with people to ensure their satisfaction with their own work;
• communications that permeate the company horizontally and vertically;
• direct participation of managers in group activities at all stages as a condition for coordinated work;
• honesty and trust in people;
• the manager’s ability to listen to everyone he encounters in his work;
• business ethics – Golden Rule management;
• quality of personal work and its continuous improvement;
• reliance on the fundamental principles of management: quality, costs, service, innovation, resource control, personnel.

Table 3.2

Management principles

Results-based management.

Results-based management

This is a management system with the task of results in a decentralized management organization (corporate profit centers). Tasks are delegated to working groups and the achievement of specific results is determined. Such a system has various stages tasks of results, stages of measuring results and stages of monitoring results. Tasks delegated from the center are controlled based on their comparison with the results obtained.

Results-based management is a system of not only management, but also the thinking and behavior of organizational members. The authors of this concept, T. Santalainen, E. Voutilainen, P. Porenne and J. Nissinen 2 believe that the key to the success of corporate strategies is the desire of employees to achieve certain results. Therefore, target management places the main emphasis on motivating human resources, ensuring cooperation between all members of the workforce, developing employees, and constantly enriching labor.

Thus, results-based management can be defined as a process aimed at achieving goals and results, in which:

• through the planning process, the aspirations of the organization and its members (in other words, performance requirements and expected results) are determined at different time intervals;
• persistent implementation of plans is supported by conscious daily management of affairs, people and environment;
• results are assessed to make decisions leading to follow-up activities

Becoming

The organization is in its infancy and is being formed product life cycle. Goals are still unclear, the creative process flows freely, and progress to the next stage requires stable support. This stage includes the following phenomena: origin, search for like-minded people , preparation for the implementation of the idea , legal registration of the organization , recruitment of operational personnel and release of the first batch of product .

An organization is being created. The founder is an entrepreneur who, alone or with several associates, performs all the work. People often come to the company at this stage, attracted by the very personality of the creator and sharing his ideas and hopes. Communication between employees is easy and informal. Everyone works long hours, overtime is compensated by modest salaries, gratitude from management and hopes for future income.

Control is based on the personal participation of the manager in all work processes. The organization is not formalized or bureaucratic and is characterized by a simple management structure. The focus is on creating a new product or service and gaining a place in the market. It should be noted that some companies may stop in their development at this stage and exist with this management style for many years.

At this stage, the organization is a sociosystem because it consists of people belonging to the same or similar paradigms. Each member of the organization has its own cultural beliefs and value system. The joint activities that members of the organization begin to conduct launches processes of knowledge formation at the individual level, when the experience gained by each member of the organization is processed in accordance with personal beliefs and ideas. At the same stage, a knowledge fair begins, when, in the course of joint activities, each member of the team, voluntarily or involuntarily, demonstrates their own system of ideas, skills and abilities.

Firms arise voluntarily because they represent a more efficient method of organizing production. At the first stage of its development, the company behaves as Gray mouse- picks up seeds that are overlooked by larger market structures.

At the stage of a company’s emergence, it is very important to determine a competitive strategy: The first strategy is force, operating in the field of large-scale production of goods and services. Second strategy - adaptive: The tasks of such companies: meet the individual needs of a particular person. Third strategy: niche deep specialization of production- what an organization can do better than others.

Height

Maturity

Decline

Restructuring stage

A period of slower growth and structural changes, differentiation of goods (markets), anticipation of new needs (striving for complexity, decentralization, diversification of markets).

Old age stage. Decline stage.

Decline stage- a period characterized by a sharp drop in sales and a decrease in profits; the organization is looking for new opportunities and ways to retain markets ( high staff turnover, increasing conflicts, centralization). The stage of old age of an organization is defined as a contradiction between it and the environment, which is expressed either in the emergence of competitors in a occupied market or in the disappearance of the market.

In such a situation, the organization receives real experience is not captured in the organization's existing knowledge. As a result, basic ideas cease to adequately interpret real events, and the proclaimed values ​​by members of the team are not perceived as values. This means that the mechanisms that ensured the transformation of the organization’s knowledge, for some reason, disappear and gap in knowledge chains. There is an accumulation of informal knowledge, which, meanwhile, is in no way integrated into the existing system of ideas.

As an organization moves from one stage of development to another, accumulation of organizational problems. It is important for managers to understand whether these problems are the result of poor management decisions, whether they can be resolved through minor adjustments to the management system, or whether they indicate the approach of the next stage of the life cycle, and therefore are associated with the need for organizational change. Thus, the effective and sustainable performance of an organization largely depends on how managers and employees understand, evaluate and take into account its life cycle and each of its stages in their actions.

Types of management.

The concept of management quickly and firmly entered the modern domestic economic lexicon, becoming in essence an analogue of the concept of “management”. It is widely used in relation to various socio-economic processes carried out in market conditions management.

Types of management are special areas of management activity related to solving certain management problems.

General or general management - consists of managing the activities of the organization as a whole or its independent economic units (profit centers).

Functional (special) management consists of managing certain areas of activity of an organization or its units (marketing management, innovation, personnel management:)

In any organization, general and functional management (generalists and specialists) exist in organic unity, making up an integral management system. Their relationship and combination determine the prevailing type of formal structure of the organization.

Administrative management- this is the development and adoption of management decisions, the distribution of tasks among performers and monitoring their implementation.

Innovation (IT) management- this is the organization and management of research, development, development and distribution of innovations in accordance with long-term goals, the scientific potential of the organization and the results of marketing research.

Production management- organization and management of supplies material resources, production and its preparation in order to comply with established technology and product quality requirements.

Personnel management (moral and ethical)- this is the organization of selection, training, placement, evaluation and incentives of personnel, as well as the creation of a favorable climate in the team.

Environmental management- organization of prevention, prevention and identification of the consequences of harmful effects of production on the environment.

Investment management- this is an activity to identify the most priority areas investment of capital or purchase of property to extract income and other benefits based on financial calculations of the effectiveness of projects.

Creative (creative) management- this is an activity based on the desire to realize experience, knowledge, ideas through the organization of R&D, production, and marketing.

Strategic management- this is the justification and selection of long-term goals and development of the enterprise, increasing its competitiveness, consolidating goals in long-term plans, developing targeted programs that ensure the achievement of intended goals.

Crisis management- activities to identify the main causes of crisis situations during the functioning of an economic entity, the risks determined by these causes and the possibilities of eliminating or minimizing their impact in order to restore high rates of production and development based on:

a) introduction of new technologies;

b) analysis of the activities of all structural divisions;

c) renewal of the enterprise's fixed capital.

For all specialties

1. The concept of “management”, its main categories

2. Principles of effective management.

3. Classical management concepts (Taylor, Fayol).

4. Modern concepts management (Management by results).

5. Stages of the organization's life cycle.

6. Types of management.

7. Management of the characteristics of the manufactured product.

8. Product competitiveness.

9. Product promotion strategies.

10. Management functions. Analysis. Qualitative and quantitative analysis.

11. Management functions. Planning. Normative planning method.

12. Management functions. Planning. Balance sheet planning method.

13. Management functions. Planning. Budget planning method.

14. Management functions. Planning. Graphic planning method.

15. Management functions. Organization. Structural approaches.

16. Management functions. Organization. Process approaches.

17. Management functions. Motivation. Internal motives and their formation.

18. Management functions. Motivation. External motives and their formation.

19.Process of control and regulation; and its relationship with other management functions.

The concept of management, its main categories.

Management is the management of people working in one organization with a common ultimate goal. But management is not just the management of people and an organization, but its special form, it is management in a market environment, a market economy, that is, in conditions of constant change and risk. Therefore, management is aimed at creating favorable conditions (technical, economic, psychological, etc.) for the functioning of the organization and at achieving its success.

Control object- there may be industries (industry, agriculture, transport), territorial communities of people (region, district, city), individual stages of reproduction (production, sales, supply, R&D), aspects of economic activity (product quality, interaction with consumers, marketing) , types of resources (financial, human, etc.), as well as production characteristics (efficiency, attitude towards work, quality of life, level of employment).

Subjects of management- managers at various levels holding permanent positions and vested with decision-making authority in certain areas activities (director, manager, board of directors, city mayor, city council, head of department, quality group, city chamber of commerce and industry, as well as any other people or groups of people exercising managerial influence on the management object).