Unusual traditions and customs that exist only in Europe. Traditions of European countries

Many tourists, deciding to go on vacation to a new European country, are completely unaware that customs and traditions in Europe are fundamentally different from Russian standards. Each country, for example, has its own rules of etiquette and violating them can, at a minimum, make a tourist blush for his behavior, so it is better to get acquainted with the traditions of the peoples of Europe before going on a trip.

In this article I would like to dwell on etiquette in Europe, as well as on wedding and culinary traditions of the Old World.

The concept of etiquette came into widespread use in the 17th century. During the reign of the French king Louis XIV, before one of their receptions, all guests were given cards in which some rules of conduct at this very reception were written. It was etiquette, as a tradition of Western Europe, that quickly spread to other countries of the continent, and then throughout the world.

In Western European countries, etiquette developed under the great influence of traditional customs. Various layers of society, prejudices and superstitions, and religious rituals determined the development of etiquette in those days.

Currently, many believe that modern etiquette has inherited only the best of the customs and traditions of Europe, passed on from generation to generation. And if some norms of behavior have remained unchanged to this day, then there is probably no need to argue with folk wisdom.

However, we should not forget that some requirements regarding etiquette are quite conditional and directly depend on time, place and circumstances.

For example, we can remember that just a few centuries ago a man could carry a sword, dagger or saber on his left side, and if a woman walked next to him, then she naturally walked to his right so as not to touch the weapon. Now there are no such obstacles (except perhaps in families where the man is a military man), but the tradition has been preserved.

In modern Europe for a long period During its development, the traditions and customs of the countries mixed with each other. This largely applies to the preparation and holding of wedding celebrations.

Some of the wedding traditions of Europe are well known to the residents of Russia, but others can become a real revelation for us.

For example, in Hungary, the bride must take off her shoes and place them in the middle of the room, and whoever wants to invite her to dance must throw coins into the shoes. The same custom is also common at weddings in Portugal.

At weddings in Romania, the newlyweds are showered with millet, nuts or rose petals.

A bride in Slovakia must give her chosen one a ring and a silk shirt embroidered with gold threads. And the groom, in return, must give her a silver ring, a fur hat, a rosary and a chastity belt.

In Norway, the bride and groom always plant two Christmas trees, and in Switzerland - a pine tree.

At German weddings, before the ceremony, friends and relatives of the bride break dishes near her house, and French newlyweds drink wine from a goblet as a sign of happiness and love.

A festive banquet in Holland is usually held before the wedding ceremony.

English brides stab on their wedding dress horseshoe or mace of happiness.

The heads of brides in Finland must be decorated with a crown.

Before the wedding in Sweden, the bride puts two coins into her shoes that her parents gave her - her mother was gold, and her father was silver.

Each such wedding tradition in European countries is unique, and the best part is that they even long years do not lose relevance and live in the memory of modern Europeans.

Europe's culinary traditions are not the oldest in the world, but the innate entrepreneurship and curiosity of its people have made the continent's cuisine extremely complex and varied.

The culinary traditions of the peoples of Europe are amazing recipes for national dishes from different countries. This is rather a collective concept, because each country can be proud of its own culinary characteristics and traditions.

In Central Europe, Polish and Hungarian dishes predominate. The signature recipes are the preparation of goulash, strudels, vegetable soup with dill, etc.

Eastern European dishes are extremely varied. The customs of cooking have been passed down to modern residents from the nomads who settled these lands many centuries ago.

In Western Europe, French cuisine is distinguished, whose chefs know a lot about vegetables and good wine. The neighbors of the French, the Germans, cannot imagine their life without potatoes, meat and beer.

Kitchen Northern Europe extremely diverse. From beer with chips or fish to creme brulee and chocolate fudge.

Particularly noteworthy are the recipes for duck in orange sauce and chicken huntsman.

A distinctive feature of Southern European cuisine is the addition of wine to many dishes, which is also required to be served on the table before the meal.

In conclusion, the article should be noted that, starting from the second half of the 20th century, the concept of mass culture arose in Europe - a characteristic phenomenon in the 20th century, which was caused by mass consumption and production.

Mass culture has rapidly embraced various spheres of life, and is most fully manifested in youth subculture(for example, rock music, etc.).

It has noticeably strengthened thanks to the media, increased literacy levels and the development of information technology.

on the topic: Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Northern Europe

Introduction

The customs of peoples are one of the most important and most constant themes of ethnographic science. Only in modern times did the view arise that customs are not only a matter of idle curiosity, naive surprise or indignation: they can also be the object of serious scientific study. This view was first expressed by writers of the 18th century: Lafitau, Montesquieu, Charles de Brosse and others. Classic ethnographers of the evolutionist trend - Taylor, Lubbock and others - considered the customs of peoples as some classification units with a tendency to independent development, along with elements of material culture , beliefs, etc. English functionalists - Malinovsky, Radcliffe-Brown - saw in customs (“institutions”) an inseparable component of the whole, which they called “culture” or “social system.” Culture in the broad sense of the word is everything that has been created and is being created by humanity, from tools of labor to household items, from habits, customs, the very way of life of people to science and art, morality and philosophy. Nowadays the cultural layer covers almost the entire planet.

“Custom” refers to any established, traditional and more or less generally accepted procedure for performing any social actions, traditional rules of behavior. The term “custom” is close to the concept of “rite” (“ritual”), and in many cases these two concepts are even equivalent. But the concept of “rite” is narrower than the concept of “custom”. Every ritual is a custom, but not every custom is a ritual. For example, wedding or funeral, Yuletide or Maslenitsa customs are established rituals. But there are many in which there is nothing ritual: for example, the custom of shaving the beard, the custom of washing hands before eating, the custom of neighborly mutual assistance, the custom of joint inheritance. The most interesting, but also the most difficult to study, are precisely the customs of the ritual type: those that are expressed in traditional actions performed in an established order and in a certain form. As a rule, these customs and rituals have a certain symbolic meaning, that is, they serve as a “sign” of some idea, some public relations. The main task of research in such cases becomes to find the meaning that is hidden in this custom-rite. Understanding the meaning of these rituals and finding out their origin is the goal of ethnographic study. Folk customs are extremely diverse, and it is difficult to fit them into any classification system. And even if we take not all customs in general, but only customs-rites, then they turn out to be very diverse and difficult to classify.

In this work we will look at the calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Europe in the winter. The calendar customs of the peoples of Europe were strongly influenced by the Christian Church with its annual circle of holidays, fasts and memorable days. The Christian faith spread quite quickly throughout Europe. In the 4th century. the Goths, Vandals, Lombards adopted Christianity; in the 5th century Suevi, Franks, Irish Celts; in the 6th century Scots; in the 7th century Anglo-Saxons, Allemanns; in the 8th century Frisians, Saxons, Danes; in the 9th century southern and part of the western Slavs, Swedes; in the 10th century Eastern Slavs (Rus), Poles, Hungarians; in XI, Norwegians, Icelanders; in the 13th century Finns. The adoption of Christianity by individual European nations was by no means a peaceful process. And, of course, the church had a huge influence on the rituals and customs of all residents of European countries. But Christian doctrine has never been united. Gradually accumulating dogmatic, ritual, and canonical differences, which reflected political contradictions, finally led to a formal schism of the churches (1054). This split had incalculable consequences for the entire cultural history of European peoples. The influence of one religion or another has affected the traditions of calendar rituals in different ways. One of the goals of the work is to explore the genesis of folk calendar customs and rituals of Western European countries. Also reveal the relationship between the religious-magical and aesthetic (artistic, decorative, entertainment) elements in calendar customs; the historical transition of the first to the second. Find out what customs have survived to this day. It should be emphasized that these rituals are mostly of a folk nature. The church element was introduced into them much later and often did not change the essence of the rituals.

Calendar customs and rituals of the peoples of Northern Europe

Folk customs and rituals are an essential part of the spiritual culture of the people, reflecting their worldview in different periods of historical development. Studying them is very important when studying the processes of integration, adaptation and mutual influence occurring between different peoples, since it is often in traditional rituals that the ethnic tradition of peoples is manifested.

An example of the persistence of such a tradition is the preservation of ancient traditional ritual dishes in the holiday menu of European peoples: Christmas roast goose or turkey, fried pig's head or pork, porridge from various cereals, legumes, chestnuts, nuts, which were previously considered a symbol of abundance.

It is known that many rituals of the winter calendar cycle were associated with superstitions and prejudices characteristic of ancient farmers and cattle breeders in those distant times when the level of development of productive forces was very low. Of course, the original and ancient basis of winter customs and rituals - the underdevelopment of agricultural labor, the dependence of ancient grain growers on the elemental forces of nature - has long ceased to exist. Of course, the primitive magical beliefs that grew on this basis, witchcraft rites of fertility, etc., as well as belief in fortune telling, mantles of all kinds - all this is in the past, and even in the distant past. And the higher the growth of productive forces in the country, the more intensive the industrialization of agriculture takes place, the more and more the various magical techniques and witchcraft actions aimed at ensuring a prosperous year for the farmer are forgotten.

The fragments of the old agrarian rituals that are still preserved in a survival form here and there either indicate the low cultural level of their performers, in most cases representatives of the older generation, or have already completely lost their magical meaning and turned into entertainment, remaining one of the national traditions of one or another ethnic group. One can find many examples of a combination in rituals of rational techniques, practical actions developed empirically by farmers over many centuries and, perhaps, retaining their significance in our time, and crude superstitious signs and beliefs, the meaning of which is sometimes even difficult to grasp. These, for example, are two types of signs about the weather: some signs were due to the peasant’s great observation skills and his good knowledge of the surrounding geographical conditions; others are born of superstition and have no practical basis. Similarly, in rituals common in some countries aimed at ensuring the harvest of fruit trees, rational actions (sprinkling - fertilizing the ground around the tree with ash, tying it with straw) are accompanied by religious prejudices: the ash must certainly come from a burnt Christmas log, the straw must come from a ritual Christmas tree. sheaf, etc.

Some traditional customs and the rituals took shape in those times when there was a lot of cruelty and injustice in family and social life: for example, one feature was clearly reflected in Christmas fortune-telling - a girl wonders about the groom, who will “take” her, where she will be “given away”. In other words, this is where the old view of a woman comes into play, as an incomplete being who can be “taken” or “not taken”, who can be “given” here and there. In other customs, there is ridicule of a girl who did not get married in the past year.

Until recently, crude customs of barbaric killing of animals and birds, once associated, apparently, with sacrificial rites, persisted in some countries.

No less cruel are the customs found here and there of ritually whipping members of one’s community with thorny branches until blood appears.

Customs associated with the revival of nature after the winter solstice, with fertility spells, were often accompanied by rough erotic games.

In the past, great harm was caused by beliefs about special power during the festive period of various evil spirits, timed to coincide with the winter calendar cycle, and actions based on these beliefs to identify witches, sorceresses, etc. Throughout the Middle Ages, many innocent people were cruelly tortured or persecuted because of these ridiculous superstitions.

Finally, it is impossible not to mention the great harm to humans of some church rituals and institutions. The observance of long, exhausting fasts before each major holiday, especially characteristic of Catholics, caused, for example, great harm to people's health.

Over time, the old meaning of magical actions and rituals was forgotten and they turned, as shown in the material presented above, into folk games and entertainment. Gradually, those rigid church forms in which the clergy tried to clothe ancient folk festivals are becoming anachronistic. But in most cases, these church forms did not change anything essentially in folk traditions in the past. The customs remained what they were, and their connection with one or another saint turns out to be mostly accidental. And the saints themselves, from legendary martyrs for the faith, in most cases turned into funny folklore characters) giving gifts to children or appearing in merry processions of mummers.

In a word, the presence of a religious, church element in the winter Yuletide ritual does not change anything in the purely folk and essentially for a long time completely secular, entertaining character of this ritual. After all, if we talk about the strictly religious, church view of national calendar holidays, then we must remember how severely, how mercilessly persecuted the zealots of the church, Christian fanatics - Calvinists, Presbyterians, Puritans - any hint of any holiday amusements or entertainment, be it Christmas, Easter or other. Reading the Bible and listening to the Christmas sermon is what a Christian believer should do on the occasion of the Nativity of Christ. Deviations from this rule were severely punished. I looked at the matter the same way and Orthodox Church, which severely condemned “nasty demonic acts and games”, “nightly spitting”, “demonic songs and dances” and other “ungodly deeds” during church holidays. And indeed, the very spirit of Christianity, with its disdain for earthly life and its focus on the afterlife, on the salvation of the soul, the festive Yuletide ritual was and remains hostile.

In the struggle for a new democratic and socialist civilization, it is necessary to protect and support everything in folk traditions that can decorate a person’s life, make it brighter, more joyful and more diverse. In the long process of mutual influence and borrowing among European peoples, a tendency towards the creation of new features of winter rituals, characteristic of all the peoples of Europe, is increasingly evident. These new features are, of course, formed on the basis of old folk rituals and customs of European farmers, but they first began to spread among the urban population and only gradually penetrate into rural areas in an updated form of tradition.

A striking example of one of these customs is the Christmas and New Year tree. Its spread was prepared since ancient times by the custom of using and winter rituals of branches of evergreen plants, sometimes decorated with multi-colored threads, paper, nuts, etc., that existed among European peoples. modern form the tree, as already reported, appeared in mid-18th century V. in Germany and from here gradually began to spread to other European countries, having now gained great popularity among almost all the peoples of Europe.

The custom of exchanging gifts during the winter holiday cycle, well known to the ancient Romans, has now also become pan-European.

In the middle of the 19th century. the first colorful Christmas greeting card was printed in England, and today written greetings have become common in all countries; Every year more and more bright artistic postcards are produced.

Also interesting is the transformation taking place before our eyes of the traditional mythological image that brings gifts to children. Former images of saints - St. Nicholas, St. Martin, Baby Jesus and others are increasingly being replaced by one allegorical image of Father Frost - “Santa Claus” or more often Father Christmas, very similar in different countries even in their appearance. The Snow Maiden or the Winter Fairy becomes his constant companion. The tradition of mummers gave rise to the organization of mass folk festivals and masquerades in cities.

Thus, having lost their religious meaning, the rituals of the winter cycle were woven into the fabric of modern social life.

Among the Scandinavian peoples, winter rituals and holidays begin in November and continue until February. The biggest winter holiday is Christmas, December 23rd. Many customs, rituals, and beliefs are associated with it.

Despite the fact that the majority of residents of the Scandinavian countries are Protestants by religion (Lutheranism was introduced in all Scandinavian countries after the reforms of 1527-1539), there are still customs and rituals among the people dedicated to the days of remembrance of Christian saints and observed by the Catholic Church .

This fact once again shows that folk rituals and holidays essentially have very little or no connection at all with church images of saints and are purely externally, formally dedicated to the days of remembrance of one or another saint. The popularity of these saints can only be explained by coincidence church dates with significant moments of the folk agricultural calendar.

The most popular of these dates are St. Martin, St. Nicholas, St. Lyu-tsii.1

Since St. Martin (November 11) summer is considered over and winter begins. By this time, the cattle are already in the stalls, the entire crop has been harvested, and the harvesting work has been completed. Saint's Day Martin, the patron saint of livestock, is often associated with the harvest festival. In some places in Sweden, on Martin's Day, male tenants gather in each village to sum up the annual results. Everyone sits around a long table on which wine, beer, and snacks are placed. A bowl of wine with wishes is passed around in a circle happy year and good health.

Village women celebrate this day differently. It's Saint's Day for them. Martina is associated with the end of geese grazing. Geese graze together in the pasture during the summer. In order to distinguish geese in the fall, each housewife puts her own special marks. When the grazing stops in the fall, the shepherdesses drive the geese into the village and breed them in the yards. This often results in confusion. Therefore, one of the next days, all the women in the village gather and go from yard to yard, choosing their geese. This “journey” is called “goose trekking” (“gasagang”). After inspecting the village geese, the women organize a celebration in the evening with drinks and food. Later, men join the women and the general fun continues.

The holiday is also held in homes, with family dinners made from the autumn harvest and goose. There is a legend that St. Martin was hiding in the barn, and the goose gave him away, so you need to wring the goose's neck and eat it.

On Martin's Day, various fortune telling is known; goose bones try to determine whether the winter will be harsh or mild. On this day, all kinds of symbolic actions evoke goodness and prosperity. Evil spirits are driven away with whips and bells.

Feast of St. Nicholas (December 6) is considered a children's holiday. A man with a white beard dresses up as St. Nicholas, in the clothes of a bishop, he rides on a horse or a donkey with gifts in a bag behind his back (with nuts, dried fruits, mittens, etc.) and with a whip. He inquires about the behavior of children, rewards them or punishes them.

In the old days in Denmark, before going to bed on St. Nicholas Day, children put a plate on the table or put their shoes under a pipe in which gifts were placed. This custom is not mentioned in Sweden, Norway and Iceland, although it is possible that it could exist in these countries.

St. Day is considered a big holiday. Lucia (Lucia) (December 13). The holiday marks St. Lucia's bringing of light into the dark season of Christmas. The name Lucia itself comes from “lux”, “lys” - light. Lucia's Day, according to popular belief, is the shortest in the whole year and is therefore considered the middle of the winter holidays. The origins of the Lucia festival are unclear; perhaps it arose in pre-Christian times. According to church legend in the 4th century. The Christian Lucia was condemned and killed by the pagans for her faith. The celebration of Lucia Day can be traced back for many centuries. Among old people in Sweden there is a belief that Lucia can be seen at dawn over the frozen lakes: on her head is a luminous crown, and in her hands she holds a treat for the poor. In the old days, among the Swedes it was a holiday at home, but nowadays it is also celebrated outside the family.

Lucia is a young girl wearing white clothes with a red belt and a crown of branches with candles. She visits houses at dawn, delivering coffee and cookies on a tray. In wealthy houses in the old days, the role of Lucia was often played by maids, also dressed in white clothes and with a crown on their heads. Domestic animals also received delicacies: a cat received cream, a dog received a good bone, horses received oats, cows and sheep received hay. This day was once celebrated with great enthusiasm. No one in the village slept on Lucia's night, lights were on everywhere in the houses, and the villages at night looked like twilight in the evening. In the families of St. Lucia is portrayed by the eldest daughter.

Currently the feast of St. Lucia is celebrated collectively - in organizations, factories, hospitals, in public places(cities and villages). Lucia - a beautiful girl - is chosen by vote. On this holiday, the streets of many Swedish cities are crowded with costumed companions of Lucia - young girls in long white clothes with candles in their hands and young men in white clothes and silver caps with cutouts in the form of stars and the moon, paper lanterns in their hands. On Lucia Day, schools end classes early and celebrate with illuminations.

After the day, Lucia begins to prepare for Christmas with even greater zeal.

The Christmas cycle conventionally covers two months from December 1 to February 1 - preparation for Christmas and celebration. The most important and solemn time is the “12 days” from Christmas Eve to Epiphany (December 24-January 6). All work has been abandoned. On December 25 and 26, institutions and enterprises are closed throughout Scandinavia, and schools are on vacation.

Christmas candles are lit during the new moon because they believe that such candles shine brighter.

Christmas Day (jul) is still celebrated with great solemnity in the regions of Småland and Skåne in Sweden. Preparations for the holiday begin a month before it. One of the family, according to the old custom, must take care in advance of new clothes and shoes for Christmas. On one of the days, two weeks before the holiday, the fattened Christmas piglets are slaughtered, which usually happens between two and three o'clock in the morning. The day before, the housewife prepares a well-cleaned or new cauldron with flour, into which the blood of the animals should flow. When the pigs are slaughtered, someone stands near the cauldron and stirs the blood and flour until the mixture becomes thick and baked. This was most often performed by a woman over 50 years of age who was not pregnant, since it was believed that a pregnant woman in this case could give birth to a sick child (with falling sickness or with a physical disability). Young women or girls with a groom were strictly forbidden to take any part in the slaughter of livestock.

When slaughtering piglets, the hooves and teats were buried in the pigsty in the place where the piglet lay, as it was believed that this brought good luck in breeding pigs.

Most often, livestock slaughter in Sweden occurs in mid or late November. For this purpose, after summer grazing and completion of all field work, animals are placed in the yard for fattening. Usually a cow or bull, a couple of pigs and a few sheep are prepared for slaughter. Geese were slaughtered for Christmas before, this happened on St. Martin or in front of him. In every village, one of the peasants is specially engaged in this craft.

The blood sausage blopolsan, which is very popular, is immediately prepared from fresh animal blood. An equally popular dish is paltar - balls the size of two fists, prepared from a mixture of flour with a certain amount of fresh blood, and fried in lard. Some of the meat and pork is smoked, but a significant amount is salted and not eaten until Christmas.

After preparing the meat and sausages, they begin brewing. This is most often done in a special building (stegerset), located next to the home. Beer is brewed for three to four days without interruption from morning to evening. They get three types of beer: Christmas beer itself, thick and strong, then more liquid and, finally, mash or kvass. When preparing drinks at home, quite a significant amount of grain is consumed. Almost every farm has malt, not only for its own needs, but also for sale.

Baking bread takes the most time, which also had to be done before Christmas. Bread is baked from different types of flour. First of all, huge round sodbrod breads are baked from wholemeal flour, weighing 6-8 kg for daily expenses. Ovens are large in size, so they can accommodate 12-15 such loaves at a time. Before baking, a cross is made on each of the breads with a knitting needle, so that a troll (evil spirit) or other evil spirit does not bewitch the baked goods.

For Christmas they bake so much bread that it lasts until spring. No baking is done until the day of the Annunciation (Bebadelsedag) - March 25th. In order to protect bread from mold, it is buried in heaps of grain.

14 days before Christmas, the “Christmas firewood” of julved, i.e. stakes and poles, begins to be prepared.

In all wealthy houses, baking was carried out, and beer was brewed not only for themselves, but also for distribution to the poor, watchmen, workers, and shepherds. Gifts consisted of bread, meat, porridge, beer, and candles. On Christmas Eve, before sunset, all the villagers gathered in the church. Upon returning home, everyone sat down to a festive meal. With Christmas comes everyone's celebration; There is not a single poor house where this event is not celebrated.

The smallest loaf of bread is always kept hidden away from one Christmas to the next or even longer. There were often cases of an 80-90 year old woman keeping a loaf of bread baked in her youth.

There was a belief that Christmas bread and beer, which were stored for a long time, allegedly possessed supernatural powers; they were considered a healing remedy against diseases of people and animals. A piece of Christmas bread or sakakan cake in many places in Scandinavia is always stored until the spring sowing. Before the plow or harrow is lowered into the ground for the first time, the horse is given a piece of bread or cake. When sowing, a piece of bread also lies at the bottom of the seeder, and after the completion of spring sowing, the plowman must eat this bread and wash it down with Christmas beer. They believed that in this case there would be a good harvest.

After the cattle have been slaughtered, the beer has been brewed and the bread has been baked, the cleaning of the premises begins - they wash the ceilings and walls, cover them with wallpaper, polish the floors, paint the stoves, clean equipment and dishes. Tin and silver dishes, polished to a shine, are displayed on shelves above the door to the home. On the morning of Christmas Eve, the Christmas tree is decorated. Before Christmas, everyone works without rest, especially women.

Christmas Eve, Christmas Eve (December 24), is called julafton, julaften, juleaften. On Christmas Eve before dinner, everyone is busy with small things. The workers put all the outbuildings in order and chop wood so that they don’t have to do these things until after baptism (up to three kings), prepare splinters, remove sheaves from the bins, and clean the horses. Pets are given better and more nutritious food to “be with them in good relations" While the animals are being fed, the owner walks around the yard and arable land for the last time and checks to see if all the equipment has been removed. It was a common belief that if a peasant left his agricultural implements on his arable land at Christmas, then he was the last to reap the harvest of the previous year. This is how time passes until lunch.

Christmas celebrations begin on Christmas Eve itself. In some areas of Scandinavia (mainly in Western and Southern Sweden) in the afternoon on Christmas Eve, in the old days, “dipping into the cauldron” was held. It consisted of dipping pieces of bread on a fork into the meat broth in which the meat for the upcoming holiday was cooked, and eating it. Dipping into the cauldron took place with a certain solemnity and was considered as an introduction to the holiday itself. This ceremony was called "doppa" (dipping). Therefore, Christmas Eve was called in some places in Sweden dopparedagen (dipping day) 12. After dipping, they washed in the bathhouse and put on holiday clothes. By Christmas Eve until the middle of the 19th century. straw was spread on the floor (after the living space was put in order) and the table was set.

At about six o'clock in the evening they sit down at the table and treat themselves. The treat is the same - on Christmas Eve, Christmas, New Year and Epiphany. In the evening meal on Christmas Eve they eat Christmas ham and porridge, then fish, bread made from finely sifted flour and butter. Among the drinks on Christmas Eve, the best, strong Christmas beer takes first place. After the meal, a large fire is built under the cauldrons in a fireplace made of thick pine wood, which produces large amounts of Julrek (Christmas smoke) smoke (julrok). At the same time, domestic animals are released to water and fumigated with Christmas smoke. The ashes after this fire are not thrown away, but are saved and on the second day in the morning they are sprinkled with it on domestic animals: supposedly this can protect them from illness, the devil and the evil eye. After the meal, the Christmas prayer is read. Then Christmas gifts are distributed. Instead of a Christmas tree, in many places there was a wooden pole decorated with red and green paper, as well as eight to ten candles. On Christmas Eve, candles are lit and they burn all Christmas night.

In Norway and Denmark, preparations for Christmas also begin long before it. Already in November, pigs and calves are slaughtered, and the meat is processed into delicacies of all kinds. Before Christmas, the house is cleaned for six months and the dishes are washed. Firewood is prepared two weeks in advance, since during Christmas time all work is prohibited for two weeks. Weaving looms and spinning wheels are removed and used again only after baptism.

Pets are given the best food with the words of a magic spell. There are many rituals, customs and beliefs associated with Christmas. In Norway they tell a legend about a careless girl who did not feed the animals on this day. The girl was sitting by the fence and suddenly heard the words “let the one who sits by the fence go blind,” and she immediately became blind. It is believed that it was the voice of a hungry cow.

Two weeks before the holiday in Norway and Denmark, the premises are cleaned, the utensils are cleaned, pies and special buns are baked, wines and various drinks are prepared. In the villages, peasants clean up the barnyard, clean and feed the best hay on the eve of Christmas to their domestic animals, so that “they are ready to welcome a merry Christmas.” Crosses are painted on plows and harrows and implements are hidden under yard awnings. In Denmark there is still a belief that a wandering shoemaker can find something without a cross on it and sit on it, which will bring bad luck to the house. The explanation is found in the legend that “the one who carried his cross” stopped to rest at the shoemaker’s door. The shoemaker drove him away, and then the “cross bearer” threatened the shoemaker that he would wander until he returned. People say that a shoemaker has been walking around Denmark for two hundred years looking for an unconsecrated plow, and if he finds it, the curse will end and pass from him to the owner of the plow. A well-known folk legend says that on Christmas night you can hear the footsteps of a wandering shoemaker.

Before Christmas, the festive baking and making of decorations for the home ends: paper cut-outs for the walls, stars for the Christmas tree, wooden toys, straw animals - julebockar goats, julegrisar pigs. Among various figures - decorations, gifts - the goat is the most popular.

Christmas birds (rooster, dove), wooden or straw, are also popular. They often stand with a goat on the Christmas table. They are hung from the ceiling. These straw figurines are associated with ancient mythology: a goat is an attribute of Thor, the thunder god, a pig is the god Frey, etc. Throughout Scandinavia, it is very common to give gifts to family, friends, and acquaintances. Gifts are wrapped and sealed with red wax, and rhymes or sayings about the use of the gift are included. They decorate a Christmas tree or Christmas tree (fir, pine and juniper branches) secretly from children, always decorate it with the national flag on top (in Norway and Denmark), small flags on the bottom, and all sorts of toys.

On December 24th in the afternoon in Norway, as in Sweden, the family gathers around the fire for “dipping into the cauldron” (doppgrytan). A cauldron with boiled meat, sausages or ham stands on the hearth. Everyone, including guests and servants, cuts a piece white bread hevertored, verterored, verored, dips it on a fork into a cauldron with meat sauce, then eats this bread with a piece of meat. They do this for luck. They toast to happiness, drink mulled wine made from wine, rum, spices, and sometimes something else.

On December 24, Christmas Eve, everything is ready for celebration in all Scandinavian countries. All shops and markets are closed.

On December 25th comes the culmination of the winter holidays, a time of good wishes and great joy. No matter how late they calm down on the eve of the holiday, on December 25 everyone is already on their feet early in the morning, at six o’clock.

In the village there are candles burning in every window. Sleigh rides with pine torches. Then the burning torches are thrown into a fire built on a high place in the church yard. The traditional holiday greeting “Godjul!” is said. The fire is extinguished at dawn, etc.

At home until lunch, everyone goes about their personal affairs. The holiday on the first day is spent in the family. No one goes to visit, because they believe that by doing so they take happiness out of the house. A stranger who enters the house, however, is treated to beer.

On festive table Almost always there are fish dishes, and, above all, Christmas cod lutfisk (lutfisk) of a peculiar preparation. The cod is first dried and then soaked to a jelly state. The baked goods amaze with their pretentiousness and imagination - shaped bread, cookies in the form of figures of various animals, fourteen types of different cakes, one type for every day, and for dessert - a Christmas cake. Strong beer, punch and coffee are always present on the table. In many villages in Scandinavia, especially in Norway, they dress in ancient national costumes, in cities - in elegant clothes. Dinner is served hot and cold. Until the beginning of the 20th century. In Norway, during Christmas Eve, someone would secretly make a straw effigy and hide it under the table. The effigy was often dressed in men's clothing. It was called julesven (Christmas guy). On Christmas Eve, food and a glass of beer were placed next to the scarecrow. This custom is still found in the mountainous regions of Norway.

After dinner, the door opens into a room with a Christmas tree, which was previously hidden from the children. The father of the family reads a prayer. Then there is a knock on the door, and the “Christmas grandfather” enters - julegubbe, julemand, jultomten, julenisse, portrayed by an uncle, brother or other men from the family. Father Christmas is very similar in appearance to the Russian Father Frost: he is dressed in a red hat, with a white beard, carries a bag of gifts over his shoulders, and arrives in a sleigh drawn by the goats of the god Thor. Children, having received gifts, thank him with a bow. After handing out gifts, Santa Claus dances around the Christmas tree.

After the gala dinner, dancing and games begin, which continue throughout Christmas. They dance in turn in each house. In this regard, the very first house in some areas of Sweden is consecrated (in the region of Öster Götland). In the first house there is a performance before the dance. Two young girls in white clothes with beautiful shiny crowns on their heads enter the house, with treats on a tray. Then the next two girls, dressed in the same way, enter and bring in a bush (buske) or a small Christmas tree with burning candles. The tree is placed on the floor in the middle of the house, and all four girls form a circle around the tree and sing songs in honor of everyone present. After this, they put the Christmas tree on the table and start dancing. For sports lovers, after lunch - skates, skis, sleds. On the second day of Christmas, a folk theater performance is most often held. Christmas dance evenings are a time of merry jokes and pranks performed by the mummers. Most often, they dress up as a goat, putting on an inverted sheepskin, and attaching horns, wooden or real, to their heads. Sometimes a lit tow or flax sticks out in the mouth of the mask, so that sparks fly around. The mummers burst into the middle of the dancers and cause a commotion. In some villages, the same people act as mummers at Christmas for several years. In addition to the “mummers-goats”, the so-called “Christmas ghosts” (julspoken) go from house to house on Christmas. Men wrap a large piece of linen fabric over their clothes, tie a cord around their thighs, stuff straw under the fabric to change their figure, tie a long, rough woolen tie around their neck, put on a black tall hat, smear their face with soot or dark paint, pick up a stick, and so on. go home. Usually a man in disguise goes with a woman or girl; she dresses up in a large old woman's coat and puts a wide-brimmed hat on her head. Upon entering the house, the mummers ask what work they can do. They are assigned some task, and then they are treated to beer, wine, nuts, and Christmas apples. The mummers sing songs to which you can dance. After the dancing begins, the mummers go to other houses, usually choosing the most friendly and generous hosts.

Early in the morning on the second day of the holiday, the owner inspects the yard, since there are frequent cases that, as a joke, a lot of manure, garbage and snow are thrown into the stable and barn at night, especially for those owners who were offended. If they wanted to please good owners, then, on the contrary, they cleaned the stables and sheds and put everything in order.

On the evening of the second day, fun and festivities began in the villages, called “Christmas huts” of julstugorna with dancing and dancing. Each guy chooses a girl to dance for the whole evening. On Christmas days they arrange various games, in which people of all ages take part. They play blind man's buff, change shoes, thread a needle with their eyes closed, tell fortunes with nuts, etc. Participants in such cheerful rural festivals love to sing popular folk songs.

In cities, December 26 is a day of parties and visits, holidays at enterprises and organizations. Holidays are organized by both adults and children. Hospitality is special these days. In many places, it is customary for passers-by to enter the house and share a festive meal.

From this day until January 13, meetings, dancing and celebrations with abundant food and visiting continue. At these evenings, acquaintances often took place between girls and young people.

On Christmas days, artisans and other townspeople put on their best costumes, wearing masks roughly made of wood - an ox's head, a goat's horns. Young people walk the streets singing and giving theatrical performances.

A visit to the Christmas market is a joyful event for people of all ages. In Stockholm's famous Skansen park (open-air museum), traders, artisans and artisans offer their specialties: Norrland sausage, herring salad, a variety of cheeses, arts and crafts and much more. In the evenings, Skansen hosts dancing under the Christmas tree. Shops with their rich display windows are doing brisk business these days.

Stockholmers have a custom of visiting graves on Christmas Eve, and the grave mound is decorated with a Christmas tree with candles burning on it. A Christmas tree is also common on Danish graves.

There is a custom on the eve of the New Year to organize processions of mummers. The mummers often carry a goat's head stuffed with hay on a stick with a long beard made of tow. Julesven (the Christmas guy) is also often present here.

The Yuletide fun was interrupted only by the solemn quiet New Year's Day. Between Christmas and New Year no work is carried out other than caring for the animals. They strive to spend the New Year as successfully as possible so that the whole year will be happy. They prepare dishes that, according to legend, supposedly heal illnesses for the whole year (for example, all kinds of apple treats for stomach diseases, etc.).

The streets of the capital before the New Year and on the New Year are illuminated and festively decorated with green garlands of fir branches. Usually, New Year's Eve in cities goes like this: the family gathers at the festive table. At midnight, windows are opened, people go out onto balconies, fire rocket launchers, and sparklers are lit. On New Year's Eve, in some places there is a masquerade, group visits, dancing, snacks at home, with neighbors.

In Western Jutland, in the form of New Year's jokes, cart wheels are hidden in a well or pitchforks are thrown onto the roof, so prudent owners put all equipment under lock and key in advance.

At midnight before the New Year, churches ring bells for the outgoing year. In cities on New Year's Day, masquerades are held in public places and on the streets.

New Year's dinner consists of all kinds of snacks. A must-have dish in the coastal areas of Denmark is cod with mustard.

On New Year, January 1, they go to church in the morning, and then celebrate at home or go on a visit. Previously, the New Year was celebrated mainly at home in a family circle. The festive table on New Year's Day contains the same dishes as on Christmas Day. There are also various cold appetizers on the table: smergssbred, smergyos, smerrebred, mainly fish - salmon, herring salad. The main dish on New Year's Day is cod; rice pudding with a lucky twist is also considered a must-have dish. Roast goose is always on the dinner table; meat, cheese, vegetables, pies, and sweets are also served. They drink a lot of beer.

On the second day of the New Year, parties, dinner parties, or festive entertainment are held (in organizations, clubs, etc.).

On January 2, the 9th day of Christmas, the old men hold a feast. At the feast, sagas about trolls and ghosts are told. This day is called gubbdagen - “old people’s day”.

This holiday has medieval traditions. Beliefs and some customs are also associated with it, although much less than with Christmas and the New Year. On this day, according to popular belief, good spirits come with wishes to children. Three-armed candelabra are lit everywhere. Students organize festive processions with songs and paper lanterns. Folk games are held. The cities depict the procession of the holy kings from the east; young men and boys - in white clothes and white conical hats, decorated with pompoms and astronomical signs, carry large transparent paper lamps on long poles, illuminated from within. In the villages, boys dress up in biblical costumes and go from house to house singing old folk songs of well-being that have been passed down from generation to generation.

Three Kings Day marks the end of the festive season. They begin to remove Christmas trees and green branches from houses. At night, young girls tell fortunes and try to find out their fate. According to the old custom, they back away and throw the shoe over their left shoulder. At the same time, kings are asked to predict fate. The one whom the girl sees in a dream after fortune telling will become her groom.

January 13 is the feast of St. Knuta, the 20th day of Christmas, the official end of the holidays. St. Knut, according to an old folk saying, drives away Christmas. Windows and doors are opened in houses to sweep away Christmas with a broom or other object. According to existing custom, on this day in many areas of Scandinavia, traditional Christmas races are held along snowy roads and lakes in horse-drawn sleighs, with bells and cheerful songs. According to popular belief, the trolls themselves (spirits) organize horse races on this day under the leadership of the troll woman Kari the 13th. Feast of St. Knuta is the last day of Merry Christmas. The Christmas tree or Christmas tree is dismantled, chopped and burned in the oven.

So, Christmas ends on January 13th. They say that "Knut is leaving for Christmas." On this day in the evening, the last Christmas ball is held, to which Knut comes dressed up. Christmas ends at 12 o'clock at night between the day of Knut and Felix (January 13 and 14). Farewell to Christmas is accompanied by mummers. In the region of Skåne (southern Sweden) “witches” (Felixdockan) take part in the farewell ceremony: one of the men dresses up in women’s clothing, or they make a scarecrow. Then the stuffed animal is thrown away. In the evening, mummers come dressed in the most unrecognizable way - women in trousers, men in skirts, wearing masks, they change their voices so as not to be recognized. These are "Christmas ghosts." Knut also walks around the yards with cheerful witticisms, for which he is treated. In the evening of the holiday, the Christmas goat comes in the company of mummers.

From Felix's Day, January 14, everything returns to its usual order, spinning and other various household activities, work in barns and stables begin.

The Finnish folk calendar, which had developed by the beginning of the Middle Ages, was fundamentally agrarian, although it also retained more ancient elements associated with hunting and fishing, which became secondary, but continued to be vital trades for Finnish peasants. The main occupation of the Finns - agriculture - not only determined the specifics of the folk calendar, but also contributed to the continued persistent preservation of its most important elements over the centuries. Gradually, the church strengthened its position in the country and expanded its influence on the daily life of the people; The church calendar also began to come into use. The church calendar has changed over time not only due to church events, as, for example, during the period of the Reformation, but transformations also took place there under the influence of the folk calendar. Entering the life of the people, church holidays were connected with those dates and holidays that fell on that time according to popular reckoning. The days of church saints and holidays associated with the events of the Holy Scriptures turned out to be connected with the traditional works of the agricultural annual cycle. Rituals and customs dedicated to the church holiday were often associated with pre-Christian beliefs, containing the remnants of ancient magical actions, traditional sacrifices designed to ensure the economic well-being of the peasantry.

The Finns divided the year into two main periods: summer and winter. One was a time of field work, the other was a period of domestic work, crafts, forestry and fishing. The original days of counting were the “winter day”, which was October 14, and the “summer day,” which was April 14. Each half of the year was in turn divided into two parts by its, so to speak, highest point: January 14th was considered the “center of winter”, and July 14th was considered the “midsummer”

It is characteristic of the Finnish calendar that although sometimes, when determining the dates of the agricultural calendar, the weeks were named after the saints on whose days they began, but, as a rule, they did without this, and the reference points for counting the working dates were the days of the folk calendar - “winter” and “summer day”, “middle” of winter and summer.

October belonged to the winter period, but the beginning of winter was not the first, but October 14, St. Calista. The popular beginning of winter, designated as “winter day” and “winter night” or “winter nights,” was, as we see, delayed from the end of the old year, the day of the end of field work, by two weeks - from Michaelmas to Kalist.

One of the significant church holidays that fell in October was St. Brigitte (folk Finnish forms of this name are Piryo, Pirkko, etc.) - October 7. In some areas of Finland, this saint was very popular, many churches were dedicated to her, and October 7 was a big holiday.

Saint's Day Brigid in the folk calendar determined the beginning of knitting a large winter seine. A large fair was held in Halikko on this day, called Piritta (also a popular form of the name Brigitte). It was mainly where peasants exchanged grain for fish from fishermen. folk custom rite winter calendar

October 28 was the day of Simo, i.e. St. Simon (8ntyupra1Ua), when, as it was believed, winter weather had finally set in.

Of particular interest is the “squirrel day” that occurred in October, which was in no way connected with the Christian calendar. The squirrel has been playing for a long time big role in the country's economy, its fur was one of the important export items and served as a unit of exchange, a measure of money and even grain. In this regard, squirrel hunting was regulated very early. On wooden calendars, the day of the squirrel, that is, the beginning of the hunt for it, was indicated by a special sign. It was also included in printed calendars. The day the squirrel hunt began was not the same for the entire country, which is not surprising if you remember its extent from south to north.

At the end of October and beginning of November, according to the popular calendar, an important period began, lasting ten to twelve days and called “time of division”, “time of division”. In some places this period was counted from November 1, in others from October 28, on Martin's Day - November 10 - it ended. There are many customs, prohibitions, and signs associated with this period, which in itself speaks of its importance.

To a certain extent, this twelve-day period was a time of rest from everyday work. Many everyday activities were prohibited: it was forbidden to wash, spin, shear sheep, or slaughter cattle. It was possible to weave nets, which was quiet and clean work, women could do small needlework, even take such work with them when they went to visit. In general, at this time it was customary to visit relatives and friends; men gathered in groups to drink and talk. But one had to behave respectably, not noisily. In accordance with this holiday period, a free week or two for employees began on November 1st. But prohibitions of various kinds relating to this period spoke not only of its festivity, but also of the dangers that lurked in it. At this time, it was impossible to reduce your household in any form: you could neither give nor lend anything to neighbors, you could not give anything to the poor (probably the ban on slaughtering livestock was also associated with this). A violator of this prohibition could undermine the welfare of his farm next year.

The importance of the “time of partition” was also emphasized by the fact that young people in many places during these days told fortunes to find out their future.

The weather these days was also of great importance. The old people used it to predict the weather for the entire next year. Each day of the division time corresponded to one of the months: the first - January, the second - February, etc. In addition, if the sun was shining on these days, the year had to be sunny. The appearance of the sun promised 9 sunny days during haymaking. According to signs, if the sun showed up even for such a period of time that it was only possible to saddle (or harness) a horse, the year will not be bad. But if it was cloudy for all 12 days, then it was considered pointless to cut down the forest in the slash plot: the summer would be so rainy that the trees would not dry out and they could not be burned.

A special place in this period was occupied by the day of kekri or keuri. Currently, this day is celebrated on the first Saturday of November, which is a holiday and free day. At one time, the official calendar set Kekri Day on November 1st.

In ancient times, the year ended in September, but over time, agriculture developed, cultivated fields increased, the size of the crop grew, new crops appeared, and harvesting, and most importantly, threshing could not be completed by Michaelmas. Gradually the harvest festival moved to a later date. Along with it, the time of the beginning of the new year and the “time of division”, which previously apparently fell on the interval between the end of the old year and the “first day of winter,” inextricably moved.

The “time of division,” as well as the gap between the end of harvesting and the day of winter, was explained by the fact that the old lunar year, which consisted of 12 months, had a difference with the solar year, which came into use later, by 11 days. Only by adding these days to the lunar year could a new year begin. Together with New Year's Day, a period of 12 holidays, which were given great symbolic meaning.

The Finnish calendar does not represent anything exceptional in this regard: the “time of division” or the time of “alignment” was known to many peoples. The Estonians celebrated the time of partition at the same time as the Finns, although more scanty information has been preserved about it. In Germany and Sweden, this period occurred in the middle of winter, when the old year ended and the new one began.

The month of November was called “marraskuu” in Finnish, which they tried to explain in various ways. Currently, they adhere to the point of view that this word is based on the concept of bare, dead, empty (earth).

November has a rich working calendar, with major church holidays.

According to the working calendar, nets should have been made in this month; it was believed that nets made in November were stronger and more catchy than others. The large winter seine was supposed to be completed by St. Andrew's Day (XI 30). If they did not have time to produce all the necessary netting, then at least some of the cells on each tackle had to be connected in November. November was also considered favorable for cutting down trees.

Of the days associated with church holidays, it is worth noting St. Martina. It is celebrated on November 10, which marks the death of Pope Martin (655) and the birthday of Martin Luther (1483). But the customs associated with this day refer to a completely different Martin - a bishop who spread Christianity among the Gauls in the 4th century, founded the first monastery in the West and is famous for the legend that he gave half of his cloak to a beggar. In reality, his day falls on November 11th. But it was on the 10th (and not only in Finland, but also in Estonia and Ingermanland) that mummers, usually children, pretending to be beggars, walked around the village. They went from house to house, sang, collected “alms” - various foods - and then ate it together in some house. But Martin's Day was not only, so to speak, a children's holiday. On this day there was a ceremonial meal, meat dishes were obligatory - fresh pork, blood sausages. In some areas there was even an expression “meat Martin.” Beer was served to the table, the bathhouse was heated, of course, they went to visit each other, and settled troubles - in particular, with hired workers. Apparently, this day acquired such significance because it was the last day in the “partition period.”

In the working calendar, Martin's day was also a prominent date: in some areas it was the time of settlement with shepherds, in addition, on this day they finished fishing in open water and began to prepare for ice fishing. In Southwestern Finland, women had to prepare part of the linen yarn for this day: it was believed that if there was no yarn by Martin's Day, then by May there would be no fabric.

Of the subsequent church holidays, the most interesting in terms of traditions and the most celebrated was Catherine’s Day - November 25. The celebration of Catherine's Day was by no means ecclesiastical. Katerina was the same patroness of sheep among the Lutheran population as Anastasia was among the Orthodox. On Catherine's Day, sheep were sheared, and this wool was considered the best: thicker than summer shearing and softer than winter shearing. Lamb was also served at the table that day.

The last day of November was St. Andrey-Antti-ZO.X1. Since Antti (Andrey), according to legend, was a fisherman, he, along with St. Peter, was considered the patron saint of fishing and fishermen. And to this day, when throwing nets into the water, fishermen say: “Give me some perch, Antti, Pekka (Peter) - some small fish.” Some fishing societies hold annual meetings on this day. It was believed that with Andrei it was time for Christmas, and there was a saying: “Anti starts Christmas, Tuomas brings him into the house.”

The last month of the modern calendar is December, which is now called joulukuu, i.e. “Christmas month.”

In December, weather-related signs begin to concern the near future. This is explained by the coming period of frosts and blizzards, when it is important to know the signs when traveling into the forest and in general during long trips. The sign of the approaching blizzard was the crackling of ice, the crackling of a burning splinter, so strong that it broke. Before a snowstorm, hares appeared on the edge of arable land and dug holes there for lying; birds were hitting the window.

The cry of crows heralded warmer weather. Christmas was especially important for weather forecasting (see below). 4 weeks before Christmas, the Advent period, or “little Christmas” begins. In Helsinki, a Christmas tree is erected on Senate Square, and a decorated and illuminated “Christmas street” opens. Other cities are trying to keep up with the capital. The upcoming Christmas is celebrated in educational institutions, enterprises and institutions. Two weeks before Christmas, the Christmas holidays begin in schools, the semester ends in higher education institutions, and every year an increasing number of employees and workers also receive Christmas holidays. The nature of the “little Christmas”, which began to be celebrated after the First World War and which has become a tradition since the 1950s, is completely at odds with the pious and quiet church style of the Advent period.

The Day of Nicholas of Myra - December 6 - was not of great importance in Finland. In any case, the Finns did not have the custom of giving gifts to children on this day, as is customary in Western Europe.

In Finland it is St. Lucia was never celebrated among the people; but it is interesting because there are many sayings associated with it, the meaning of which is that the longest night of the year is “after St. Day.” Lucia, on Anna's Eve." But St. Lucius was not the shortest, for it is December 13th. In addition, St. Anna is before him - December 9th. However, it was possible to establish that before the 18th century. St.'s day The Finns celebrated Anna on December 15 (then a change was made in accordance with the Swedish calendar). Thus, the expression “the night of St. Lucia, the eve of Anna” is understandable. Why exactly was this night, according to folk tradition, considered the longest? The answer, obviously, is that the cult of these saints came to the northern countries in the 14th century, when the Julian calendar lagged behind the true time by 11 days, i.e., the day of the winter solstice fell on December 14.

Anna's Day (Finnish forms of the name - Anni, Annikki, Anneli, etc.) was considered the beginning of preparations for the Christmas holidays. There is numerous information that bread intended for Christmas was placed and kneaded on St. Annin’s day, and baked at night. The long night allowed us to bake two portions of bread. One of the breads, the “Christmas “bread,” was given the shape human face, it was then eaten on Christmas morning. On the night when bread was baked for Christmas, it was customary to go to neighbors to ask for “alms” in the form of pies. They gave it willingly and generously - it was believed that good luck in the future depended on this, especially in agriculture and fishing.

From December 21st, St. Thomas (Tuo-masa), began to prepare the room for Christmas. They washed and whitewashed the smoke-stained walls, hung ceiling crowns, prepared candles, etc. On this day in the evening, a small celebration was held: you could try Christmas beer, and often pork legs were served at the table - a delicacy. There was a saying: “Whoever doesn’t have Tuo-mas on Day, doesn’t have it on Christmas.” This day was sad for the traders - contracts with the owners of the land were ending. In some places that night they told fortunes. For example, in Karjala they stuck splinters into the snowdrifts, marked with the names of all the inhabitants of the house, and by the combustion they determined what awaited whom in the future.

Finally, on December 25th, Christmas came. Both the holiday and its name - joulu came to Finland from Sweden. Probably, initially the borrowing took the form of yuhla, which now generally means a holiday, but in Karjala this is the name of All Saints' Day, and in Pohjanmaa it is Christmas.

Among church holidays, Christmas turned out to be very persistent and important. This was undoubtedly facilitated by the timing of the celebration and the old traditions behind it. In many Central European countries, this was the “period of leveling off” and the beginning of the new year. Christmas coincided with the winter solstice, which determined the accuracy of the date. In Sweden at this time there was a celebration of the end of the harvest and threshing of bread and the beginning of the new year. It is the old traditions, previously associated with the day of kekri, the time of “alignment” of the solar year, etc., that explain much of the traditions of Christmas. Traditions such as fortune telling, predicting the weather for the whole year, magical actions to ensure the harvest and well-being of the herd, and even the family nature of the holiday - holding it without guests - in a word, the traditional features of Keuri were carried over to Christmas.

Christmas Eve did not have a special name - they simply said “Christmas Eve.” On this day they worked as on weekdays, but they tried to start work early, did it especially carefully, and ended the working day early. Already in the afternoon the bathhouse was heated, dinner was served early, many went to bed early so that they could go to church early in the morning.

As already mentioned, the room was prepared for the holiday in advance - and on Christmas Eve the floor was covered with straw. There could be no Christmas without a floor covered with straw. This custom was widespread throughout almost all of Finland. At the same time, the custom of covering the floor of the church with straw also persisted for a very long time. There were different rules in different localities regarding who brought the straw into the house and how it was to be spread.

But the main meaning of a floor covered with straw is a symbol of the harvest and ensuring a future harvest. Before spreading the straw, they threw it in handfuls up into the ceiling. If straw caught on the ceiling boards, which in the old days were made of split boards and therefore had a rough surface, this foreshadowed a good harvest. We tried to keep as much straw as possible hanging on the ceiling. Apparently, this custom also goes back to decorating the ceiling (usually above the table) with pyramidal crowns made of straw and splinters, which were common in other European countries.

In many places it was not allowed to tangle the straw with one's feet - this could lead to the grain falling on the field.

The straw usually remained on the floor throughout the Christmas holidays, from Christmas Eve to Epiphany or St. John's day. Sometimes it was changed in a certain order - for the New Year and for baptism, and for the New Year they laid barley straw, and for baptism - oatmeal, or vice versa.

Christmas decorations, along with straw crowns, included elaborate homemade wooden chandeliers for candles, and wooden crosses on a stand that were placed on the table.

The fir tree as a Christmas tree appeared very late in the Finnish village.

The evening meal on Christmas Eve was quite early. It gave food - usually bread and beer - to domestic animals.

In the old days, young people usually told fortunes on the night before Christmas - by the burning of a torch, by the behavior of animals, by the way a rooster brought into the hut pecked at the grain, they believed that they could guess their fate; believed in prophetic dreams that night, etc.

Both Christmas Eve and Christmas were spent with one's family; guests were considered undesirable, just as they were on Kekri Day. The only meeting with fellow villagers and other parishioners took place on Christmas morning in the church, the only noisy moment was the return from church - usually they raced horses: whoever made it home first was supposed to have good luck all year.

In the old days, food for Christmas began to be prepared in advance. When salting pork, they set aside the best cuts of meat for Christmas, and stocked up other products in advance - it was believed that food should not leave the table during the Christmas holidays. Even poor peasants tried their best to comply with this rule.

The second day of Christmas was St. Stephen (Finnish: Tapani), the first Christian martyr, who became the patron saint of horses in Finland. Obviously, this happened due to the coincidence in time of this saint’s Day with a pre-Christian holiday dedicated to the horse. In many places in Finland, it was on this day that a foal was harnessed for the first time, a young horse was ridden for the first time, etc. Horse racing was held almost everywhere on this day. In Southern Finland they still remember that Tapani's day used to begin with one of the young men riding into the living quarters on horseback and sitting on the horse while it ate a bucket of bran or oats. In many places, special “Tapani bread” was baked for this day, which was eaten before the start of the competition. In some places, only men ate Tapani bread, and this had to be done in the stable.

Various youth entertainments, games, and mummers appeared from Tapani. The mummers walked at any time from Stefan's day to Knut.

There were two kinds of them: “goats” and “star children”.

Among the mummers, called “whip goats”, “Christmas goats”, were various figures and animal masks. First of all, these were goats - people in fur coats turned upside down, with horns and tails, a “Christmas crane”, as well as a rider on a horse. Men dressed up as women, women as men, blackened their faces with soot, etc. The mummers walked from house to house, started games, acted out skits; they were treated.

The second group of mummers, the “star boys” or “Stephen’s boys,” are apparently borrowed from medieval mysteries. This procession walked with candles, one of the boys carried the Star of Bethlehem. The procession was attended by figures depicting King Herod, a soldier, and the “Arap king.” The traditions of walking “star children” were preserved mainly in Häme, as well as in the vicinity of Oulu and others.

According to ancient Finnish ideas, the central winter month was double. January and February were called big and small or first and second.

January was a relatively easy month for the peasant. In January, they continued to harvest timber, prepare fishing gear, and women spun and weaved.

The celebration of the New Year on January 1 was adopted by the Finns in the 16th century. Before this, as already mentioned, the year began after Michaelmas, gradually moved towards the end of October and at one time was apparently celebrated on November 1st. From the time the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1, the features characteristic of such a date passed to its eve and to the first day. On the eve they began to guess.

Just like before Christmas, the floor was covered with straw on New Year's Eve. On New Year's Day they used it to tell fortunes by throwing it up. If the straw caught on the poles, then this promised harvests.

Everyone had to behave with dignity on New Year's Day - as he did everything on this day, so it would be for the whole year. There were many signs associated with the weather on January 1st.

January 6 - baptism, which was called loppiainen, a term derived from the word “end”, i.e. in meaning - farewell to the Christmas days. Epiphany was not a big holiday in Finland, since everything connected with the end of the Christmas period was moved to Canute's Day (January 7 or 13. Canute's Day fell on January 7 until 1708, then was moved to January 13. According to tradition, it was that Knut's day is the end of the Christmas holidays; sometimes it simply depended on the welfare of the peasant to end them a week earlier - on January 7 or later - on the 13th.

On the day of Knut it was possible to begin ordinary work, but on this day

Some Christmas games were also taking place - the mummers, “Knut’s goats” or “Knut’s wanderers”, etc. again walked around. They went from house to house to “wash the barrels” - to finish the Christmas beer.

In a narrow way, we have seen that the Finnish folk calendar has steadily retained its characteristics of an agrarian calendar over the centuries. The latter were manifested in the fact that the year was divided into two halves according to the work - summer and winter, while spring and autumn were not particularly distinguished.

Conclusion

At the end of this work, we can say with complete confidence that Western European peoples attached great importance to holidays. Each holiday involved certain preparations for it, which could take longer than the holiday itself. And all the processes associated with festive preparation were surrounded by many signs and superstitions, which forced us to prepare for the holiday in this way and not otherwise.

In addition, the holiday, distracting people from everyday worries, family troubles, life difficulties, provided psychological relief, and spending time together and active communication created the illusion of equality of all people, albeit for a short time, and relieved social tension in society.

The holidays, to which many people flocked, also provided opportunities for boys and girls to choose a marriage partner, and joy and fun relieved the natural tension between young people.

It can also be said that all folk holidays were closely intertwined with church holidays, as a result of which they mixed and adjusted to each other.

Some ancient holidays have been integrated into modern Western European culture, and continue to exist to this day, thereby giving people a good and cheerful mood, a “holiday mood.”

Literature

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They try to make the wedding magnificent, but elegant, without vulgarities and unnecessary fuss. Many European wedding traditions are adopted by other countries to make the celebration just as elegant and stylish.

Many beautiful wedding traditions were borrowed from European countries. For people in England, Germany, France, Spain and other countries, marriage is a reverent and romantic event, which is intertwined with many customs and memorable moments.

The essence of the rituals

Peoples with a rich history have accumulated a whole storehouse of different traditions, signs and superstitions, some of which relate specifically to weddings. Whatever the culture of the country, marriage is given special role, and since ancient times there have been special procedures for its preparation and conduct.

Many of the wedding traditions in Europe were forgotten, others were modified, and only a small part has survived to this day in its original state. With the advent of Christianity, the isolated features of peoples began to be forgotten, and in the customs of different cultures they began to appear general patterns. This does not mean that people lost their individuality - they only interpreted the same faith.

Now even those wedding rituals in Europe that have been preserved from ancient times can rarely be seen at holidays. Conservative Europeans, too, began to give preference to holding the celebration.

Old customs can be found only in cases where the bride and groom want to pay tribute to their ancestors, and even then such rituals are only a formality and do not carry any sacred meaning.

Most often, the observance of wedding traditions can be found if the future newlyweds decide to organize their wedding in a specific style.

For example, French, and are popular.

Among all European countries, the richest in customs related to marriage are England, Greece, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Ireland and Sweden. Most often, stylized weddings are organized in accordance with these concepts.

In England, for example, a bride must wear four mandatory things to her wedding - something new (the dress itself, underwear), something old (family jewelry, shoes), something borrowed from a friend or relative (clutch, bracelet) and something blue (garter, hairpin). It is believed that in this case the girl will attract good luck and favor from higher powers. According to another English tradition, a little girl from among those invited to the wedding walks ahead of the bride and strews her path with rose petals.

In Greece, there is a wonderful custom of presenting gifts to guests, and they are purchased with money from the groom’s family. Another wedding tradition in Europe is the wedding, which takes place on Sunday, and on Friday they bake bread, showering flour on everyone who wants to receive a little happiness and good luck. Children invited to the celebration are given a special role - they are allowed to jump on the newlyweds’ bed so that they have many strong and healthy children.

In Germany, there is a wonderful custom: when newlyweds get married, they drink a glass of wine together. The groom drinks first, then the bride, after which she throws the glass behind her. If it breaks, the spouses will face a long and happy life. According to another tradition, any of the male guests may try to “steal” the hero of the occasion during the banquet. If he succeeds, he will have as many as three dances with the bride.

Wedding planner

In order to create an unusual and bright atmosphere at a wedding, in addition to external similarity with the style, you can also adopt some wedding traditions of European countries.

Elena Sokolova

Reader

Most European traditions are aimed at bringing happiness, good luck, financial well-being and healthy children into the married life of young people.

Karina

Many Italian customs are observed to this day. For example, the custom of carrying the bride over the threshold of the family home in his arms originated in this country. The Italians also came up with the name for the honeymoon - back in Ancient Rome, newlyweds drank honey for 30 days after the wedding to make their life together sweet and enjoyable.

Interesting! An Italian groom asks his beloved's hand from her mother, not her father. If you are planning a European wedding, you can follow the tradition.

In Spain, despite the ardent nature of its inhabitants, young people who decided to get married were treated strictly. After the engagement, the bride and groom were under constant surveillance; the most they were allowed was to hold hands, and then not in public.

The Spaniards created their own male and female communities, one might say, according to their interests. Then such groups intersected with each other, and the girls could meet the boys, and the main criterion for choosing the second half on both sides was thriftiness.

The Irish are used to celebrating weddings on a royal scale. It is noteworthy that matchmaking in most cases takes place in early January, as lovers try to get married before Maslenitsa. Then Lent begins, and according to the laws of this country it is impossible to have a wedding.

An interesting tradition in Ireland is the “Aitin Gander” ritual. On the appointed day, the groom comes to the house of the bride's parents, where the young man is treated to baked goose. Everyone involved in organizing the wedding, including the priest, is invited to the party, and everyone discusses pressing issues related to preparing the celebration.

Sweden has fairly loose wedding traditions. Girls and boys met at dances on weekends, after which the latter accompanied their chosen ones home and did not hesitate to stay overnight. Because of this, weddings often took place when the bride was already pregnant, or even after the birth of the child. It is interesting that society did not condemn this, but, on the contrary, supported it, because it served as proof that the girl was healthy and capable of giving her husband heirs.

Interesting! Find out what they are. This could be a nightmare...

Other countries

There are no less interesting and funny traditions in other European countries. If desired, such customs can be observed at your own wedding in order to surprise the guests and make the celebration individual.

For example, there are the following traditions associated with marriage.

Such customs do not bring anything bad, so if you want to bring them to life, you can safely experiment.

Intersections with Russian customs

In every culture, a wedding will acquire new details and customs borrowed from other peoples. The most striking confirmation of this is that it is believed that the unmarried girl who catches him will be the next to marry.

Previously, there was no such tradition in Rus', although it was similar in meaning. All the girls who had not yet started a family danced around the newlywed, and she closed her eyes and spun in the opposite direction. Whoever she points to when she stops will be the one she will marry next. And by the way, Russian girls never gave the bouquet to anyone, keeping it in the family for good luck.

Interestingly, in many European countries and in Russia there is a similar The parents of the newlyweds bring fire from their home to help the newlyweds light their own. IN modern interpretation the hearth is replaced with ordinary candles, since not everyone even has a fireplace.

If a European wedding is being organized, traditions and customs make it possible to make the celebration elegant and romantic. Many couples strive to plan their wedding in the Western style, avoiding vulgar ransoms, vulgar competitions and other inappropriate events. Such customs will not only diversify the celebration, but also make it memorable for guests.

Seminar 1.

Art and religion of the ancient world

(2 hours)

1. Art of the Creto-Mycenaean period.

2. Art of the Homeric period.

3. The art of classical Greece.

4. Hellenistic art.

5. Art of Ancient Rome. Republic and Empire.

Seminar 2.

Art of Medieval Western Civilization

(2 hours)

1. Early medieval art (V – X centuries).

2. Art of the Romanesque period (XI - first half of the XII centuries). Romanesque style (1050-1150); Rhenish-Romanesque style (1200-1250); late Rhenish-Romanesque style (1250-1300).

3. Gothic (second half of the 12th century - 15th century). Early Gothic (1223-1314); High Gothic (1314-1422); late (“flaming”) Gothic (1422-1453).

Seminar 3.

Culture and art of the East

(2 hours)

1. Ancient and medieval China. Culture, art, religion.

2. Ancient and medieval Japan. Culture, art, religion.

3. Ancient and medieval India. Culture, art, religion.

Seminar 4.

French Renaissance and Northern Renaissance

(2 hours)

1. Dutch Renaissance. Humbert and Jan van Eyck. Hugo van der Goes. Hans Mamling. Bosch. Pieter Bruegel the Elder.

2. German Renaissance. Albrecht Durer. Hans Holbein the Younger.

3. French Renaissance. Jean Fouquet. Jean and Francois Clouet. Jean Goujon. Germaine Pilon.

Seminar 5.

Music in the history of Western European civilization

(2 hours)

1. Musical art of Renaissance Europe and the church. Giovanni Pierluigi de Palestrina.

2. Music of the Baroque era. Girolamo Frescobaldi. Jean Baptiste Lully. Antonio Vivaldi. George Frideric Handel. Johann Sebastian Bach.

3. Classical music of Europe of the second half of the 18th century. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Ludwig van Beethoven.

4. Classical music of Europe of the 19th century. Franz Liszt. Johann Strauss.

5. Opera art of Europe. Composers. Operas. Performers. Librettists. Gioachino Rossini. Richard Wagner. Georges Bizet. Giuseppe Verdi. Giacomo Puccini.

Seminar 6-7.

Theater and cinema in European culture of the 17th-20th centuries.

(4 hours)

1. European theater of the 17th-18th centuries: plays, authors, actors. Theatrical tradition and dramaturgy. Changes in the theater of Europe in the 19th century. Democratization of the theater.

2. The origin of cinema in Europe - from art to industry (1896-1918).

Brothers Auguste and Louis Lumières. The first film studios in France and Germany. Georges Méliès and innovation in cinema.

3. Cinematography of Europe in the interwar and war periods (1918-1945).

4. Modern European cinema: genres, studios, actors, directors. Film festivals in Europe and their role in the film industry.

Watching a movie.

Seminar 8.

History of costume and its role in the history of European civilization (2 hours)

1. Changes in the costume of the aristocracy from the Middle Ages to modern times.

2. The appearance of the common people in the Middle Ages and modern times.

3. History of professional costume. Clergy, military, doctors, etc.

4. History of European costume in the bourgeois era. XIX – early XX centuries. The influence of the Industrial Revolution on changes in the costume of Europeans.

5. History of fashion houses of the 19th – 20th centuries.

6. Changes in the external appearance of Europeans in the twentieth century.

Seminar 9.

National traditions and holidays of European peoples

(2 hours)

1. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of Western European countries: emergence, change, regional and confessional characteristics (England, France, Germany, Spain, Italy).

2. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of the countries of the East: emergence, change, regional and confessional characteristics (India, China, Japan, etc.).

3. State, religious and folk traditions and holidays of the peoples of America (North American, Meso-American, South American - historical and modern).

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Chatterjee S., Datta D. Indian philosophy. – M., 1994.

Yuan Ke. – Myths of ancient China. – M., 1987.

Yu Dong, Zhong Fan, Lin Xiaolin. Chinese culture. – Beijing, 2004.

Music:

100 operas. History of creation. Plot. Music. 8th edition. L., 1987.

General history of art. T.2. M., 1960.

Gachev G.D. National images of the world. M., 1998.

Druskin M.S. Story foreign music. M.. 1963.

Zubareva L.A. History of the development of music. M.. 2006.

History of foreign music. M., 2005.

Korotkov S.A. History of modern music. M., 1996.

Livanova T. History of Western European music. In 2 volumes. M., 1982.

Theater:

Anikst A.A. Theory of drama from Aristotle to Lessing. M.. 1967.

Anikst A.A. Drama theory in the West in the first half of the 19th century: the era of Romanticism. M., 1980.

Anikst A.A. Theory of drama in the West in the second half of the 19th century. M.. 1988.

Brecht B. About the experimental theater. "Small Organon" for the theater. Collection Op. in 5 volumes. M., 1965.

Goldoni K. Memoirs. M., 1933.

Zola E. Naturalism in the theater. Collection Op. in 26 volumes. T. 26. M., 1966.

History of Western European theater. In 8 vols. M., 1956-1988.

Karelsky A.V. Drama of German romanticism. M., 1992.

Coquelin Sr. The art of the actor. L., 1937.

Molodtsova M.M. Commedia dell'arte. History and modern fate. L., 1990.

Obraztsova A.G. Bernard Shaw and European theatrical culture at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. M., 1974.

Theater encyclopedia in 5 volumes. M., 1961-1967.

Reader on the history of Western European theater. In 2 volumes. M.. 1955.

Show B. About drama and theater. M., 1963.

Aesthetic ideas in the history of foreign theater. Sat. scientific works. L., 1991.

Cinema:

Abramov N. Expressionism in cinema / In collection. "Expressionism". – M., 1966.
Bozhovich V.I. About the “New Wave” in French cinema / Questions of cinema, v.8. – M., 1964.
Bozhovich V. Modern Western film directors. – M.: Nauka, 1972.

Vlasov M. Types and genres of cinema. M., 1976.

Dobrotvorsky S. Cinema by touch. St. Petersburg, 2001.
Jankola J.-P. Cinema of France (1958-1978). The Fifth Republic. – M., 1984.
Silent film stars. – M.: Art, 1968.
History of foreign cinema (1945-2000). – M.: Progress-Tradition.
Kartseva E. Western: the evolution of the genre. – M., 1975.
Cinema of Great Britain/Collection of articles. – M.: Art, 1970. – 358 pp., 32 sheets. ill.
Cinema of Italy: Neorealism / Trans. from Italian, comp. and comm. G.D. Bohemian. – M.: Art, 1989.
Claire R. Cinema yesterday, cinema today. / Per. from fr. T.V.Ivanova and L.M. Zavyalova; foreword by S.I. Yutkevich. – M.: Progress, 1981.
Kolodyazhnaya I., Trutko I. History of foreign cinema. 1929-1945 – M.: Art, 1970.
Komarov S. History of foreign cinema. Silent movie. – M.: Art, 1965.
Comedians of the world screen / General ed. R. Yureneva. – M., 1966.
Krakauer Z. Psychological history of German cinema: From Caligari to Hitler / Trans. from English – M.: Art, 1977.
Markulan Y. Foreign film detective. – L.: Art, 1975.
Markulan Y. Film melodrama. Horror film. – L.: Art, 1978.

Mitta A. Cinema between hell and heaven: cinema based on Eisenstein, Chekhov, Shakespeare, Kurosawa, Fellini, Hitchcock, Tarkovsky. M., EKSMO-Press, 2002.

Sadoul J. General history of cinema: In 6 volumes. M.. 1959-1980.

Director's Encyclopedia of European Cinema. – M.: Mainland, Research Institute of Cinematography, 2002.

Teplitz E. History of cinema. In 4 vols. M.. 1968-1974.

Everyday life:

Tutorials:

Chikalov R.A., Chikalova I.R. New history of European countries and the USA. 1815-1918 M., 2005.

Fiction:

Balzac O. de. Collected works.

Bronte S. Jane Eyre.

Hardy T. Works.

Goldoni K. Comedies.

Gauthier T. Works.

Diderot D. Works.

Dickens Ch. Collected Works.

Dafoe D. The joys and sorrows of the famous Moll Flanders.

Zola E. Collected Works.

Calderon P. Works.

Conan Doyle A. The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.

La Rochefoucauld S. Aphorisms.

Laclau, C. de. Dangerous ties.

Lesage A.-R. Lame demon. Gilles Blas.

Lope de Vega. Plays.

Mann T. Buddenbrooks. The story of the death of one family.

Moliere J.-B. Plays.

Montesquieu S.-L. Essays.

Maugham S. Theatre. Pies and beer. Essays.

Tirso de Molina. Plays.

Thackeray W. Vanity Fair.

Osten J. Collected Works.

Sand J. Collected Works.

Steel J. de. Essays.

Stendhal. Parma monastery. Red and black. Essays.

Wilde O. Portrait of Drian Gray.

Chamfort. Aphorisms and anecdotes.

Flaubert G. Works.

Elliot D. Works.

And others…

Historiography:

Abrams L. Formation of the European woman of the new era. 1789-1918. M., 2011

Aizenshtat M. British Parliament and Society in the 30-40s. 19th century. M., 1998.

Aries F. Man in the face of death. M., 1992.

Aries F. Child and family life under the old order. Ekaterinburg, 1999

Bazin J. Baroque and Rococo. M., 2001.

Badenter R. Free and equal: the emancipation of the Jews during the French Revolution. 1789-1791. M., 1997.

Bebel A. Woman and socialism. M., 1959.

Blaze A. History in costumes from pharaoh to dandy. M., 2001.

Beauvoir S. The Second Sex. M, 1997.

Bryson W. Political theory feminism. M., 2001.

Brion M. Everyday life in Vienna during the times of Mozart and Schubert. M., 2004.

Braudel F. What is France? T. 1-2. M., 1994.

Braudel F. Material civilization. M., 1989.

Brun R. History of costume: from antiquity to modern times. M., 1995.

Budur N. History of costume. M., 2002.

Vasilchenko A.V. Fashion and fascism. 1933-1945. M., 2009.

Weber M. Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism. M., 2000

Weiss G. History of civilization. Architecture. Armament. Cloth. Utvar M., 1998.

Glagoleva E.V. The daily life of European students from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment. M., 2014.

Grigorieva T.S. Everyday culture. T. 2. Private life and morals from the Middle Ages to the present day. M., 2006.

Gordin Y. A. Duels and duelists. St. Petersburg, 1996.

Gordienko M.P., Smirnov P.M. From a cart to a car. Alma-Ata, 1990.

Gurevich E.L. History of foreign music. M., 2000.

Decroisette F. Everyday life in Venice during the time of Goldoni. M., 2004.

Defurno M. Everyday life in Spain during the golden age. M., 2004.

Dittrich T. Everyday life in Victorian England. M., 2004.

European art XIX V. M., 1975.

European monarchs past and present. M., 2001

Yodike Yu. History of modern architecture. M., 1972.

Ermilova D.Yu. History of fashion houses. M., 2003.

Woman in society: myths and realities. M., 2001.

Zabludovsky P.E. History of medicine. M., 1953.

Zbrozhek E.V. Victorianism in the context of everyday culture // News of the Ural State University. 2005, No. 35. P. 28.

Zeldin T. All about the French. XX century. M., 1989.

Zider R. Social history of the family in Western and Central Europe. M., 1997.

Zuikova E.M., Eruslanova R.I., Feminology and gender politics. M., 2007

Zyumtor M. Everyday life of the Netherlands under Rembrandt. M., 2003.

Ivanov A.Yu. Daily life of the French under Napoleon. M., 2013.

History of medicine. M., 1981.

History of foreign music. M., 1989.

Karpova E.S. Medicine in the Republic of St. Mark in the 18th century. Based on materials from the Venetian press // New and recent history. 2003. No. 1. P.210.

Kelly K. The Royal Family of England. T.1-2. M., 1999.

Kertman L.I. History of culture of European and American countries. 1870-1917. M., 1987.

Combo I. History of Paris. M., 2002.

Komissarzhevsky V.P. History of the costume. M., 1997.

Coty E. Women of Victorian England. M., 2013

Coty E. Bad old England. M., 2012.

Kuzmin M.K. History of medicine. M., 1978.

Clout H. History of London. M., 2002.

Koroleva T.V. Women's movement during the French Revolution. //Metamorphoses of history. Pskov, 1999.

Cawthorne N. Intimate life English Kings and Queens: a frank and hard-hitting account of the facts and lives of monarchs from Henry VIII to the present day. M., 1999.

Craig G. The Germans. M., 1999.

Crespel J.-P. Everyday life of Montmartre during the time of Picasso. 1900-1910. M., 2000.

Crespel J. - P. Everyday life of Montparnasse in the great era. 1905 – 1930. M., 2000.

Labutina T.L. The upbringing and education of an Englishwoman in the 17th century. M., 2003.

Levik B.V. Musical literature foreign countries. M., 1990.

Lenotre J. Everyday life of Versailles under the kings. M., 2003.

Lenotre J. Everyday life in Paris during the Great Revolution. M.. 2012.

Lieven D. Aristocracy in Europe 1815-1914. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Lyubart M.G. Family in French society XVIII-beginning XX century. M., 2005

Martin - Fugier A. Elegant life, or How “all Paris” came into being. 1815-1848. M., 1998.

Matveev V.A. Passion of power, power of passion: a historical narrative about the morals of the royal court of England in the 16th-20th centuries. M., 1997.

World Art. M., 2001.

Mitford N. Court life in the era of absolutism. Smolensk, 2003.

Michel D. Vatel and the birth of gastronomy. M., 2002.

Monter W. Ritual, myth and magic in early modern Europe. M., 2003.

Montanari M. Hunger and abundance. History of food in Europe. M., 2009.

Nunn J. History of Costume. 1200-2000. M., 2003.

Nobility in the history of Old Europe. St. Petersburg, 2009.

Nosik B.M. Walks around Paris, or French Treasure Island. M., 2003.

Ogger G. Tycoons. M., 1991.

Olivova V. People and games: at the origins of modern sports. M., 1984.

Pavlov N.V. History of modern Germany. M., 2003.

Paquet D. History of beauty. M., 2003

Parkhomenko I.T. , Radugin A.A. History of world and domestic culture. M., 2002.

Pavlovskaya A.V. England and the British. M., 2004.

Plaksina E.B., Mikhailovskaya L.A. History of the costume. Styles and directions. M., 2004.

Picard. L. Victorian London. M., 2007.

Poltoratskaya N.I. Big Adventure well-bred girl: books of memoirs of Simone de Beauvoir. St. Petersburg, 1992.

Popov N.V. Dynastic marriages and “marriage diplomacy” in Western Europe in the 17th - 18th centuries. //New and recent history. 1998. No. 6; 2000. No. 2,3; 2001. No. 6.

Religion and culture. St. Petersburg, 2000.

Repina P.P. Women and men in history. A new picture of the European past. M., 2002.

Sobolev D.A. History of aircraft: the initial period. M., 1995.

Sobolev D.A. The birth of the aircraft: first projects and designs. M., 1998.

Sorokin P. Social and cultural dynamics.

Stolbov V.V. History of physical culture. M., 1989.

Trevelyan J.M. Social history of England. A survey of six centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria. M., 1959.

Tressider J. Dictionary of symbols. M., 2001.

Trunsky Yu.G. French village of the 19th-20th centuries. M., 1986.

Wilson K. Tea with Jane Austen. M.. 2013.

Waller M. London. 1700. Smolensk, 2003.

Urlanis B.Ts. History of military losses. Wars and population of Europe 17th-20th centuries. St. Petersburg, 1994.

Uspenskaya V.I. Women's salons in Europe in the 17th – 18th centuries. //Women. Story. Society. M., 2003. P. 171.

Fedorova E.V. Paris. Centuries and people from the foundation of the city to the Eiffel Tower. M., 2000.

Feminism: East. West. Russia. M., 1993.

“Philosophy and Life”, No. 1, 4, 11. 1991.

Fuchs E. Illustrated history of morals. Renaissance era. M., 1993.

Fuchs E. Illustrated history of morals. Gallant century. M., 1994.

Fuchs E. Illustrated history of morals. Bourgeois age. M., 1994.

Foucault M. History of madness in the classical era. St. Petersburg, 1997.

Hobsbawm E. Century of Revolutions. 1789-1848. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Hobsbawm E. The Age of Capital. 1848-1875. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Hobsbawm E. Century of Empire. 1875-1914. Rostov-on-Don, 1999.

Harold R. Costumes of the peoples of the world. M., 2002.

Show B. About music. M., 2000.

Chernov S. Baker Street and surrounding areas. M., 2013.

Chkhartishvili G. Cemetery stories. M., 2004.

Scherr I. Germany: History of civilization for 2000 years. Minsk, 2005.

Schiffer B. Women of Vienna in European culture (1750-1950). St. Petersburg, 1996.

Shonu P. Civilization of classical Europe. M., 2005.

Shonu P. Civilization of Enlightenment. M., 2008.

Elias N. Court society. Studies on the sociology of the king and the court aristocracy. M., 2002

Yanson H.V. Fundamentals of Art History. St. Petersburg, 1996.

Encyclopedias:

Encyclopedia of rituals and customs. St. Petersburg, 1997.

Encyclopedia card games. M., 1995.

Encyclopedia of death. M., 1993.

Lecture No. 9-10.

Germans. Self-name - Deutsche. The main population of Germany. The total number is about 86 million people. There are numerous groups of Germans in the USA, Canada, Kazakhstan, Russian Federation, Brazil. The Germans speak German, a language belonging to the Germanic group of the Indo-European family. There are two groups of German dialects – Low German and High German. Writing based on the Latin alphabet. Believers are Protestants, mostly Lutherans and Catholics.

The basis of the German ethnos was made up of ancient Germanic associations of Franks, Saxons, Bavarians, and Alemanni, who in the first centuries mixed with the Celtic population in the southwest and south of Germany and with the Rhets in the Alps. The centuries-old political fragmentation of Germany hampered the development of the Germans as a single people. For several centuries, the ethnic history of the Germans proceeded in two ways: the process of development of the nationalities that had emerged in the early Middle Ages continued - Bavarian, Saxon, Swabian, Franconian and others, and at the same time, cultural features common to all Germans took shape. At the beginning of the 16th century. The process of consolidation manifested itself primarily in the creation of a single German literary language based on the Saxon dialect, but there was a religious split of the Germans into Catholics and Protestant Lutherans, which led to some differences in everyday life and culture. Only in the second half of the 18th century. The process of development of German self-awareness accelerated. In 1871, Germany was unified under the auspices of Prussia. At the end of the 19th century. The German nation was formed, although the cultural identity of the population of individual lands was preserved. Germans living in other countries have retained regional self-names - Bavarians, Swabians, Saxons, Franconians, etc.

Germany was characterized by frame construction technology, only in the south and in the former Slavic regions - log construction. Among traditional rural buildings, 4 types of houses can be distinguished. The Low German house is a one-story rectangular frame building with residential and utility rooms under one roof. The yard has a threshing floor in the middle, with cattle stalls on either side. From the end of the 19th century. The layout of the Low German house changed significantly. The fireplace was replaced by a fireplace, the living space was divided into several rooms, and outbuildings were separated from the living spaces. The Central German house is frame, two-story, with a living part on the lower floor, utility rooms on the upper floor, and later bedrooms. In addition to the open fireplace, there was a stove in the living room. The boundary between Low German and Middle German types coincides with the boundary between Low German and Central German dialects. In the south of Germany in Upper Bavaria, the Alpine house predominates, also characteristic of the Austrians. Local features can also be traced in the decoration of furniture and household items1. In the north, carving predominated, in the south - painting.

German traditional clothing begins to take shape in the 16th and 17th centuries. based on medieval clothing elements and urban fashion. The main elements of a woman's costume are a bodice or jacket, a gathered skirt, in Hesse - several skirts of different lengths made of thick woolen fabric, and an apron. They often wore a shoulder scarf. Headdresses were particularly diverse. - scarves tied in a variety of ways, caps and straw hats of various shapes. In the 19th century Leather boots with buckles spread, in some places until the 20th century. wore wooden shoes. The traditional men's costume consisted of a shirt, short knee-length or long pants, a sleeveless jacket, a neckerchief, shoes or boots. In the 19th-20th centuries. The so-called Tyrolean costume spread - a white shirt with a turn-down collar, short leather pants with suspenders, a red cloth vest, a wide leather belt, knee-length stockings, shoes, a hat with narrow brims and a feather.

In food, regional differences are largely determined by the direction of the economy. In the north, potatoes and rye bread predominate, in the south – wheat bread and flour products. Dairy and meat dishes are more common among Swabians and Bavarians, although sausages and sausages are considered a common German food. The most common drink is beer. Among non-alcoholic drinks, they prefer coffee with cream and tea. Pork's head with sauerkraut, stewed cabbage, goose, and carp are prepared as holiday food. They bake a lot of confectionery. Confitures are being prepared.

From the end 19th century Among the Germans, a small family with 1-2 children prevailed. In urban families, several years sometimes passed between engagement and wedding until the young couple acquired their own home. In peasant families, the marriage of the eldest son was also delayed due to the division of the farm - after his wedding, the parents moved to a separate residential part of the estate.

Austrians. The main population of Austria. They speak the Austrian version of German. Believers are predominantly Catholic.

The basis of the Austrian ethnos was made up of the ancient Germanic tribes of the Alemanni and Bavarians, who in the 6th century came to the territory of modern Austria and merged with the early Romanized population - Celts, Rhets, and in Styria and Carinthia with the Slavs, mainly with the Slovenes, who came to this territory almost simultaneously with the Germans. The inclusion of these territories into the Frankish state contributed to the further Germanization of the local population. The spread of Protestantism in the 16th century contributed to the separation of Catholic Austrians from Protestant Germans.

More than half of Austrians live in cities. The territory of Austria can be divided into two parts - the urbanized Danube lowland and the Alps and their foothills, where the main occupation is Alpine livestock farming. This division can also be traced in material culture. On the plain, multi-yard settlements with a cumulus or street layout are common, in the mountains there are small villages with a cumulus layout and hamlets. The Central German type of house is common in Upper and Lower Austria. For the Tyrol and other high-mountainous regions, an alpine house is typical - a stone, or less often log-frame, two-story building that combines residential and utility rooms under one flat roof. Often the lower floors are built of stone, the upper floors of wood. There is a passage around the walls of the second floor open gallery with wooden railings decorated with carvings. Differences in cuisine are associated with the nature of the economy - residents of mountainous areas consume more dairy products, while residents of lowland areas consume flour products and sweets.

Local variations of Austrian folk clothing are very diverse. The traditional clothing of the Tyroleans, which is often identified with the folk costume of the Austrians in general, is leather short pants, stockings and shoes, a white shirt with a turn-down collar, a vest, a jacket, and a hat with a feather. They wore a wide leather embroidered belt. The main elements of the Austrian women's folk costume are a jacket, a gathered skirt, a corsage, an apron, and shoulder scarves.

The Austrians have preserved the remnants of a rural community - in some places part of the Alpine pastures and forests is public property. Youth unions remain in villages

Swiss. The group of peoples that make up the main population of Switzerland. Includes German-Swiss, French-Swiss, Italian-Swiss and Retro-Romans. The German-Swiss live mainly in the northern, north-eastern and central cantons, speak the Swiss version of the German language, are mainly Calvinist Protestants, and there are Catholics. The French-Swiss inhabit mainly the western and southwestern regions, speak French dialects, the literary language is French, the majority are Calvinist Protestants, and there are Catholics. The Italian-Swiss live mainly in the southern regions, speak Italian, and are predominantly Catholic. The Retro-Romans are a group of peoples - the Friuli and Ladins in Italy and the Romans in Switzerland. They speak a retro-Romance language of the Romance group of the Indo-European family. The term retro-romances spread in the mid-19th century. based on ideas about a single retro-romantic ethnic community and retro-Romance proto-language. In modern science, the prevailing opinion is about the heterogeneous origin of the Retro-Romans, especially the Friuls.

The population of Switzerland, especially those living in contact areas, as well as in industrial and resort centers, is bilingual and trilingual. The oldest inhabitants of Switzerland mentioned in written sources were the Celtic tribe Helvetii and the ancestors of modern Retro-Romans - the Rets. Roman colonization of the territory of modern Switzerland in the 1st century. BC. led to the Romanization of its population. As a result of conquests by Germanic tribes in the 5th century. The foundations of modern ethnic division were laid. The western part was occupied by the Burgundians, from whose mixing with the Romanized Celtic population came the ancestors of the modern French-Swiss. The conquest of the southern regions by the Lombards connected them with Lombardy and led to the formation of the Italian-Swiss here. The north and center were subjugated by the Alemanni, who Germanized the local population. Following the Frankish conquest and the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, Switzerland was divided between the East Frankish, West Frankish, and Lothair states, roughly corresponding to the later distribution of German-, French-, and Italian-speaking populations.

Modern Swiss people are mainly employed in highly developed industry and the tourism industry. Traditional farming is dairy farming (in the alpine zone – transhumance). Material and spiritual culture has many local variations depending on ethnic and geographical conditions. Large villages are common on the plateau, and small and single-yard settlements are common in mountainous areas. Traditional rural housing has several types. In the Alps, the so-called Senograd (Alpine) house is common, with a kitchen and livestock premises on the lower stone floor and residential upper log floors. The French-Swiss were characterized by a one-story stone dwelling under a gable roof supported by a central row of pillars. In Valais, four and five-story buildings are common, serving as housing for several families. Retro-Romanes are characterized by the so-called Engadine house - a large two-story stone building with a central room where household work is carried out, equipment is stored, and food is prepared. Features of mountain buildings include the arched structure of the lower floors, loggias, and closed courtyards. The traditional costume of the Swiss has various regional differences. The general features of a men's suit are trousers slightly below the knees, a white linen shirt with a turn-down collar, a vest and a jacket. Also characteristic is a blue linen blouse with a round collar and a fastener on one shoulder - burgundy. On holidays - black velvet blouses with embroidery on the shoulders and around the collar. Women's clothing consists of a skirt, jacket, bodice and apron. A headscarf was often worn on the head; in the Romanesque part, straw hats were worn; a lace cap served as a festive headdress. Festive clothes were made of silk and velvet and decorated with embroidery.

Traditional Swiss food, preserved mainly in rural areas, shows regional differences. The inhabitants of the Alps consumed more dairy products, especially cheese, as early as the 19th century. replacing bread here. In the mountainous regions they eat many dishes made from corn, while the inhabitants of Mittelland do not eat corn, considering it feed for livestock.

Luxembourgers. The main population of Luxembourg. They also live in Italy, Germany, and France. The total number is 300 thousand people. They speak Luxembourgish, a language of the Germanic group of the Indo-European family. German and French are also common languages. Writing based on the Latin alphabet. The overwhelming number of believers are Catholics, there are Protestants.

In 1 thousand BC. e. The territory of Luxembourg was inhabited by Celtic tribes, which were Romanized during Roman rule. In the 5th century the territory of modern Luxembourg was captured by the Germanic Frankish tribes, who assimilated the local population. Ethnic consolidation was facilitated by the emergence of statehood - the county of Luxembourg, and from 14 - the duchy.

Rural houses are stone, two-story, with tiled or slate roofs and whitewashed walls. Characteristic musical folklore– even small villages have their own orchestras.

Walloons. A people in Belgium, in the historical region of Wallonia. They speak French. The Walloon dialect of French is preserved only among the Walloons living in the wooded spurs of Ardeny. Believing Catholics.

The Walloons are descendants of the Celts, mainly the Belgae, who lived in the south of modern Belgium and adjacent areas of France and were Romanized after their conquest by Rome. In 1830, together with the Flemings, they created the Belgian state, and the processes of national consolidation intensified.

The ethnic territory of the Walloons is divided into the northern - flat with a predominance of agriculture and small villages and the southern - mountainous, where cattle breeding predominates, villages are larger, but sparsely located. Most modern Walloons live in cities, including large agglomerations.

The culture and life of the Walloons has much in common with the northeastern groups of the French. IN rural areas The predominant type of house is with an enclosed yard. Old buildings are mostly frame; 1-2-story stone houses are common, with strips of white brick running along the walls, white stone trim and doorways. Metal weather vanes are often made on the roofs of houses, usually with images of roosters. The interior of the houses is characterized by a dark tiled fireplace, beds are located in wall niches. Traditional clothing for women is a narrow long striped skirt, a dark apron, a scarf, crossed on the chest, and a wide-brimmed hat or small scarf on the head. Many Walloons, like the French, wear a beret and a long work blouse, mainly of blue color. The basis of traditional food is potato, vegetable and cereal dishes; fish is consumed more often than meat.

Dutch. The self-name is Holanders, the main population of the Netherlands. Population - about 14 million. They speak the Dutch (Dutch) language of the Germanic group of the Indo-European family. The language has several groups of dialects. Writing based on the Latin alphabet. The majority of believers are Protestants, mainly Calvinists and adherents of the Dutch Reformed Church. Catholics are the second largest religious group.

In the 2nd half. 1st millennium BC The lands of the modern Netherlands were inhabited mainly by Celts. By the beginning of AD Germanic tribes, mainly Frisians and Batavians, moved there in the 3rd-4th centuries. the Germanic tribes of the Saxons and Franks assimilated the Celts and Batavians, and only in the north of the Netherlands did independent Frisians remain. The formation of a new ethnic community - the Dutch, which originated in the provinces of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, dates back to the late 15th - early 16th centuries and is associated with the unification of disparate provinces under the general name of the Netherlands. In the second half of the 20th century. There has been a process of consolidation of the three related peoples of the Netherlands - the Dutch, living mainly in the northern, central and eastern provinces of the country, the Flemings, inhabiting the southern provinces, and the Frisians, concentrated in the north in the provinces of Friesland and Groningen, into a single Dutch epic. However, with the revival of the Frisian national movement, the growth of centrifugal forces intensified.

The Dutch are employed in highly developed industry, agriculture and the service sector. Traditional areas of agriculture are livestock farming, field farming, vegetable growing, horticulture and floriculture, which brought the Dutch world fame. The “Tulip Boom” swept Holland back in the 17th century. These days, greenhouses for growing flowers occupy more than 40 million square meters. meters. Fishing has a long tradition.

Most of the Dutch are concentrated in cities. In terms of population density, the Netherlands holds first place in Europe and third in the world, behind Bangladesh and Taiwan. The Netherlands is a country of ancient urban culture. Some cities trace their origins to Roman settlements. Rural settlements of the traditional type are preserved - farmsteads, cumulus and ordinary villages located along the banks of rivers, canals, and on large dams. For many centuries, the Dutch have been conquering land areas - polders - from the sea. Currently, the province of Flevoland, with a population of more than 180 thousand people, is entirely located on drained and developed lands. Already 2 thousand ago in the Netherlands, artificial hills began to be built - terpenes, on which people escaped during floods. After 10 centuries, protective dams appeared on the sea coast; the word “dam” - dam, is included in the names of many cities (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Zaandam). The entire country is cut through by a dense network of canals. Numerous windmills, which drove pumps to pump water from the polders, used them to saw the forest and grind grain, give a special flavor to the rural landscape. Some wind turbines continue to operate, others are used for museums, cafes, and housing, remaining a unique symbol of the country.

The main food is vegetables, fish, dairy products, primarily cheese. They eat little bread, replacing it with boiled potatoes. There is a variety of confectionery products, Dutch beer has excellent taste, and the Dutch are known for their commitment to coffee.

Flemings. People in northern Belgium, southern Netherlands and northern France. They speak southern Dutch. Believers are mostly Catholics.

The Flemings are related to the Dutch. The ethnic basis was made up of Frankish, Frisian and Saxon tribes. The Flemings formed the basis of the population of the county of Flanders, one of the most economically developed regions of Europe in the Middle Ages.

Traditional settlements Flemings - nearby farmsteads. A common type of house is the so-called house with a long gable, combining residential and utility rooms into one elongated building. There is also a house with an enclosed courtyard. Flemish houses are usually plastered and painted white, pink or yellow colors. Wooden roof ridge decorations in the form of swan heads are typical. Women's traditional clothing is similar to Dutch - a linen shirt with hangers, a linen jacket, a dark bodice, several wide skirts, an apron, a long jacket with a peplum, a large fringed shawl, a black silk scarf with fringes, fluffy lace caps with decorations from artificial flowers, beads , years and lace.

Flemish families are quite large - 3-4 or more children are patriarchal. Adult children usually live with their parents. For a long time, the remnants of communal relations remained: the customs of mutual assistance, annual common dinners, the position of an elected elder. In cities, guilds and clubs dating back to medieval societies and brotherhoods are preserved, organizing street processions on holidays. The most popular holiday is kermes - the day of the patron of a city or village. It lasts several days and is accompanied by fairs, archery competitions, torchlight processions and processions with giant dolls depicting heroes folk tales and legends.

Friezes. People in the Netherlands and Germany. They speak the Frisian language of the western subgroup of the Germanic group of the Indo-European family, a language related to Dutch, divided into 4 local dialects. Believers are mainly Calvinists, supporters of the Dutch Reformed Church, Lutherans, and some Catholics. The main occupation is dairy farming and horse breeding, on the coast - fishing and sheep breeding. Navigation and shipbuilding are highly developed. The traditional dwelling is the so-called Frisian house: living and utility rooms with a barn in the center under a common high tiled roof supported on internal pillars. The interior of the home is distinguished by its originality - the beds are hidden in wall niches behind carved wooden doors. Traditional women's clothing was preserved in the villages as a festive one; a feature of the costume was the presence of three short skirts - light cotton, medium wool, and a dark wool top, gathered at the waist. Traditional Frisian food consists mainly of vegetable, dairy and fish dishes.

The French speak French of the Romance group of the Indo-European family. Believers are mostly Catholics, there are Calvinists. The autochthonous population of France was probably of Indo-European origin. From the end of the 2nd millennium BC. The settlement of the country by Indo-European Celtic tribes begins. By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. they practically mixed with the local population and occupied the entire territory of France. From the 2nd century. BC. The Romans began to penetrate here. They called the Celts Gauls, and their country Gaul. The Roman conquest of Galia led to the Romanization of its population and the emergence of a Gallo-Roman ethnic community that spoke a local version of folk Latin. During the great migration of peoples, the Germanic tribes of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks invaded Gaul. from the middle of the 6th century. the entire territory of Gaul became part of the Frankish kingdom, and German-Frankish bilingualism was formed. The consequence of the unequal Romanization of the north and south of France was the formation of two ethnic communities - northern French and southern French. Special languages ​​were spoken by the peoples living on the western outskirts of the empire. Since pre-Roman times, the Basques have lived at the foot of the Pyrenees, a people of unknown origin who resisted Romanization. At the end of the 6th century. Because of the Pyrenees, the Vascons (ancestors of the Gascons), most likely of Iberian origin, came to the southwestern coast of France. In the 5th-6th centuries. The resettlement of the Celtic tribes of the Britons, the ancestors of the Bretons, began from the British Isles to the north-west of France, the modern peninsula of Brittany. The formation of a single community was facilitated by the political unification of French lands under the rule of the king by the beginning of the 14th century. But to this day, the French still retain the consciousness of belonging to certain historical regions (Norman, Picardy, Burgundian, Gascon) with local cultural characteristics.

At high level In industrial development, the role of agriculture remains significant. Viticulture and winemaking are developed. Some traditional crafts(Lyon silk manufactories, Sevres porcelain, Grasse perfumery) turned into industrial sectors and gained worldwide fame.

Most French people live in small towns. Small towns retain a medieval layout with a castle or monastery in the center with a main square containing the church, town hall and market.

Among rural settlements Small villages predominate, or very small ones of 5-10 households; there are also farmsteads. The layout of settlements is mainly linear. The main type of dwelling is one-story stone or adobe buildings on a wooden frame, where living quarters and adjacent stables, stables, barns and wine cellars are combined under one roof. The roofs are high gable, covered with tiles or slate. A peasant house usually consisted of one common room, which served as a kitchen and dining room, and one or two bedrooms.

The basis of a women's traditional costume is a wide skirt with gathers, a jacket, a bodice, an apron, a cap or a hat. Men's suit - pants, leggings, shirt, vest, jacket or wide blouse, headdress - beret or hat. Vintage shoes - wooden clogs. Different provinces had different embroidery motifs, cap shapes, cut and decoration of bodice and apron.

Traditional food is characterized by vegetable and onion soups, often pureed, steaks with fried potatoes, lamb stew with various sauces, omelettes with ham, mushrooms, cheese is widely consumed, but the French eat less other dairy products than other European peoples. A lot of vegetables, fruits, oysters, lobsters, crabs, sea urchins, and shellfish are consumed. The traditional centers of winemaking - Gironde, Burgundy and Champagne - are world famous.

Main holiday- Christmas. It is celebrated in the family circle. In the villages, geese and turkeys are fattened for Christmas, pork and blood sausages are prepared. An abundance of dishes on the Christmas table is considered a guarantee of well-being. The custom of decorating a Christmas tree spread to cities in the 19th century, but almost did not penetrate into the French countryside. Christmas, New Year's Day and Kings' Day (6 January) make up the winter holiday cycle. The end of winter festival (carnival) is now celebrated mainly in the cities of the southern provinces, in particular in Nice.

Bretons. They live in northwestern France on the Brittany Peninsula. The Breton language belongs to the Celtic group and has 4 main dialects. The ancient ancestors of the Bretons were absorbed by the Celts, who gave the new community a language and religion - Druidry. The Bretons owe their name to the Celtic tribes of the Britons who fled to the Armorica Peninsula (Brittany) from the Anglo-Saxons from Britain in the 5th-7th centuries. The Britons brought Christianity with them. The Roman conquest, the attempts of the Franks to conquer the Bretons, and the raids of the Normans did not have a noticeable impact on the ethnogenesis of the Bretons, which took place in conditions of relative isolation of the peninsula and the preservation of independence.

Italians. The total number is about 66 million people. There are several subethnic groups: Venetians, Ligurians, Calabrians, Lombards, Piedmontese, the most isolated are Sicilians and Sardinians; Sardinians are often identified as an independent ethnic group. Italian is spoken by the Romance group of the Indo-European family. There are three groups of dialects - northern group, central and southern group. Most Italians are Catholics.

The most ancient basis of the Italian ethnos were the Italic tribes (Italics), which made up the majority of the population of the Apennine Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. one of them is the Latins, who lived in the region of Latium and founded Rome. In the 6th-2nd centuries. BC. The Latins conquered the remaining Italian tribes and the Etruscans, Ligurians, Veneti, and Celts who inhabited the north of the peninsula, and the Greeks, Carthaginians and Siculi in the south of the peninsula and the islands of Sicily and Corsica. In the 1st-2nd century. AD the entire population spoke the so-called folk Latin. The languages ​​of the conquered tribes of Italy served as the basis for the formation of the dialectal features of Latin and later the Italian language. From the first centuries AD, the Romanized population of Italy constantly mixed with slaves of various origins, and from the 5th century. with the Germans. During the 6th-11th centuries. Certain regions of Italy were conquered by the Byzantines, Franks, Arabs, and Normans. There was a massive mixing of the Italian population with the conquerors, during which the Italian nationality and the Italian folk language took shape. The first monuments of the Italian language are usually dated to the 8th-9th centuries. For the formation of the Italian nation, the influence of Renaissance culture and approval in the 13-14th centuries was important. literary language based on the Tuscan dialect.

Southern Italy is characterized by large, crowded rural settlements. Many of them are located on a hill, often surrounded by stone walls. Scattered settlements are not uncommon in the north. Farm-type settlements of 5-10 houses are common throughout the country. The main material for building a home is stone. There are 4 main types of rural dwellings. Levantine - a stone house made of several visits, each of which has an independent roof. Mediterranean - a two-story stone house, rectangular in plan, on the lower floor there are utility rooms, on the upper floor there is a kitchen and rooms. Alpine is a large two- or three-story building, with a covered gallery attached to the top floor, Venetian is a two-story stone building, very elongated in plan, with a portico along one of the long walls.

The main elements of women's folk costume are a long wide skirt, a tunic-shaped jacket, a corsage, an apron, a headscarf, and loose clothing. A traditional men's suit is short pants, a shirt with sewn-in sleeves, a short jacket or sleeveless vest, and a hat.

Italian food is varied, with an abundance of vegetables and fruits. Many regions and individual cities are famous for their local dishes. Italian breakfast is usually light; in the countryside it consists of bread and cheese, in the city - a cup of black coffee with a small bun. The first course of lunch is usually pasta, the second is fish or meat. The usual dessert is fruit and cheese. An indispensable accessory for lunch is dry wine. Wheat bread is eaten; in the north it is often replaced with polenta, a thickly cooked corn porridge cut into slices. In the south, pizza is often the only food available.

Spaniards. The main population of Spain is about 38 million people. Mostly Catholics. The Spanish-speaking population of Spain does not recognize itself as a single community; regional identity dominates. Among some population groups in a number of regions, regional consciousness has acquired the character of nationality; its bearers do not consider themselves Spaniards. But in most cases, regional and national self-awareness coexist as two levels of self-identification - Basque and Bree, this is Spaniard. Andalusian and at the same time Spaniard, Aragonese, Castilian, Canarian, Valencian, etc.

The most ancient basis of the population of Spain were the Iberian tribes, partially mixed with the Celts who invaded the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st millennium BC. Roman rule led to the Romanization of the population of Spain. Germanic tribes that captured the country in the 5th century. were gradually assimilated. The Muslim Moors (Arabs and Berbers), who subjugated a significant part of Spain in the 8th century, played a certain role in the ethnic development of the people. and Jews. As the territories captured by the Arabs were reconquered, a single Spanish state was formed. During the era of great geographical discoveries, the country's inhabitants began to move to America; they participated in the formation of the Latin American peoples.

Rural settlements in Spain are of different types - from single-yard farms to huge villages with several thousand inhabitants. In general, from north to south and from the coast to the center, the size of rural settlements, their compactness and the distances between them are increasing.

The forms of traditional rural housing vary significantly. The most archaic are caves and half-caves, half-dugouts in a number of areas in the south of Spain, as well as round or oval houses in the north-west made of rough stone and thatched. The northern part of the country is characterized by houses of the Asturo-Galician type, usually two-story, with utility rooms on the lower floor. To the south, separate buildings are being built for livestock; there are more one-story houses here. In areas poor in both timber and stone, clay is the main building material. Andalusia is characterized by houses with enclosed courtyards inside residential and utility rooms. On the south coast they build small cubic houses with flat roofs.

Traditional clothing has many varieties. Men have narrow knee-length trousers (in the north - wide short ones, in Andalusia - long ones, complemented by leggings), white shirts, vests and jackets of various cuts, wide fabric belts. Capes, cloaks or blankets were worn on top. Headdresses - a cap with a fold in the middle and two sharp ends, a felt or straw hat, sometimes with wide brims, the Basque beret is widespread. Shoes were made of leather or wicker from esparto; in the humid north, in damp and cold weather, wooden shoes were worn over ordinary shoes.

Women's clothing comes in a wide variety of colors and is richly decorated with embroidery. In Andalusia there are long narrow dresses; in other places, clothing of an archaic cut, reminiscent of a sundress, has been preserved. On the feet are stockings, often the stockings are decorated with embroidery, leather or wicker shoes. On the head is a cape that wraps the hairstyle, or a scarf. In the south, the head is decorated with a high crest, often with flowers. A lace mantilla, black or white, is placed on top.

Traditional cuisine is also very diverse, but has common features - abundant consumption of pork meat and lard, olive oil and olives, spicy seasonings of tomatoes, onions, garlic and red peppers, as well as other vegetables and fruits. A popular dish is called tortilla - a well-fried omelette with the addition of potatoes and vegetables. In Andalusia there are quite a lot of fish dishes, and in the southeast - rice dishes. They drink coffee, milk, soft drinks made from lemons and oranges, grape wines, and in the north, apple cider.

Basque. The people in Spain live in the provinces of Vizcaya, Guipuzcoa, Alava, Navarre and France - the regions of Labour, Sul, and Lower Navarre. The number of Basques in Spain ranges from 600 thousand to 1800 thousand or more, in France - from 90 thousand to 150 thousand people. Depending on the criterion used. Basque language (isolated). It has many dialects, dialects have spoken divisions. The Gupuzkoan dialect has official status along with Spanish in the autonomous Basque Country. Writing based on the Latin alphabet. Believers are Catholics.

The ancestors of the Basques are the tribes of Varduls, Caristians and others. It is believed that these tribes were related to the Iberians - the population of the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st thousand BC. But there is no consensus on this matter. During Roman rule, the Basques resisted Romanization, maintaining their language.

The need to constantly resist the conquerors contributed to the fact that the Basques retained many communal traditions that contributed to the liberation struggle, but inhibited social stratification. The resistance of the community members prevented the transformation of the clan elite into leaders. The community members were supported by the kings of Castile and received collective nobility from them. The kings themselves for a long time had the status of lords of the Basque lands, that is, military leaders with limited rights. Administration was carried out by general juntas of the provinces, elected by the local population. In official life, due to large dialect differences and the lack of a unified Basque written standard, the Castilian (Spanish) language was used.

In the 19th century The Basque national movement took shape, reaching great proportions in Spain, in contrast to France. In Republican Spain, the Basque Country, which included three provinces (without Navarre), enjoyed autonomy (1936-37). In the 40s. increased Spanishization took place. In the 60-70s. interest in folk culture and history, private Basque language schools quickly spread in the 70s. it has already been used by the media. At the turn of 70-80, the Basque Country, and then Navarre received autonomous status.

Traditional sectors of the economy are meat and dairy cattle breeding and viticulture. In the mountainous areas, there was a problem of land shortage; this problem gave rise to the custom according to which the house and plot were inherited by one of the children according to the custom of primogeniture or at the choice of the parents. The remaining children could remain in their father's house as helpers without the right to start a family. Men more often preferred to emigrate in the hope of becoming rich, returning and marrying an heiress. The Basque community was bound by close internal relations, customs of mutual assistance and was closed to outsiders. Houses belonged to one clan or another for several centuries and were a kind of symbol of clans. Relatives had the preferential right to purchase a house, so the penetration of strangers into the community was difficult.

The scattered type of Basque settlement corresponds to the tradition of farming. The Basque-Navarre house is a massive, two or three-story house, entirely or partially made of stone, often whitewashed and decorated with balconies, covered galleries and cornices, with a gable (sometimes very steep) slate or tiled roof. Residential premises were located on the upper floors, and utility rooms on the lower floors.

Clothing varied greatly depending on the area. The most characteristic and colorful costume is that of the mountain Navarrese. For women, it included a short black jacket with gold and silver embroidery on laces with multi-colored tassels, a blue skirt with an elegant cover on it, two silk bows on the head, ribbons in the hair and a red mantilla trimmed with velvet. On the chest there are beads and necklaces, often gold and silver. Young girls more often wore a corsage, putting it on a white shirt with wide sleeves; they did not cover their heads.

A man's suit - black tight-fitting knee-length pants, a vest and jacket with silver buttons that were worn on the shirt, a wide belt, a white woolen cape on the shoulders, on the legs - black short woolen stockings and leather shoes with buckles. They wore a hat on their heads; the Basque beret, which became an element of national symbolism, came to the Spanish Basques from the French only in the 19th century.

Traditional Basque food consisted of wheat and corn bread, milk, sheep's cheese, and various pork dishes. They prepared vegetable stews, seasoning them generously with pepper. The most popular drink is apple cider. The Basques have long been famous for their dances, which were predominantly male or male-dominated. Many of them, perhaps, originate from ancient martial dances and are, as a rule, collective with changes in various jumps, gymnastic figures, simulating a fight between two warring parties. Traditional sports are popular.

Catalans. The people in Spain, the total number is about 8 million people. The Catalan language is a Romance group of the Indo-European family. Dialects are combined into two groups - eastern and western. Spanish is also widely spoken. Catalans are believers - Catholics.

The ancestors of the Catalans are Iberian tribes inhabiting the eastern and southeastern parts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 2nd millennium BC. these tribes experienced Celtic, Phoenician and Greek influence, and during the period of Roman rule they underwent strong Romanization. The Frankish conquest of the 8th century played a significant role in the formation of the ethnolinguistic characteristics of the Catalans. and connections with southern France. In the 15th century Catalonia became part of a single Spanish kingdom, retaining some political and economic independence.

Catalans are employed in industry and farming. In rural areas there are both farmsteads and villages, in the south there are villages with a large number of houses. Until the 20th century Catalan peasants built two-story stone houses, often with an external gallery. The traditional peasant dwelling of Valencia is the barraca: a rectangular one-story building with a high gable thatched roof, wicker walls coated with clay and whitewashed.

Some elements of folk costume have acquired the character of national symbols. One of them is the barretina - a men's headdress in the form of a red or purple cap with a wide end that leans forward and to the side. In Valencia and the Balearics, men wore a headscarf tied at the side or at the back of the head and a straw or felt hat. A characteristic type of costume is openwork nets as a headdress; for women, mangots are openwork armlets from the elbow to the wrist. A woman's costume made of bright and colorful fabric usually included a short skirt with an apron, a blouse with short sleeves, a shawl with ends crossed on the chest, and sometimes a scarf around the neck; in the Balearic Islands, the head was covered with a lace or cambric cape or scarf. Men often wore a striped or checkered plaid instead of a cloak. Sandals or leather shoes were worn on their feet.

The national dish is considered to be escudella - noodles with broth in which meat, beans and potatoes were cooked, served as a separate dish of cornadalia. Paella is popular in Valencia - rice with meat, fish, vegetables or fruits.

Galicians. The main population of the historical region of Galicia. The population in Spain is about 3 million people. They speak Galician, a Romance group of the Indo-European family. Spanish is also widely spoken. Writing based on the Atin alphabet. Believers are Catholics.

The ancestors of the Galicians - the Galician tribes - formed in the 1st millennium BC. as a result of the mixing of the alien Celts with the local tribes of the Estrymnii. The Halaiki were close to the Lusitanians, the ancestors of the Portuguese. During the period of Romanesque rule they underwent Romanization. In the Middle Ages, the annexation of Galicia to Castile led to the beginning of the castilization of Galicians, and the relegation of the Galician language to the level of the common people. Only in the middle of the 19th century. The revival of Galician culture began. Galicia was granted autonomy in 1981.

The main occupation is agriculture, often on tiny plots of land. Part of the coastal population is engaged in fishing. Land famine already in the 16th century. gave rise to seasonal migration - for field work in central Spain and Portugal. Migration, predominantly male, increased the already significant role of women in local society. In some areas, kinship and inheritance were conducted through the female line.

The ethnographic appearance of the Galicians has many features common to the population of the entire peninsula, especially its northern part. Small, closely located villages with scattered houses are typical. A typical rural dwelling is the so-called palyazo - a stone, usually single-chamber building with a conical thatched roof, round in plan.

When it comes to clothing, Galicians prefer dark colors and thick fabrics made of wool, cloth or flannel. Women wear long skirts and sweaters with a corsage, a scarf crossed on the chest, decorated with ribbons and amber. On the head is a scarf and a kind of cambric or lace cover for braids. Men have narrow or wide (for field work) knee-length pants, a shirt, a vest and a jacket. When it rains, they wear a straw raincoat and wooden shoes over leather shoes.

The national dish - pote gallego is made from potatoes, rutabaga and lard with the addition of various seasonings. An important food product is corn. Galicia is one of the few places in Spain where they eat brown bread.

The Celtic heritage is very noticeable in folklore. Folk songs are performed to the music of bagpipes, horns and tambourines.

Portuguese. The main population of Portugal (approx. 9 million). A significant number live in Brazil - 1.3 million people. They speak Romance Portuguese. Most Portuguese are Catholics, but there are Protestants (Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Baptists).

The basis of the Portuguese ethnic group was the Lusitanians, one of the ancient Iberian tribes. In the 1st Tyfs. BC. The territory of Portugal was affected by the Celtic migration, which had a certain ethnic influence on the Portuguese. During the Roman conquest (2nd-1st centuries BC - 5th century AD), the Romanization of the population occurred. Germanic tribes that conquered in the 5th century. Portugal were gradually assimilated. The Arab-Berber rule (8th-13th centuries) had a significant influence on the Portuguese language and culture. In the middle of the 12th century. An independent Portuguese state was formed. During the reconquista, the Portuguese people gradually formed. Emigration has been of great importance in the ethnic history of Portugal, and has been constantly at a high level since the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries. At 19-1st half. 20th century most of the emigrants headed to Brazil, where they participated in the formation of the Brazilian nation.

The traditional occupation is arable farming. The main crops are wheat and corn. Viticulture is of particular importance. Gardening and olive tree cultivation are developed. Fisheries play an important role. Modern Portuguese are mainly employed in industry and the service sector.

Traditional settlements in the north are cumulus or hamlets. The houses are two-story, the upper floor was used for housing, the lower floor was used for utility rooms. In the south, large villages with a street layout with adobe one-story buildings predominate, where residential and utility premises were located under one roof. The use of colorful blue and white tiles for cladding the walls of houses is typical. National women's costume - wide striped skirt with an apron, blouse, scarf, shoes without backs with wooden soles. Men's costume - short pants with leggings, a vest, a wide belt, a round wide-brimmed sombrero hat in the south, a knitted cap in the north.

Traditional food is fried cod and other fish, shellfish, and corn soup.

Sardinians. The people in Italy, the main population of the island of Sardinia. are sometimes considered a sub-ethnic group of Italians. Number of people: 1.5 million people. They speak Sardinian, a Romance language of the Indo-European family, and Italian. Believing Sardinians are Catholics.

Several thousand nuraghes (towers in the shape of a truncated cone) have survived from the Bronze Age population of Sardinia. The Shardana people apparently settled on the island at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. With the conquest in the 6th century. BC. The inhabitants of the coastal and lowland regions were punized by the Carthaginians. From 238 BC Sardinia was part of Rome, its mixed population, called Sardis in ancient sources, was Romanized. Of all the Romance languages, Sardinian is the closest to Latin. In the early Middle Ages, Sardinia was subjected to conquests by the Vandals, Ostrogoths, Byzantines, and Arab raids. In the 10th-11th centuries. The Sardinian people are emerging. In the 14th-18th centuries. Sardinia was under the rule of the Spanish kings. In 1720 the island became part of the Sardinian kingdom, and in 1861 - into the Italian kingdom. Since that time, there have been intensive processes of Italianization of the Sardinians and the erosion of their ethnic specificity.

The main occupation of Sardinians is cattle breeding and arable farming. Crafts are developed - pottery, wood and horn carving, weaving of household items from plant fibers, production of red and black cloth.

In the south, peasants live in large villages; in the north, hamlets are typical. Traditional dwellings in lowland areas are a small rectangular single-chamber house, often with extensions. In the mountains, the traditional dwelling is a two-story stone house with wooden balconies. There are round shepherd's huts made of untreated stone (pinettas).

The men's costume of the shepherd areas retained traces of the ancient traditions of the Mediterranean. This is a fur jacket that dates back to the mastruka of the ancient Sardis; short cloth trousers-skirt (ragas), white linen trousers, bag-shaped headdress (berrita). The women's costume consists of the same elements as the Italians and has many local variations.

Many family and calendar customs date back to ancient times. These include, for example, customs of artificial kinship (twinning), blood feud, funeral songs and laments for its victims. In recent decades, Sardinians have developed a movement for cultural autonomy and the preservation of the Sardinian language.

Corsicans. The people in France, the main population of the island of Corsica. number 300 thousand people. They speak French. In everyday life they use two dialects of the Italian language (Chismontan and Oltermontan). Believers are Catholics.

The ethnic basis of the Corsicans was made up of Iberian and Ligurian tribes. B8-5 centuries BC. they were culturally influenced by the Phoenicians, Etruscans, Greeks and Carthaginians. As a result of the conquest of Corsica by Rome (3rd century BC), its population was gradually Romanized. In the early Middle Ages, the Latin-speaking population of the island mixed with the Byzantine Greeks, Goths, Lombards, and Franks. The formation of the Corsican ethnic community began. In the 9th century Corsica was captured by the Arabs in the 11th-14th centuries. it was dominated by the Pisans and Genoese, who had a great influence on Corsica cultural influence. The penetration of the French language and culture among the Corsicans began in the last third of the 18th century, when the island became part of France.

The main traditional activities are viticulture, gardening, growing olives, grains, and chestnuts. Fishing, the extraction of sea sponges and corals, and crafts (weaving baskets, straw hats) are developed. Serving tourists plays a large role in the economy of the Corsicans. Many rural and urban settlements that arose during the Arab conquest are located in tiers on the rocks. The traditional costume is close to Sardinian. Family rituals The customs associated with matchmaking, blood feud (vendetta), ritual horse racing on a wedding day, etc. are preserved. Lament songs and poetic improvisations occupied a special place in folklore.