Editor's Afterword

Ready for publication material by M.A. Barabanova, I, naturally, carefully looked through the textbook discussed in the article. When I met him, one of his features caught my eye, which Marina Anatolyevna practically does not talk about, but which can be very significant for a teacher who has decided, for whatever reason, to choose S.A.’s manual. Zinina, V.I. Sakharova, V.A. Chalmaeva.

This is the language in which the textbook is written.

The language of a book models its reader. You can say the other way around: how you imagine the reader is how you write. I am forced to note (as a literature teacher who annually teaches grades 8–11) that the authors of the textbook have a very vague idea of ​​a real ninth-grader. They don’t talk to him like this, for example: “What determines the national identity of Russian literature and makes it unique? Redefining the artistic experience European literatures, it has retained a special sound associated with the tireless creation of spiritual values ​​that define the “Russian picture of the world”... The main guidelines for them(writers. - S.V.)there has always remained faith in the spiritual powers of the people, in the inviolability of man’s internal connection with the “soil” on which he grew up and became spiritually strong... Spiritual asceticism constitutes a kind of “genetic code” of Russian classics, emitting a special life-giving energy. Try to feel it by touching the living pages of immortal books. Read with your soul!”(p. 4). They don’t talk, especially about literature.

Why? Yes, because these words do not mean anything specific for the child. Because before us is a string of metaphors that have long been gutted from frequent use and mean nothing, however, they are now very much complained about at the state level. Because bunny ears of false pathos stick out everywhere.

The authors of the textbook apparently believe that if they say the word “spiritual” four times in the space of one paragraph, then the problem of educating the younger generation will be solved. It's exactly the opposite. Such words are dead husks that can kill the “life-giving energy” of Russian classics.

What can a teacher do with such words in the classroom? Are you serious about pronouncing them? Impossible. In a report from a high podium, from a TV screen, in a sermon - please. In class, eye to eye is not allowed. How can you, for example, lie? But maybe they should be read ironically - and turn the textbook into an object of ridicule? It’s unlikely that the authors wanted this. Maybe you should just skip these words? Or warn students: “Here, on page such and such, do not read.” I'm afraid that there will be too many pages to name then. I'm afraid that the only thing that can be done with such pages is... to tear them out, as the hero of the famous film "Dead Poets Society", literature teacher John Keating, did, forcing his students to throw them away. trash can written “foul-smelling dead words” introduction to the anthology.

There are plenty of examples of such words in the textbook. . Let's open it almost at random: “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign is not just a unique literary monument, but one of the peaks of Russian poetry, the brightest manifestation of national genius.”(p. 25). Stamps - they are stamps because they readily, effortlessly pop out of your mouth. The only problem is if the person producing such literary products does not hear himself.

But on the next page there is a question masquerading as scientific: “What characterizes the style of the poem - an epic, monumental beginning or the author’s lyricism, which gives the “Word ...” a unique emotional sound?”(p. 24). Real scientificity does not consist in saying things incomprehensibly and “smartly.” Real scientific language, by the way, could be gleaned from A. Zaliznyak’s book “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign: A Linguist’s View,” which brilliantly proves the authenticity of the SPI text (we wrote about it in No. 10, 2007). However, about this book, as about all dramatic story studying “The Lay...”, a modern ninth-grader will not learn anything - only rituals on the topic of “the unfading significance of the amazing creation of a nameless Russian genius” and statements in the spirit of Soviet protective literary criticism await him on the pages of the textbook: “Later attempts to refute the antiquity and authenticity of the “Lay” (the works of the French scientists L. Léger and A. Mazon) could not shake...” In the “List of Recommended Literature” for the chapter, he will see books and articles published in 1960–1979... Comments are unnecessary. Except, perhaps, for one thing: recommended books can be found (if you really want to) only in libraries. And there, we note, there are much more serious catalogs and lists. Why, then, is there a strange, incomplete list, largely not designed for a ninth-grader, in the textbook? Because the genre demands it? Then you can simply write: “You should look for literature for abstracts and reports on the topic in libraries and the Internet.” It would save space...

But we agreed to discuss the language of the textbook. Let's return to it. “Literature of the 18th century inherited the best traditions of ancient Russian literature - its patriotic orientation, deep connection with the people’s artistic consciousness, humanism and a pronounced social resonance”(p. 28); “In their poetry, the lyrical “I”, which previously among the romantics testified only to an extremely sharp, unique state of individual consciousness, not only expanded the horizons of lyricism, often acquiring boundless “lyrical audacity” (L.N. Tolstoy’s words about Fet), but also psychological the complexity of lyrical intuitions and associations, the condensation of experiences in time”(Part II, p. 193). Test it on ninth graders, just ask them: would they like to read a textbook written like this? I think the answer is obvious. And it is natural, because the authors do not feel - alas! - their responsibility for the words they pronounce and replicate.

Sometimes authors, however, come to their senses and try to brighten up a series of dull cliches with as if fresh beauty. The result is a monstrous cacophony, obscuring the essence of the matter even further: “The author of “Felitsa” turned young poetry, carried away by odes, tragedies and epics, from uniform “statehood” to its main cause and image of creative thought - lyricism, managed to fit the life of his restless, simple-minded heart into the worked out official forms of classicism, and sometimes these forms and completely discarded"(p. 60).

It is believed that a textbook is needed in school, in particular, so that you can “go through” the material without a teacher (for example, if a child is sick). For me, it’s better not to “go through” anything than to “go through” something like what was just quoted. I can imagine a sick student left alone with such a text about Derzhavin. Or with this: “As a result, Russian romanticism, having absorbed the motifs and images of Western romantics, acquired its own original sound, due, in addition to historical factors, to the originality of the literary process itself: rapidly catching up with Europe, Russian literature underwent a combination, layering of various art schools and styles.”(p. 85). It’s physically difficult to get through this non-union sentence with turns in each part, with homogeneous members and clarifications - where is the meaning to be grasped? My respects to the editor of the textbook.

And here is how it is told about Zhukovsky: “The originality of Zhukovsky’s romantic lyrics lies not only in its autobiography (all romantic poets from Denis Davydov to Benediktov had this to one degree or another), but also in some deliberate vagueness, generalization of the lyrical “I”, its constant correlation with universally significant experience feelings of the readers of that time"(p. 91). This poet also had his share of monstrous paragraph-sized constructions with a string of cases: “The special, mysterious and mystical flavor of the ballad is achieved by the picture of the horse race(with any check of part C of the Unified State Exam, this fragment would be classified as a speech error. - S.V.)in the dark forest of the father and little son and a sudden terrible appearance to the frozen, sick child of the mighty and formidable forest king, captivated by the beauty of the boy and promising him gold and pearls, the joy of life in the forest and the play of his beautiful daughters.”(p. 99). Let me remind you that I am quoting a textbook for 13-14 year olds.

It is unclear why these teenagers need brief analyzes - one or two (!) pages each - “Oblomov”, “Fathers and Sons”, “War and Peace”, “Crime and Punishment”, “The Cherry Orchard”, “At the Bottom”, “ Twelve" - ​​and further, to "Quiet Don" and "The Master and Margarita"? Or rather, not even analyzes, but these conclusions: “This is perhaps the deepest and most “intimate” layer in Bazarov’s multi-component spiritual world. Again a rebellion, though so sad, alien to any posturing. The inevitability of the end, the brevity of daring and joy, the fragility and fragility of the human “I” in the ocean of space.”(Part II, p. 185); “And even the fact that the “philosopher and naughty man” Pierre Bezukhov, with his complex spiritual wanderings, with his discovery of the ideal man Karataev, suddenly became one of the confidants of history in the novel, did not diminish the historicism of the work.”(Part II, p. 188). Tell the truth, those who work in 9th grade: are you going to read all these works with your children? During the allotted hours? Yes, Gogol barely fits into the program, and then at a gallop across Europe. This means that the entire chapter on subsequent literature (which is as much as thirty pages) can be safely thrown out of the second part of the manual - it is not for ninth-graders. Well, of course, we understand: without her, the textbook would not have been approved, because the standard requires so. This means that in order to be published, you need to start lying - that’s all. That's what the authors do. “Quite elegantly,” as M. Barabanova notes.

The lies embedded inside a good deed corrode it from the inside. Therefore, you somehow don’t pay attention to the errors and inaccuracies found in the textbook. G.A. Gukovsky on p. 83 turned into Chukovsky, and Turgenev’s Kukshina into Kukushkina (Part II, p. 184); hero of Derzhavin's ode on p. 65 “tormented by the desire for parts,” whereas in the original we are talking about “honors” (honors); us. 89 it is proposed to work with the final stanza of Batyushkov’s poem “There is pleasure in the wildness of the forests...”, which is not published in the anthology (p. 245) (this poem has two editions, for some reason one is reproduced in the anthology, and the task is directed to the other ).

Let's not talk about these little things. Sapienti sat.

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1. World significance and national identity of Russian literature of the 19th century. Your opinion about the works known to you on this issue. When studying which school topics can you use the methodology for solving the above problem?

In Russia in the 19th century, literature experienced an unprecedented rise and became an equal part of the cultural process. This era is usually characterized as the “golden age”, the time of the heyday of creativity and the emergence of philosophical thought, the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. Literary centrism is an important feature. From the works of writers of that time, we learn humanity, patriotism, and study our history. More than one generation of people - Humans - has grown up on this “classic”. Romanticism became the leading artistic method, although at the end of the 30s of the 19th century realism would take a leading place in literature.

Russian literature is distinguished by its humanity, purposefulness and humanity, striving to express its opinion. In Russia, philosophy is individual. One of the main problems is the problem of morality; each author has his own solutions to this problem. Moral issues became the main one and almost all Russians wrote and converged on the formation of high ideals. What is high in Russia is overcoming selfishness and individualism. And the high, active, heroic attitude is the most demanding for Russian writers. In Russia it has never been possible to live a separate destiny. Russian society is always collective. The Russian liter is characterized by moral choices for oneself and for the whole world. Russ the author showed life in community with the whole world. The epic nature of thinking is connected with this: Russian heroes always communicate with the nation; Gogol Tolstoy’s heroes. This soil was very good. favorable for the development of novels. Russ's novels had a great influence on the West. The heroes were colossal; they were not familiar to the reader; the Russians knew how to address the question of existence. But the essence is also the opposite moment when the authors penetrated into the national. In order to consider this issue in more detail, you can turn to Kasyanova’s work “Russian national character”; in the book she says that a Russian person is characterized by a value system, for example, the ability to achieve a goal. Russia and the West have different goals in life. The idea of ​​cultivating high feelings and ideals is high, and high is selfishness.

The global significance of literature is closely related to national identity: romantics turn to national events, since the 19th century is the century of epoch-making events on a global scale (the War of 1812), these are changes in public consciousness, a pronounced spirit of patriotism. The reforms of 1861 lead to the polarization of social consciousness and the sense of personality finds its expression in the images of literature. For example, the era of Decembrism gives rise to the ideal of a free personality, thus the theme of a free personality becomes central. The activities of writers were not limited to their subjective spiritual world: they actively showed interest in public life, folklore works and interacted with foreign writers. Therefore, the literature of the 19th century has a global coverage of the entire socio-political life of that time and reflects the worldview of its era. National identity is reflected in the typology of portraits of people, generalization of their vices and pronounced personality traits: 1) In the center is a liter. 19 in the problem of growing a sense of personality: image young man does not satisfy the modern way of life 2). A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This artistic type“superfluous man”, the example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.

3).National atmosphere in literature, development of Russian national character

4).Condemnation by writers of the isolation of the intelligentsia from the people, as isolation from their roots. 5).ideal of personality - the relationship of one person with the existence of the entire people (lack of egocentrism, self-will)

6) the writer’s attention to psychological and social analysis. You can also refer to Belinsky’s work on the Russian liter. At school, this question can be used in introductory Russian lessons of the 19th century. For example, maybe such a topic as thin liters as an art form

2. Problems of periodization of Russian literature of the 19th century. What starting point do you prefer to take as the basis for periodizing the works of writers studied in 9th grade?

The purpose of periodization is not to create a rigid scheme, but to designate a number of main landmarks at each stage of the literary movement.

The 19th century began with the emergence of romanticism. Ideological prerequisites of romanticism - disappointment in the Great French Revolution in bourgeois civilization in general (in its vulgarity, prosaicness, lack of spirituality). The mood of hopelessness, despair, “world sorrow” is the disease of the century, inherent in the heroes of Chateaubriand, Byron, Musset. At the same time, they are characterized by a feeling of hidden wealth and limitless possibilities of existence. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev ". However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin - Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. Youth determines the subsequent paths of development of the character of a mature person - this is the significance of this age for human life as a historical whole. 2nd period. In the 2nd half of the 10s, a new revolutionary-romantic movement emerged in the Republic of Lithuania, which reached its peak in the 1st half of the 20s in the TV of Pushkin and the Decembrist poets. The ideological and TV originality of the revolution of romanticism is associated with historical events (the revolution, which developed the ideals of freedom, brotherhood and equality)

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. There has become a need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

Second half of the 19th century. and was the heyday of Russian critical realism. In the mid-50s, Russia experienced an unusually powerful social upsurge. The tsarist government was forced to begin preparations for peasant reform, around which an ideological, political and literary struggle unfolded.

The critical activity of Chernyshevsky and his closest collaborator Dobrolyubov contributed to the penetration of advanced, liberating ideas into literature and the further development of realism. In an atmosphere of social upsurge and intense ideological struggle, Russian realist writers created an unprecedented number of outstanding works of art. In these works, in the full sense of the word classic, the characteristic features of Russian literature were most clearly intertwined: high civic feelings, the breadth of the depiction of life, the deep disclosure of its contradictions. Ruthlessly exposing the oppressors of the people - landowners, bourgeois businessmen, big officials, Russian writers contrasted them with working people in whom something had not killed the best human qualities: hard work and dedication, sincerity and spiritual purity.

The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskova, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky. The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature

3. Features of literary life in the 1810s

In the 1810s - elicticism - a mixture of literature. movement: sentimentalism, classicism, romanticism. Zhukovsky as the founder of psychological romanticism. An important factor influencing the work of the romanticists of the 1810s was Karamzin’s creation of a reform on the Russian word, where the writer sought to add plasticity and sophistication to the Russian language, introducing foreign borrowings into everyday use, replacing Church Slavonic vocabulary. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, Byron, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed.

The main event of this period was the development of romanticism. The first third of the 19th century is called the “golden age” of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art. In the first decades of the century, poetry was the leading genre in Russian literature. A.S. Pushkin became a symbol of his era. Rapid rise in cultural development Russia. The rise of general life causes the rapid growth of journalism. Many new magazines are emerging. Literary mugs appeared, which contributed to the aesthetics. self-determination. There is an ideological struggle going on. There are no masterpieces, but letters and memoirs of poets say that it was a turbulent era. Mass literature is especially developing

4. I.A. Krylov the fabulist. The people of Krylov's fables

Along with romanticism, the educational current in Russian literature, represented by Krylov’s fables, continued to live and develop. The author was interested not so much in a person’s personal experiences as in the social organism that caused these experiences. He considered man as a social and not a private individual. Krylov dared to do popular consciousness the highest value in his artistic system: he has the common sense of the people - the subject of artistic expression, the supreme judge who makes a wise, sparklingly cheerful or destructive verdict on reality. consciousness of the main character field)

In the note “On the preface to the translation of Krylov’s fables,” Pushkin pointed to “the cheerful slyness of the mind, mockery and a picturesque way of expressing” as “a distinctive feature in our morals” and it was in this sense that he considered Krylov a “representative of the spirit” of the Russian people. Indeed, the ironic intonation of the narrative is one of the most important features of his fables.

The problem of nationality confronted Russian writers with the task of overcoming the class limitations of their worldview and moving to the position of “people's opinion.”

The most consistently and impressively national character of Krylov’s work was manifested in the fables dedicated to the Patriotic War of 1812 (“Crow and Hen”, “Wolf in the Kennel”, “Pike and Cat”, “Partition”, “Wagon Train”, “Cat and Cook”) . Long before L. Tolstoy, Krylov contrasted the official version of the victories over Napoleon with his interpretation of them from the standpoint of popular morality. It is no coincidence that in the fable “The Siskin and the Hedgehog” (1814), with sly simplicity he refused to “sing” the merits of Alexander I in the victory over the invasion, glorifying Kutuzov as a people’s commander.

The uniqueness of fables lies in their very idea - just to slightly push a person to independently analyze and think carefully about what the essence is, who is right and wrong, and why this actually happened. The typicality of the images created by Krylov, the versatility of satire, the author's observation, the ability to convey stable traits of human character, and genuine nationality made his fables immortal. Because Krylov’s works are completely devoid of high philosophy and are more like fairy tales, the meaning of the fables concerns the most ordinary situations in our lives. This quality of stories makes them so useful for reflection: after all, only through “everyday” simple examples can one see something deeper.

The consciousness of Russian people was illuminated by Krylov not from the heights of “theories” learned sages, but by the moral experience of the people, that is, the experience of everyone, without distinction of classes and ranks, for any person is part of the past, present and future history. Reading Krylov's fables, people eagerly learned to understand themselves. Ivan Krylov's fables are indeed written in accessible folk language, which, however, does not deprive them of the wealth of artistic and expressive means through which the beauty of the literary Russian language is revealed. Krylov entered their homes and hearts. From a writer famous literary circles, he immediately, suddenly became “one of our own” throughout Russia. Thanks to the light comic language, Krylov's stories are accessible to everyone and are positively absorbed by the public. This is probably due to the special friendly proximity to the people and the absence of unnecessary intricate plot lines.

5. Polemics between “archaists” and “innovators” on the issue of the Russian literary language at the beginning of the 19th century

Karamzin's prose and poetry had a decisive influence on the development of the Russian literary language. Karamzin purposefully refused to use Church Slavonic vocabulary and grammar, bringing the language of his works to the everyday language of his era and using the grammar and syntax of the French language as a model. Karamzin introduced many new words into the Russian language - as neologisms (“charity”, “love”, “freethinking”, “attraction”, “responsibility”, “suspiciousness”, “industry”, “refinement”, “first-class”, “ humane") and barbarisms ("sidewalk", "coachman"). He was also one of the first to use the letter E. Possessing an extraordinary stylistic flair, he introduced into the Russian language such barbarisms (direct borrowings of foreign words) that organically took root in it: civilization, era, moment, catastrophe, serious, aesthetic, moral, sidewalk and etc.;

Changes in the language proposed by Karamzin caused heated controversy in the 1810s. Writer A. S. Shishkov, with the assistance of Derzhavin, founded the society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” in 1811, the purpose of which was to promote the “old” language, as well as criticize Karamzin, Zhukovsky and their followers. In response, in 1815, the literary society “Arzamas” was formed, which ironized the authors of “Conversation” and parodied their works. Many poets of the new generation became members of the society, including Batyushkov, Vyazemsky, Davydov, Zhukovsky, Pushkin. The literary victory of “Arzamas” over “Beseda” strengthened the victory of the linguistic changes that Karamzin introduced.

Sometimes Shishkov's criticism was pointed and precise. Shishkov was outraged by the evasiveness and aesthetic affectation in the speech of Karamzin and the “Karamzinists”: he believed that instead of the expression “when travel became a need of my soul,” one could simply say: “when I fell in love with traveling”; In defiance of Karamzin, Shishkov proposed his own reform of the Russian language: he believed that the concepts and feelings missing in our everyday life should be denoted by new words formed from the roots not of French, but of Russian and Old Church Slavonic. An Old Believer, an admirer of Lomonosov's language, he advocated for the return of literature to oral folk art, to the vernacular, to Orthodox Church Slavonic books. He reproached the “Karamzinists” for succumbing to the temptation of European revolutionary false teachings. He considered the style of language to be a sign of the author’s ideological affiliation.

It seemed to Shishkov that Karamzin’s language reform was unpatriotic and even anti-religious

Where there is no faith in the hearts, there is no piety in the language. Where there is no love for the fatherland, the language does not express domestic feelings.” And since Karamzin reacted negatively to the abundance of Church Slavonic words in the Russian language, Shishkov argued that Karamzin’s innovations distorted his noble, majestic simplicity. Shishkov reproached Karamzin for the excessive use of barbarisms (epoch, harmony, enthusiasm, catastrophe), he was disgusted by neologisms, artificial words hurt his ear: presentness, futureness, erudition.

6. Ideological artistic originality creativity of the “Radishchevite poets”, their contribution to the development of Russian classicism. Analysis of one poem (student's choice).

The classicists saw the purpose of art in the knowledge of truth, which acts as the ideal of beauty. They put forward a method for achieving it based on three central categories of their aesthetics: reason, example, taste. All these categories were considered objective criteria of artistry. From the point of view of the classicists, great works are the fruit not of talent, not of inspiration, not of artistic imagination, but of persistent adherence to the dictates of reason, study classical works antiquity and knowledge of the rules of taste. In this way they bring together artistic activity with scientific That is why the rationalistic method of the French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650), which became the basis of artistic knowledge in classicism, turned out to be acceptable for them. Descartes argued that the human mind has innate ideas, the truth of which is beyond doubt. Thus, reason becomes the central concept of the philosophy of rationalism, and then the art of classicism. The weak side of this idea was the lack of a dialectical view. The world was considered motionless, consciousness and ideal unchanging.

Character. In the art of classicism, attention is paid not to the particular, individual, random, but to the general, typical. Therefore, the character of a hero in literature does not have individual traits, acting as a generalization of a whole type of people. The main conflict. The category of reason also turns out to be central in the formation of a new type of artistic conflict, opened by classicism: the conflict between reason, duty to the state - and feelings, personal needs, passions. No matter how this conflict is resolved - by the victory of reason and duty (as in Corneille) or the victory of passions (as in Racine), only a citizen who puts his duty to the state above privacy, is the ideal of the classicists.

The rights of the human person, political and social freedom, nation, nationality - all these great ideas, reflecting changes in historical reality at the transition from feudalism to capitalism and outlined in the literature of the 18th century, have now become its main content. They also demanded new forms of artistic expression for themselves. In 1801, after the return of A.N. Radishchev from exile, a circle of young like-minded people formed around him - “Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts” - I.P. Pnin, V.V. Popugaev, I.M. Born, A.H. Vostokov and others. They entered the history of literature under the name of Radishchev poets. They had their own magazine “Northern Herald” and an almanac “Scroll of the Muses”. At different times, N.I. collaborated with the Free Society... Gnedich, K.N. Batyushkov and other writers. The worldview and activities of the Radishchev poets were of an educational nature. They were staunch followers and heirs of both the French and Russian Enlightenment of the 18th century. Members of the “Free Society...” stood up for respect for the human person, for strict observance of laws, for a fair trial. The citizen, in their opinion, had the right to think freely and fearlessly affirm Truth and Virtue.

In their creative activity, the Radishchevite poets were committed to the traditions of classicism. Their favorite poetic genres were the ode, the message, the epigram... The rationalistic pathos of the general, the non-differentiation of the individual principle from the whole, the abstractness in the understanding of man - all this also connected the poetry of the Radishchevites and the civil lyrics of Decembrism with literature XVIII V. and with the poetics of classicism.

Hence, in Pnin’s philosophical lyrics, its wide, universal frame, the cosmism and allegorism of its images; from classicism in the poetics of the Radishchevites and the solemn flow of verse, the measured pathos of poetic syntax, high abstract vocabulary. Pnin's philosophical ode (“Man”) is like a majestic oratorio,

Classicism as a style is a system of visual and expressive means that typify reality through the prism of ancient examples, perceived as the ideal of harmony, simplicity, unambiguity, and ordered symmetry. Thus, this style reproduces only the rationalistically ordered outer shell ancient culture, without conveying its pagan, complex and indivisible essence. The essence of the style of classicism lies not in the antique outfit, but in the expression of the view of the world of a person of the absolutist era. It is distinguished by clarity, monumentality, the desire to remove all unnecessary things, to create a single and integral impression.

7. The emergence and development of Russian romanticism. Its aesthetic essence and main trends. Which work is unclear deciding the issue about the genesis and essence of romanticism, is it close to you?

“In the 1820s. Romanticism became the main event of literary life, struggle, the center of revival and noisy journal-critical polemics in Russia. Romanticism in Russia was formed before the country was about to enter a period of bourgeois transformations. It reflected the disappointment of the Russian people in the existing order. It expressed the social forces that began to awaken, the desire for the growth of public self-awareness,” says Gurevich about the emergence of romanticism in Russia in his book “Romanticism in Russian Literature.”

Maimin in his book “On Russian Romanticism” says that Russian romanticism was part of European romanticism, therefore in Russian romanticism there are signs of European romanticism, but Russian romanticism also has its own origins. Namely, the war of 1812, its consequences for Russian life and self-awareness. “She showed,” writes Maymin, “the strength and greatness of the common people.” This was the basis for dissatisfaction with the slave way of life of the common people, and, as a consequence, for romantic and Decembrist sentiments.

The first who tried to understand what romanticism was were Pushkin and Ryleev, later a treatise by Georgievsky and Galich appeared. In Veselovsky's works, romanticism is seen as a manifestation of liberalism. Zamotin believes that romanticism is a manifestation, an expression of idealism in literature. Sipovsky defines romanticism as the individualism of the era. Sokurin says that this is unrealism. In 1957, a discussion took place on the problems of realism. On this basis appeared. collections and monographs on romanticism. One of the works is Sokolov’s article “On the debate about romanticism”, in which the author cites various points of view on romanticism and makes an important conclusion: each of the definitions contains some truth, but not one of them “does not constitute a feeling of complete satisfaction” , because they are trying to define romanticism “by one of its characteristics.” Meanwhile, “all attempts to embrace romanticism with some single formula will inevitably give an impoverished, one-sided and therefore incorrect idea of ​​this literary phenomenon. It is necessary to reveal the system of signs of romanticism and, using this system, to determine the phenomenon being studied.” And here, in turn, Mann makes his remark: the insufficiency of any differentiated approach to romanticism, the need to “reveal the system of characteristics” are correctly noted by Sokolov, but at the same time he does not explain the concept of systematicity as such. The idea of ​​romanticism, however, will not become truer if we judge it “not by one criterion,” but by a number of criteria. There is no obligation to list them: it can be interrupted and resumed at any time. Each new feature is on the same plane as all the previous ones, while the necessity of their connection would be achieved only if we could penetrate “through them” into the very organization of the artistic phenomenon. It is also impossible not to note Volkov’s introductory article to the book “History of Russian Romanticism”, in which the author sets himself the task of clarifying the concept of “romanticism” and “romance” taking into account different national literatures, referring to various works on romanticism, including Sokolov's article mentioned above. He attributes the ambiguity and contradictory nature of the theory and history of romanticism “more to the history of this problem than to the current state of its scientific solution.” He says that many of the terms of romanticism have already disappeared, have lost their significance and, dismissing them, he comes to the conclusion that in modern literary criticism there are only two meanings of the term “romanticism”. One of them is “the concept of romanticism as the “transformative” side of every truly artistic creativity" This concept is most consistently and fully presented in the textbook by L.I. Timofeev “Fundamentals of the Theory of Literature.” Volkov, in turn, says that although Timofeev’s theory of realism-romanticism asserts the unity of objective and subjective content in art, the cognitive and transformative functions of artistic creativity, the choice of the term “romanticism” to denote the transformative side of artistic creativity is clearly arbitrary. He explains this by the fact that the transformative side can be called sentimentalism, expressionism and intellectualism - after all, these terms, no less than romanticism, point precisely to the subjective side of artistic creativity, and then the entire diversity of artistic creativity can be replaced by one of its specific ones. historical forms. And then, within the framework of this theory, the term “romance” (along with tragedy, satire, etc.) is more suitable. “There remains one, generally accepted meaning of the term “romanticism,” continues Sokolov, “that which refers to the artistic system generated at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, and which in the first third of the 19th century constituted an entire era in the artistic development of mankind. The debates that are currently going on about romanticism relate mainly to this, romantic art itself, and to the question of the possibility and availability of such art in subsequent times and in our days.” Gurevich in his book “Romanticism in Russian Literature” writes: “Romanticism is a revolution in art. The era of romanticism itself is revolutionary, it is a time of great disappointments and expectations, a time of decisive changes in people’s consciousness.” He continues further: “ Characteristic romanticism - dissatisfaction with reality, sometimes deep disappointment in it, deep doubt that life can be built on the principles of goodness, reason, justice. From here comes the dream of reorganizing the world and man, a passionate desire for sublime idealization.” “The unprecedented sharpness of the real and the ideal gives rise to intense, tragic experience. This dual world is a defining feature of romantic art.” Maimin also believes that romanticism is based on disappointment in reality. He considers the opposition of dreams and reality, of what is possible and what is, to be the deepest principle of romanticism. Gulyaev believes that romanticism and realism are two facets of the artistic process: subject (rom) and object (real). P - the cat phenomenon occurs at a certain epoch, goes through a certain stage and its time can be accurately determined. The time of origin was the 10s, the end was the 30s. Burevich believes that Russian romanticism appeared in the 30s, i.e. Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Ryleev, Yazykov, Pushkin and others are not romantics. The problem of currents arises.

Maimin in his mnography “On Russian Romanticism” writes that romanticism is a phenomenon that is understood and interpreted by the romantics themselves in different ways. Here we can see an explanation of why there are various directions in Russian romanticism. In Gukovsky one can see several directions of romanticism. The first is presented by Zhukovsky and Batyushkov. They, as Guuovsky said, are the founders of Russian romanticism. Although the romanticism of both Zhukovsky and Batyushkov is quite different, their works have one, not unimportant, feature: they do not carry any revolutionary ideas that encourage changing the world. Both poets create their own, truly romantic world, and prefer to live in it, without trying to bring their ideal into reality. This is a significant difference from Decembrist or civil, revolutionary romanticism, which, on the contrary, creating an image of an ideal world, wanted to embody it in reality, where revolutionary ideas and calls came from. Prominent representatives of this trend are Ryleev, Kuchelbecker, Bestuzhev-Marlinsky and others. The tragedy of December 25, 1825 on Senate Square shattered the Decembrist ideas about life and changed their work as such. The work of Pushkin the romantic can be defined as a separate direction in romanticism, because, despite the fact that at the beginning of his creative career “Pushkin was a supporter of the revolutionary upheaval,” he was still not a Decembrist. “Pushkin,” as Gukovsky writes in his book “Pushkin and the Problems of the Realistic Style,” “began his path as a collector and unifier of contradictions and various trends of Russian romanticism.” And, moving forward in his evolution, Pushkin quickly moves from romanticism to realism. He makes this transition much earlier than his “brothers in the pen.” Moving on to the fourth and final direction of romanticism, we should return to the disaster of December 25, 1825, which, as mentioned above, destroyed the Decembrists’ ideas about life. The search for a new concept of reality and painful thoughts begin. The creativity of this direction is characterized by a complex relationship between romanticism and realism in the works of writers. The pinnacles of this direction are Lermontov, Gogol’s prose, Tyutchev’s lyrics.

Since Oermontov Gogol and Tyutchev illuminate different things in life, they have different paths, different ideas about ideals, this is one integral direction that can be divided into several subdirections so that confusion and misconceptions are not created. A different, but still somewhat similar to the previous, classification of the directions of romanticism is proposed by Maimin: 1) Zhukovsky’s romanticism, characteristic of the early stage of Russian romanticism, is defined as contemplative; 2) the civil, revolutionary romanticism of the Decembrists, in particular Ryleev, Kochelbecker, Merlinsky-Bestuzhev: 3) the romanticism of Pushkin, which has a synthetic character and combines the advantages of the first and second directions and includes something special, uniquely high; 4) Lermontov’s romanticism is also synthetic, but differently than Pushkin’s. Lermontov develops the tragedy of the second and third directions and the rebellious romanticism of Byron; 5) philosophical romanticism. Represented by Vezevitov, Totchev, prosaic philosophical works of Vl. Odoevsky. Another classification of the directions of romanticism is presented by Focht: 1) abstract psychological (Zhukovsky and Kozlov); 2) hedonic (Batyushkov); 3) civil (Pushkin, Ryleev); 4) philosophical (Venivitov, Varatynsky, Vl. Odoevsky); 5) synthetic romanticism - the pinnacle of Russian romanticism (Lermontov); 6) epigones of psychological romanticism (Benedictov, for example); 7) “false romantics” (Kukolnik, late Polevoy, Zagoskin). Maimin considers this classification not very convenient due to excessive fragmentation.

Thus, having examined the main points of view on the emergence of romanticism, its essence and main trends, we can come to the conclusion that there is a very controversial opinion about romanticism. Of the works that ambiguously address the question of the genesis and essence of romanticism, the one closest to me is Gurevich’s work “Romanticism in Russian Literature.”

8. Historical and literary significance of V.A.’s creativity. Zhukovsky. The genre and stylistic originality of his lyrics

Criticism about Zhukovsky.

In Russian science there was a debate about the historical assessment of Zhukovsky’s work. Was he an innovator, progressively moving Russian literature forward? (Zhukovsky is a romantic). Was he a conservative in his poetry, even a reactionary, dragging Russian literature into the yesterday of the sentimentalism of the 18th century? Belinsky speaks about this in his work. Our contemporaries agree with his opinion. Firstly, Zhukovsky is a romantic, even the founder, the head of Russian romanticism. Secondly, Pushkin’s predecessor was necessary and positive in his historical role. Pushkin considered Zhukovsky his teacher.

Although Zhukovsky’s romanticism was devoid of activity, preaching liberalism and fighting reaction, it was not at all essentially a reactionary phenomenon. The world of Zhukovsky's poetry is dreamy. It is into this dreamy world that Zhukovsky strives to fly his soul away from the despicable world of reality. He is a poet of his visions, and not a poet of reality. It was in this that Pushkin saw something acceptable for progressive poetry.

Stylistic originality of the lyrics.

The essence and idea of ​​Zhukovsky's style, his poetry is the idea of ​​a romantic personality. Zhukovsky opened the human soul to Russian poetry, continuing Karamzin’s psychological quest in prose and decisively deepening it. Zhukovsky's psychological romanticism perceives the whole world through the problematic of introspection. He sees in the individual soul not even a reflection of the whole world, but the whole world, all reality in itself.

The personality in Zhukovsky’s poetry is either lonely or finds understanding among the few who share her feelings. Loneliness does not turn her away from the whole world. The poet's soul is immense, and it contains the entire universe. Zhukovsky accepts life even with its suffering and sorrows, because they contribute to the moral elevation of a person. He believes that the beautiful and sublime in man will prevail. Their triumph will come beyond the boundaries of earthly existence, in that eternal life where the Kingdom of Heaven is located. In Zhukovsky's system, lyrical truth is the highest and even the only truth. But the objective world is only an ephemeral appearance and the logic of judgments about it is a lie. Being here, the soul yearns for the beauty there. Such a split into the otherworldly, the afterlife, ideal and imperfect, vain, transitory, a split that is characteristic not only of Zhukovsky, but of all romanticism, is called romantic duality. This means that the soul of a romantic simultaneously resides in two worlds - the real and the unreal.

The person in Zhukovsky’s poetry thinks of himself separately from the state, because he does not fully accept and even denies the concepts that have developed in the state. Zhukovsky is convinced that the goal of humanity is to improve its nature, and the meaning of human life is to educate oneself to be spiritual, sensitive and sensitive to other people's suffering, troubles and misfortunes.

A person’s happiness, and therefore the meaning of his life, according to Zhukovsky, is not in external interest, but in himself, in the strength of his soul, in the wealth of thoughts and feelings. The more humane a person is and the more such people there are, the happier the state. We must not suppress or subdue passions, but improve our spiritual world. For Zhukovsky, a person is not a means to achieve some goals extraneous to him, even the most necessary, useful and noble ones, but he himself is the goal of the historical process. Not a person for the state, but a state for a person - this is Zhukovsky’s motto.

The unity of the lyrical hero in Zhukovsky’s work entailed the unity of style. Zhukovsky's works are united by attributing them to the personality of the author, who at the same time is the hero of the work. This also applies to ballads, where there is no lyrical “I”, where the heroes are different, but where the true hero is still the poet himself, telling the legend, whose dream and mood is the content of the ballad.

Contemporaries considered Zhukovsky a master of landscape poetry. His landscape is subjective. Zhukovsky's depiction of nature is a “landscape of the soul.” Zhukovsky paints a soul that perceives nature; his landscape is associated with a specific psychological state. The poet merges the landscape and his experience. A strong connection arises between them, but not an abstract logical one, but a concrete psychological one.

It uses a special semantic content of the word, which begins to mean much more than it means terminologically, other meanings and other sounds appear. Thus, the impression was created that the meaning of the verse is born not in words, but as if between words, that is, not in the text itself, but in the mind of the reader - the phenomenon of suggestive poetry.

Genre originality of the lyrics.

Elegy, song-romance, and friendly message are the main genres of Zhukovsky’s poetry. Based on the material of the elegy, Zhukovsky developed the Russian poetic language. The elegy especially attracted him with its theme, enshrined in the pan-European tradition: immersion in the inner world, dreamy and - later - mystical perception of nature. Zhukovsky is the first Russian poet who managed not only to embody in poetry the real colors, sounds and smells of nature - everything that makes up its “material beauty”, but to endow nature with feeling and thought, the person who perceives it, this is how the elegy “Evening” is constructed - a masterpiece of the early lyrics by Zhukovsky. “The past” is one of J.’s favorite “verbal” themes. He is always turned to the past, but such a conventional and almost banal theme of poetry takes on a deep emotional meaning for him. There is an amazing musical organization in Zh.'s songs and romances. Full voice and melodic transitions of percussive sounds dominate. Great place The poet pays attention to the development of intonation in his songs. Interrogative intonations are characteristic of this genre. It is worth noting the purely song system of exclamations and addresses. Such elegies as “Evening”, “Rural Cemetery”, “Sea”, etc. are famous.

In the second half of the 18th and 19th centuries, the ballad genre, dating back to the folk poetic tradition, became widespread. The ballad was distinguished by its predilection for miracles, the terrible - that which is not subject to logic and reason - the predominance of the emotional principle over the rational, and its concentration on the disclosure of feelings. For Zhukovsky, this genre becomes one of the main ones. Almost all of Zhukovsky's 39 ballads are translations. Zhukovsky was rightly called a translation genius. Zhukovsky's translated ballads give the impression of being original. Zhukovsky has 5 original ballads. All Zhukovsky’s ballads represent a single whole, they can be called an artistic cycle, they are united not only by genre, but also by semantic unity. They sharply contrast good and evil. Their source is always the human heart itself and the mysterious otherworldly forces that control hearts. The romantic dual world appears in ballads in the images of the devilish and divine principles. Elegies, ballads, and Zh.’s songs are imbued with the idea of ​​two worlds. Such ballads as “Lyudmila”, “Svetlana”, “Eolian Harp”, etc. are famous.

Historical and literary significance of creativity.

Zhukovsky is one of the creators of new Russian poetry. A poet with his own specific theme and intonation. Zhukovsky’s artistic style is dominated by lyricism and images of mental states.

He played an exceptional role in the development of the language of Russian poetry. Zhukovsky and his school gave the word many additional sounds and psychological colors. It is important that stylistic innovations entered Russian poetry and literature and remained its property.

Zhukovsky did not want and could not be a teacher of poetry. He was a lyricist who revealed his soul and did not pretend to the universal significance of his self-disclosures. Zhukovsky does not strive for everyone to be like him. Morality lies in the very right of the soul to self-disclosure, the primacy of feelings and moods as the highest values ​​of freedom.

lyrics poetry romanticism fable

9. The origins of the cult of nature among the romantics. Analysis of the poem by V.A. Zhukovsky "Sea"

Like other romantics, Zhuk-go’s landscape is always associated with the world of the lofty, unusual, and sublime. The poet loves the elemental and mysterious in nature (night, sea, thunderstorm). At sea, he is attracted by the enchanting silence and abysses. Landscape in poetry, in literature in general, is always especially closely connected with the interior. the world and the unique appearance of the poet. Tolstoy is inseparable from the landscape of Yasn. glades, Dostoevsky-Petersburg (foggy, gloomy), Pushkin-landscape of Mikhailovsky and Trigorsky. Zhukovsky - Pavlovsk. Analysis. “I stand enchanted” - LG is delighted with the sea, there is even a certain shade of magic here. The sea attracts him with its inner. ambiguity, unpredictability. A description that gives grounds for what kind of sea this is, no. Epithets and verbs personify the sea: “silent”, “azure”; “caress”, “beat”, “howl”, “lift”. The poet sees the sea as an emotional, spiritual element. The impression depends on the state of the soul. Vyazemsky said: “With Zhuk, everything is soul, everything is for the soul.” The world is the soul. But what is presented here is not an image of the world, but an image of the experience of the world. The beetle is fascinated by its own soul. If, for example, for Lermontov “abyss” is a direct meaning, then for Zhukovsky it is a symbol. Many questions - always an attempt to understand the thinking. Existence is devoid of breadth and spaciousness. The soul lives by striving to break free into a free existence. A certain dual world arises, hesitation, uncertainty - this is not all that is inside the author. The sea is constant contact with the ideal. The presence of light is the life of the soul. The soul that fights for the ideal of life is in constant fear of losing this ideal. Everything is built on solid symbols. Two melodies emerge—a symphonic principle of organization. “You can influence a person with a word” Zhuk.

10. Development by V.A. Zhukovsky principles of suggestive poetics. Analysis of the poem "Inexpressible"

What is our earthly language compared to wondrous nature?

With what careless and easy freedom

She scattered beauty everywhere

And diversity agreed with unity!

But where, what brush painted it?

Barely one of her features

With effort you will be able to catch inspiration...

But is it possible to dead alive hand over?

Who could recreate a creation in words?

Is the inexpressible subject to expression?..

Holy sacraments, only the heart knows you.

Is it not often at the majestic hour

Evening land of transformation,

When the troubled soul is full

By the prophecy of a great vision

And carried away into the boundless, -

A painful feeling lingers in my chest,

We want to keep the beautiful in flight,

We want to give the unnamed one a name -

And art is exhausted and silent?

What is visible to the eye is this flame of clouds,

Flying across the quiet sky,

This trembling of shining waters,

These pictures of the shores

In the fire of a magnificent sunset -

These are such striking features -

They are easily caught by the winged thought,

And there are words for their brilliant beauty.

But what is fused with this brilliant beauty -

This is so vague, disturbing us,

This one listened to by one soul

Enchanting voice

This is for a distant aspiration,

This past hello

(Like a sudden blow

From the meadow of the homeland, where there was once a flower,

Holy youth, where hope lived),

This memory whispered to the soul

About sweet joyful and sorrowful times of old,

This shrine descending from on high,

This presence of the creator in creation -

What is their language?.. The soul flies with grief,

All the immensities are crowded into a single sigh,

And only silence speaks clearly.

11. Reflection of the theory of dual worlds in the poems of V.A. Zhukovsky “To Turgenev in response to his letter”, “Spring Feeling”

Belinsky also saw 2 trends in romanticism: 1-“medieval. romanticism,” and, according to Bel, this is a literary world: “the world splits into two worlds - into the despised here and the indefinite, mysterious there.” “There” is an ideal world, but it is unattainable: it is either in the past, or appears only in dreams, in fantasy, in dreams. The despised “here” is modern action, where evil and injustice triumph. For such romanticism, the main interest is the description of the “inner world of the heart.” Such was the romanticism of Zhukovsky. Zh.’s 2world is presented in the form of a concept of 2 worlds, presented in the form of oppositions: earth and sky, there and here. The earth in the lyrics is a vale of suffering and people on earth are doomed to suffer. In heaven, life is an opportunity for happiness. And the purpose of life is to prepare for eternal happiness. 2worldliness is associated with the idea of ​​​​the immortality of the soul. The philosophical dual world is expressed in many of J.'s poems. They are united by the fact that true bliss is revealed only after the death of the body. Romanticism declares the earthly world to be a world of genuine suffering, and on earth at some moments the curtain of the heavenly life that awaits him is lifted. This is a “wonderful moment.” Thus, in the message “To Turgenev, in response to his letter,” Zhukovsky, recalling the era of the Friendly Literary Society, when friends, full of bright hopes, “shared life in the bosom of Freedom,” states the collapse of the “charming world of fantasy” that collided with life. The poet's sharply condemning voice is heard in the words about the “vile light.”

Also, the message “In response to Turgenev...”, this appeal to a friend - Alexander Turgenev - includes memories of the past, grief from the irreplaceability of losses (the death of Andrei Turgenev, loss of hopes, freedom). In the poem “Spring Feelings,” the theory of dual worlds is revealed by the fact that main character(in this case the author himself) is trying to find out from the wind the questions that interest him, namely, what is there beyond the distant lands? The author is also trying to find out if he can get to this place? from this we can conclude that the main character is dissatisfied with his previous place, because he would not look for the much-desired Enchanted One there.

12. Comparative analysis of “The Bacchante” by S. Batyushkov and “Song” (1811) by V.A. Zhukovsky. (On the question of the creative individuality of poets belonging to the same direction)

Zhuk considered Karamzin, the head of Russian sentiment, to be his teacher in poetry. The essence of Zhuk's romanticism is very accurately described by Belinsky, who said that he became a “heartfelt singer of the morning.” By nature, Zhuk-y was not a fighter; his “complaints” never developed into open protest. He moved away from the present, idealized it, thought about it with sadness. Zhukovsky’s “Song” is clear, musical, filled with poetic inspiration and deep sadness about the old days. Basic The theme is not the depiction of visible phenomena, but the expression of elusive experiences. LG Zhuk-go-chel-k of deep sorrowful feelings, withdrawn from the action into his inner. the world, into your memories and dreams. He constantly retreats into the past: “The charm of days gone by, Why have you risen again?” The poet is dissolved in nature and does not oppose the world, does not recognize life as a whole as something hostile to his soul. Zhuk-th, having looked into the world of mystery, hastens to admit the charm of real life. Exclamation about the possibility near death, which concludes the verse, does not threaten melancholy. Dissolution, merging turns out to be a general law of the universe. Just as the rays of the sun melt in the evening twilight, merging with the fading nature, so a person fades away, and yet remains to live in memories. In the lyrics of Zhuk-go we hardly find any depiction of the physical features of the poet’s beloved; in general, “shadows” often act here, devoid of “flesh” and symbolizing the spiritual union “beyond the grave.” But Bat-ov, on the contrary, first of all, wants to reproduce the external attractiveness of his “goddesses of beauty”, the captivating nature of their feminine charm, so in the poem “Volkhonka” the image of a young nymph full of irresistible charm appears. Bat-va's lyrics became an expression of the concrete experience of the individual in its complexity, in its versatility, in its shades. V. G. Belinsky noted: “The feeling that animates Batyushkov is always organically vital.” Bat-wa's poetry was an expression of the new. Defending a person's right to the joys of life, to earthly happiness, Bat-v came closer to reality in his poetry. This affected his artistic style. Belinsky compares Bat-va’s poetry with the art of sculpture: “His poems have a lot of plasticity, a lot of sculpturalism, so to speak.” The poem “Bacchante” confirms this. In the artistic language of Bat-wa, the world of real action, reflected by poetic consciousness, and the world created by the imagination of a romantic interact. The Bat-wa style lacks that direct correlation between the word and the subject and that closeness to living colloquial speech that distinguishes the realistic style. Thus, in the poem “The Bacchante” Bat-v does not avoid the metaphorical expressions characteristic of the romantic style: “... the cheeks of the roses are blazing with a bright crimson.” The romantically poeticized image of the bacchante encourages the author to use traditional Slavicisms. Basic the theme of the poem is the theme of love - “ardent delights” and “rapture” of earthly passion; this shows that he is still a cheerful poet.

13. The main stages and motives of the poetry of K.N. Batyushkova. Analysis of the poet's poem (student's choice)

Batyushkov emerged as a poet in the first decade of the 19th century. During these years, the feudal-serf economy decomposed and progressive bourgeois relations developed. The pathos of enlightenment brightly colored the philosophical and social views of pre-war Batyushkov.

Batyushkov was brought up on the poetry of the predecessors of Karamzinism. He gave high marks to poets who expressed the inner world of the individual in their work. But he did not accept the sugary and tearful sentimentality. Thus, in the subsoil of Batyushkov’s poetry, directly opposite influences crossed, which determined the inconsistency of Batyushkov’s lyrics.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov, together with Zhukovsky, was included in the representatives of " New School"in Russian poetry (based on the article “Experiences” by Uvarov).

Two periods can be distinguished in the poet’s work: the 1st period 1802-1812 (pre-war), the 2nd period 1812-1821 (post-war).

1) First period.

The most important feature of B.'s pre-war poetry was the love for the “earthly world,” “for worldly pleasures,” and for the visible and sounding beauty of life. The image of a carefree poet-lover of life, a poet of joy appears.

The central image of B.'s lyrics arose on the basis of the poet's acute conflict with reality and against the views prevailing at the top of Alexander's Russia. Batyushkov does not agree with the idea that a wealthy person should be respected by everyone. Most often he is an indifferent member of society.

B. characterized his lyrics as a diary, reflecting the “external” and “internal” biography of the poet. “The eccentric poet” is Batyushkov’s lyrical hero. He refuses the pursuit of “ghosts of glory” and rejects wealth. One of his essential features is the ability to dream. The dream for B. is “a direct part of happiness,” a sorceress who “brings her priceless gifts.” The cult of dreams is one of the established motifs of B.'s lyrics, anticipating the aesthetic theory of the romantics.

The theme of friendship occupies a prominent place in B.'s lyrics. The lyrical hero - a cheerful and carefree poet - sees in his friends witnesses to the facts of his biography, listeners to the story of his life, about his joys and sorrows.

Poetry of love. B. interprets love as a passion that captures and subjugates the whole person. ("Bacchante").

2) Second period.

The beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 was the milestone that opened the second period of B.’s poetic activity.

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Literary monuments are an important element in the culture of any civilized people. Literature reflects not only a certain historical situation, but also social consciousness and mood characteristic of this period. In addition, literature reproduces the very portrait of the people. Literature that expresses the spirit of the people is usually called "folk". However, in literary works, folk literature is often identified with national literature. But these are different concepts: the first includes the work of writers of different nationalities who cover topics of national life and raise the problems of the people (which are multinational). National literature is the literature of a certain nation, which also touches on folk themes, but with an emphasis on the peculiarities of mentality.

There is also another literary gradation. The territory of any state consists of several regions that differ from each other in relief, climate, way of life, social environment, etc. Works created in one area and reflecting its uniqueness belong to regional literature.

Works on the study of national and regional literature in domestic science appeared relatively recently (in the last quarter XX century). At the same time, the regional aspect has been studied less theoretically than the national one. However, in the work of many writers these aspects are found, consciously or not, included in the works. The term “national literature” is broader than regional literature. Following works literary scholars(identifying “folk” and “national” literature), we will define the main features of this concept.

The main component of national literature is its reflection of the characteristics of the mentality of any ethnic group. Psychological picture nations, moral standards, connections with nature - all this, one way or another, is present in works about the people as a single whole.

The historical component is also important. In the literature of any country, one can trace the attitude of society to its past directly through works of art, in particular, through the example of artistic texts.

Russian national literature has always been distinguished by humanity, philanthropy, and the victory of good over evil. Works about the people are often based on Orthodox canons. Events most often occur against the backdrop of a specific historical situation. The characters are endowed with both negative (laziness, slowness) and positive (responsiveness, generosity) traits characteristic of the Russian mentality.

National literature includes regional literature. There are several opinions regarding the last term. For example, A.N. Vlasov includes in regional literature works “created by local authors and in demand by local readers.” IN“The Literary Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts” (2001) understands regional literature as a set of “works of writers who concentrate their attention on depicting a certain area (usually rural) and the people inhabiting it.”

In addition, literary scholars offer synonymous concepts with the term “regional literature”. Thus, in the “Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary” (1987) the concept of “local color” (from the French. couleur locale ) as “the reproduction in fiction of the features of national life, landscape, language, characteristic of a particularly specific locality or region.” The same publication provides a reference to the everyday descriptive tendency of Costumbrism (from Spanish with ostumbrismo, costumbre - character, custom), which captures “the desire for the most accurate descriptions of nature, the characteristics of national life, often with the idealization of patriarchal morals and customs.” Verism (from Italian. vero - truthful). Verists when describing the life of the poor social strata, as is known, they widely used the folk language and its dialect manifestations, which was a necessary means of illustrating the naturalistic proximity of the described phenomena and events to the realities of true human nature, not embellished by artistic means. In addition, there are the concepts of “regionalism”, “veritism”, “zonal literature”, etc.

Despite the obvious differences, these definitions form a synonymous series of regional literature, where common feature- geographical and social description of any area.

The embodiment of the national and regional aspect can be traced through the example of the book by A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904) “Sakhalin Island” (1895). Known not only in Russia, but also abroad, this work revealed to the world the Russian soul, compassionate and sympathetic. Compassion and the ability to see the pain of another are Russian national traits. In “Sakhalin Island” these qualities are shown through the author’s feelings. From the writer’s first impressions of the island and throughout the entire work, one can grasp the experiences of A.P. Chekhov about convicts, free settlers, about the island as a part of Russia, as well as about Russia itself.

The book “Sakhalin Island” reflects, first of all, the hard life of convicts and settlers, who “feel the absence of something important.” The convicts “lack a past, traditions,” they “have no customs,” “and most importantly, no homeland.” This mood is promoted by climatic conditions (“Good weather is very rare here”) and terrain features (“the coast is completely steep, with dark gorges and coal seams... a gloomy coast!”). Almost everyone who arrives on Sakhalin is guided by the phrase: “It’s better here in Russia.” This comparison creates an even greater gap between the mainland and the island, separating Sakhalin from Russia.

In Chekhov's book there is often a hidden opposition between “Russian and non-Russian”, a kind of antithesis between “Russia and Sakhalin”. This artistic technique is stated on the first pages of the work during A.P.’s visit. Chekhov Nikolaevsk. Due to the lack of a hotel in the city, the writer dined at the meeting, where he became an involuntary witness to the conversations of the visitors there. “If you listen carefully and for a long time,” A.P. concludes. Chekhov, - then, my God, how far life here is from Russia!<…>in everything you feel something of your own, not Russian <…>not to mention the original one, not Russian nature, it always seemed to me that the way of our Russian life was completely alien to the native Amurians<…>and we, visitors from Russia, seem foreigners"even" the morality here is somehow special, not ours"(Italics are ours. - T.P.) A.P. Chekhov, like other residents of central Russia, does not associate the island with the mainland as part of the Russian state. For him, Sakhalin is an unknown, different land.

A.P. Chekhov often uses the combinations “on our Russian arshin”, “in our Russian villages”, “Russian field”, “Russian Tsar”, etc., drawing a parallel between Russia And non-Russian, big and small land.

However, on the island the writer also sees what makes him in common with the Russian state - faith, thanks to which people do not allow themselves to sink, overcome inhuman torment, and, having overcome them, begin to live again. Churches have been built for believers on Sakhalin. And A.P. Chekhov often mentions them: “There are several houses and a church on the shore”; "six miles from Douai<…>in the neighborhood, little by little, a residence began to grow: premises for officials and offices, a church<…>" ; “the main essence of the post is its official part: the church, the house of the head of the island, his office”; "gray wooden church"; “the church is white, old, simple and therefore beautiful architecture”, etc. As can be seen from the examples, the description of any settlement, post of A.P. Chekhov often begins by pointing out the presence or absence of a church, which indicates the importance of faith in the spiritual life of people. Let us note that representatives of various confessions and religions lived on Sakhalin (the island was and remains multinational), who, however, peacefully coexisted with each other. This is how A.P. writes about it. Chekhov: “Catholics complained to me that the priest comes very rarely, children remain unbaptized for a long time, and many parents, so that the child does not die without baptism, turn to an Orthodox priest<…>When a Catholic dies, in the absence of one of his own, they invite a Russian priest to sing “Holy God.”

Having touched on the religious topic, one cannot help but mention such a feature of Sakhalin as its multinationality (which is the reason for the large number of religions on the island). The rich ethnic composition of Sakhalin is due to the fact that people were sentenced to exile regardless of nationality. “The local residents,” describes A.P. Chekhov one of the villages is a disorderly rabble Russians, Poles, Finns, Georgians <…>". On the one hand, such mixing did not interfere with maintaining human relations, but, on the contrary, contributed to the assimilation of cultures; on the other hand, people did not strive to settle this land, since for everyone it was a stranger, a temporary place of residence, as people believed. “The rural residents here do not yet form societies. There are still no adult natives of Sakhalin for whom the island would be their homeland; there are very few old-timers, the majority are newcomers; the population changes every year; some arrive, others leave; and in many villages, as I have already said, the inhabitants give the impression not of a rural society, but of a random rabble. They call themselves brothers because they suffered together, but they still have little in common and are alien to each other. They do not believe the same and speak the same different languages. The old people despise this diversity and laughingly say that what kind of society can there be if Russians, crests, Tatars, Poles, Jews, Chukhons, Kyrgyz, Georgians, Gypsies live in the same village?...".

On Sakhalin, which A.P. saw Chekhov, there was no specific way of life, each of the settlers and convicts lived in their own way. An example of this is the description of A.P. Chekhov of Sakhalin life: “On Sakhalin you come across huts of all kinds, depending on who built it - a Siberian, a crest or a Chukhonian, but most often it is a small log house<…>without any external decoration, thatched<…>There is usually no yard. Not a single tree nearby.<…>If there are dogs, then they are lethargic, not angry.<…>And for some reason these quiet, harmless dogs are on a leash. If there is a pig, then with a block on the neck. The rooster is also tied by the leg.

Why do you have a dog and a rooster tied? - I ask the owner.

“Everything is on a chain here on Sakhalin,” he jokes in response. “The earth is just like that.”

“Such” means different, different, alien. The reluctance of people to recognize the island as part of Russia can be explained by its purpose. Sakhalin as a place of exile at the border XIX - XX for centuries it evoked negative emotions, fear, and instilled horror in Russians. Heavy impressions contributed to the writer’s similar perception of Sakhalin nature. “From a high bank,” writes A.P. Chekhov, - stunted, diseased trees looked down; here in the open, each of them alone wages a fierce struggle with frost and cold winds, and each of them has to sway restlessly from side to side in the fall and winter, on long terrible nights, bend to the ground, creak pitifully - and no one hears these complaints." Just as natural complaints remain unanswered, so the groans of people, punished by the law and the surrounding reality, do not reach high authorities. But Chekhov’s Sakhalin residents, like trees, defend their right to life, and sometimes even to existence. The entire “Sakhalin Island” is permeated with such a depressing mood, because A.P. Sakhalin felt this way. Chekhov.

Thus, in the travel notes of A.P. Chekhov's "Sakhalin Island" can be conditionally distinguished "big"(Russia) and "small"(Sakhalin) worlds, “central” and “regional” concepts, which are embodied in the following features:

1) features of the Russian mentality. A.P.’s first impressions of a different, “non-Russian” life from Nikolaevsk change. Chekhov as we learn about the real situation on Sakhalin. A.P. Chekhov sees thieves, murderers who have fallen in moral and physical sense of people. But, at the same time, a convict who is a believer, tolerant, and loves Russia is revealed to him. The writer sees on the island a unique model of the Russian state, where the church plays an important role and where representatives of different ethnic groups coexist peacefully. This reveals such traits of the Russian person as conciliarity and tolerance;

2) historical authenticity. A.P. Chekhov recorded in writing the history of hard labor in its most active period. The book revolutionized public consciousness, since it was created by an eyewitness to those events;

A work that appears at one or another stage of literary development always has a national identity. As an integral part of national culture, literature is the bearer of features that characterize a nation, an expression of common national properties that arise historically, formed by the peculiarities of the natural conditions of the territory in which the people live, the economic relations of their life, the political system, the traditions of ideological and, in particular, literary life . From all this follows the national uniqueness of literature.

The national originality of literature cannot be considered outside of it public importance. “There are two national cultures in every national culture,” wrote V. I. Lenin. - There is a Great Russian culture of the Purishkevichs, Guchkovs and Struves, but there is also a Great Russian culture, characterized by the names of Chernyshevsky and Plekhanov. Eat such same two culture in Ukraine, as in Germany, France, England, among Jews, etc.” (15, 129). Therefore, the meaning of the idea of ​​national identity in literature is dialectically connected with the concepts of nationality and nationality.

^ NATIONAL IDENTITY OF LITERATURE

Literature is the art of words, therefore the features of the national language in which it is written are a direct expression of its national identity. The lexical riches of the national language affect the nature of the author’s speech and the speech characteristics of the characters, the syntax of the national language determines the intonation moves of prose and poetry, phonetic

This structure creates the uniqueness of the sound of the work.

Since there are now more than two and a half thousand languages ​​in the world, we can assume that there is the same number of national literatures. However, there are significantly fewer of the latter.

Despite differences in language, some peoples that have not yet formed into nations often have a commonality literary traditions, first of all - a single folk epic. From this point of view, the example of the peoples of the North Caucasus and Abkhazia, which are represented by more than fifty languages, but have a common epic cycle - “Narts”, is very indicative. Epic Heroes The Ramayanas are common to the peoples of India who speak different languages, and even to many peoples of Southeast Asia. Such a community arises because, although individual nationalities live in remote places, often closed, isolated from the outside world, which is why differences in language arise, their living conditions are nevertheless close to each other. They have to overcome the same difficulties in their encounter with nature, and they have the same level of economic and social development. There are often many similarities in their historical destinies. Therefore, these nationalities are united by common ideas about life and human dignity, and hence, in literature, the imagination is captivated by the images of the same epic heroes.

Writers can also use the same language, and their work represents different national literatures. For example, Egyptian, Syrian, and Algerian writers write in Arabic. The French language is used not only by French, but also to some extent by Belgian and Canadian writers. Both the British and the Americans write in English, but the works they create bear a vivid imprint of various features of national life. Many African writers, using the language of former colonialists, create works that are completely original in their national essence.

It is also characteristic that with a good translation into another language, fiction may well retain the stamp of national identity. “It would be ideal if every work of every nationality included in the Union was translated into the languages ​​of all other nationalities of the Union,” dreamed M. Gorky. - In this case

We would all quickly learn to understand the national-cultural properties and characteristics of each other, and this understanding, of course, would greatly speed up the process of creating... a unified socialist culture.” (49, 365-366). Consequently, although the language of literature is the most important indicator of its nationality, it does not exhaust its national identity.

Very big role In the formation of the national identity of artistic creativity, the commonality of territory plays a role, because in the early stages of the development of society, certain natural conditions often give rise to common tasks in the struggle of man with nature, common labor processes and skills, and hence customs, life, and worldview. Therefore, for example, in the ancient Chinese mythology that developed under the clan system, the hero is Gong, who managed to stop the river from flooding ( common occurrence in China) and saved the people from the flood, taking out a piece of “living earth”, and among the ancient Greeks - Prometheus, who brought fire from the sky. In addition, impressions of the surrounding nature influence the properties of the narrative, the features of metaphors, comparisons and other artistic means. Northern peoples rejoice in the warmth and sun, so they most often compare a beauty to the clear sun, while southern peoples prefer the comparison With the moon, because the night brings coolness that saves from the heat of the sun. In Russian songs and fairy tales, a woman’s gait is compared to the smooth stride of a swan, and in India - with the “wonderful gait of royal elephants.”

Territorial community often leads to common paths of economic development and creates a common historical life of the people. This influences the themes of literature, creates differences artistic images. Thus, the Armenian epic “David of Sasun” tells about the life of gardeners and cultivators, about the construction of irrigation canals; the Kyrgyz “Manas” captured the nomadic life of cattle breeders, the search for new pastures, life in the saddle; in the epic of the German people, “The Song of the Nibelungs,” the search for ore, the work of blacksmiths, etc. are depicted.

As a nation is formed from a nationality and the community of spiritual make-up of the people crystallizes, the national identity of literature is manifested not only in labor and everyday customs and ideas, peculiarities of perception of nature, but also in

Benevolence of social life. The development of class society, the transition from one socio-economic formation to another: from slave-owning to feudal and from feudal to bourgeois - occurs among different peoples at different times, under different conditions. The external and internal political activities of the national state develop differently, which influences the organization and strengthening of property and legal relations, the emergence of certain moral norms, and hence the formation of ideological (including religious) ideas and traditions. All this leads to the emergence of a national characteristic of the life of society. From childhood, people are brought up under the influence of a complex system of relationships and ideas. national society, and this leaves an imprint on their behavior. This is how the characters of people of different nations - national characters - are historically formed.

Literature has an honorable place in revealing the peculiarities of national character. The versatility of this phenomenon, its connection with the main subject of artistic knowledge - man in his social character - give the artist advantages over the scientist. "Images fiction,” writes I. Kon, “cover national-typical features deeper and more multifaceted than scientific formulas. Fiction shows the diversity of national types, their specific class nature, and their historical development.” (63, 228).

It is often believed that national character is determined by one dominant psychological trait inherent only to one nation, exclusively to it. But common features can manifest themselves in representatives of different nations. The uniqueness of the national character lies in a certain relationship between these traits and the trends in their development. Literary characters perfectly show how the same character trait, in unity with others, takes on different national incarnations. So, for example, Balzac portrays Gobsek’s stinginess, but it is not at all similar in its psychological manifestation to the stinginess of Gogol’s Plyushkin. Both characters, striving to accumulate wealth, have ceased to distinguish what is necessary from what is unnecessary, and for both it is senselessly rotting under the watchful supervision of

Miser's rum. However, these common features are formed in different ways - by bourgeois society for one and feudal-serf society for the other. The most important role in reflecting national character traits in literature belongs to critical realism. Critical realists, to a much greater extent than romanticists or even more so classicists, had the opportunity to reveal in their works all the contradictory complexity of the national characters of their characters who belonged to different strata of society. An artist who has mastered the art of the finest realistic detail conveys both the social determination of a certain character trait or manifestation of feeling, and his national identity.

With the emergence of critical realism in literature, an important quality of national originality is revealed. Since a realistic work bears the imprint of the writer’s personality, his individuality, and the writer himself acts as a bearer of national character, national originality becomes an organic property of the work itself. The characters of people in their national characteristics not only act as an object of artistic knowledge, but are also depicted from the point of view of the writer, who also carries within himself the spirit of his people, his nation. The first profound exponent of the national Russian character in literature is Pushkin. Belinsky wrote about this more than once, Gogol expressed it especially aptly: “Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon and, perhaps, the only manifestation of the Russian spirit: this is the Russian man in his development, in which he may appear in two hundred years. In it, Russian nature, Russian soul, Russian language, Russian character were reflected in the same purity, in such purified beauty, in which the landscape is reflected on the convex surface of optical glass.” (46, 33).

The imprint of national originality is borne not only by those works that directly depict the characters and events of national reality or history (“Eugene Onegin” and “Poltava” by Pushkin, “War and Peace” or “Resurrection” by L. Tolstoy), but also those , which reflect the life of other peoples (for example, “Lucerne” or “Hadji Murat”), but comprehend and evaluate its contradictions from the point of view of a person shaped by Russian reality.

At the same time, national identity is not limited to

Only by depicting individual characters, it covers the creative process so deeply that it manifests itself in the plots and themes of the works. Thus, in Russian literature the theme of the “superfluous man” has become widespread - a nobleman, a person of progressive views, who is in conflict with the surrounding reality, but is unable to realize his dissatisfaction with the existing order. For French literature turned out to be a typical conflict of a person making his way in the bourgeois world. As a result, certain genres received preferential development in national literature (the novel of education, for example, in German and English literature).

Thus, the literature of critical realism, developing in Europe in the 19th century, contains the most complete, profound expression of national identity.

National character plays a large role in determining the national identity of literature, however, when analyzing, it is necessary to take into account that this is not only a psychological, but also a socio-historical category, because the formation of character is determined by the socio-historical conditions prevailing in society. Therefore, national character cannot be considered as something given forever. The development of historical life can change the national character.

Some writers and critics, taking a superficial approach to the problem of national identity, idealize patriarchal life with its stability and even rigidity. They do not try to understand the national identity in the life of those sections of society that have become familiar with the achievements of international culture. As a result, a falsely interpreted love for their nation leads them to misunderstanding the progressive phenomena of national life. An exclusive interest only in what distinguishes one nation from others, a belief in the chosenness of one’s nation, in the superiority of its ancestral customs, rituals and everyday habits leads not only to conservatism, but also to nationalism. Then the national feeling of the people is used by the exploiting classes in their own interests. Therefore, the concept of national identity must be considered in relation to the concept of nationality.

^ NATIONALITY OF LITERATURE

The concepts of nationality and nationality of artistic creativity did not differ for a long time. When national literatures began to take shape, the German scientist I. Herder came up with a theory of national identity based on the study of folk legends and oral folk art. In 1778-1779 he published collections of folk poetry entitled “Voices of Peoples in Songs.” According to Herder, folk poetry was “the flower of the unity of the people, its language and its antiquity, its activities and judgments, its passions and unfulfilled desires” (62, 213). Thus, the German thinker found the expression of the national spirit, the national “substance” primarily in the psychological makeup of the working people, and he had to endure a lot of ridicule for turning to the poetry of the “plebeians.”

Interest in folk art in connection with the problem of national identity was both natural and progressive for the 18th century. In the feudal era, national identity was most clearly manifested in oral folk art and in the works that were influenced by this creativity (“The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” in Russia, “The Song of Roland” in France, etc.) The ruling class, trying to oppose itself the working masses, to emphasize the exclusivity of their position, gravitated towards a cosmopolitan culture, often using even a language foreign to the people. At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. progressive figures - educators and romantics - turned to folk poetry.

This was especially evident in Russia. For the noble Decembrist revolutionaries, who in their way of life were far from the popular, working masses, familiarity with folk art became one of the ways to get to know their people and become familiar with their interests. Sometimes in their works they managed to penetrate the spirit of folk art. Thus, Ryleev created the duma “The Death of Ermak”, adopted by the masses as a folk song.

In Russia, the poetry of the Decembrists and writers close to them in spirit, led by Pushkin, with great force expressed the interests of the progressive, revolutionary movement. Their poetry was national in character, non-national and democratic in meaning. But they themselves and the critics of subsequent decades had not yet seen the difference between these concepts. Yes, Belinsky

He constantly called Pushkin and Gogol “national poets,” meaning by this the high national originality of their work, and only towards the end of his activity did he gradually come to an understanding of the nationality itself.

In the 30s years XIX V. The ruling circles of autocratic Russia created the nationalist theory of “official nationality.” By “nationality” they understood devotion to autocracy and Orthodoxy; Literature was required to depict native Russian life, permeated with religious prejudices, historical paintings glorifying the love of the Russian people for the Tsar. Pushkin, Gogol, Belinsky did a lot to show the limitations of the authors (Zagoskin, Kukolnik and some others) who spoke in line with the nationalistically understood “nationality”.

A decisive turning point in the understanding of nationality in literature was made by Dobrolyubov’s article “On the degree of participation of nationality in the development of Russian literature” (1858). The critic showed that nationality is determined not by the range of topics that interest the writer, but by the expression in literature of the “point of view” of the working people, the masses, who form the basis of national life. Moreover, assessing the nationality of the writer’s work, the critic demanded that the interests of the oppressed masses be elevated to the height of the interests of general civil, national development. Therefore, he reproached even Koltsov for his narrow-mindedness (55, 263). The expression of the advanced ideas of the time, which in one way or another meet the interests of the masses, is a condition for literature to achieve true nationality.

Revolutionary-democratic writers, following Dobrolyubov, consciously strove for nationality in their artistic work, but nationality may also be unconscious. So, Dobrolyubov, for example, wrote about Gogol: “We see that Gogol, although in his best creations came very close to people's point of view but he approached unconsciously, simply with an artistic touch" (55, 271; emphasis added - S.K.). In this case, the nationality of works can only be assessed historically, raising the question of what works, how and to what extent this or that writer could, in his era of national development, express the interests of the masses.

The most important ones are the works

Folk in meaning can also be those works that depict the best representatives of the ruling class, dissatisfied with the meaninglessness of the existence of the environment to which they belong by birth and upbringing, looking for ways to activity and to other forms of human relations. Such are “Eugene Onegin” by Pushkin, the best novels of Turgenev and L. Tolstoy, “Foma Gordeev” and “Yegor Bulychev” by Gorky, etc. V. I. Lenin attached great importance to the work of L. Tolstoy, primarily because he found

His works express popular protest in the era of “preparing for a revolution in one of the countries oppressed by the serfs...” (14, 19).

And lyrical works that reproduce the inner world, reflecting the diversity of the poet’s emotional responses to the surrounding reality, can also be folk in their meaning if they are distinguished by the depth and truthfulness of their ideological orientation. Such are the sonnets of Petrarch and Shakespeare, the lyrics of Byron and Shelley, Pushkin and Lermontov, Heine, Blok, Yesenin, Mayakovsky. They enrich the moral, emotional and aesthetic experience of the nation and all humanity.

To create works of national significance, the most important role is played by the progressiveness of the writer’s worldview and his ideals. But works that are folk in their meaning can also be created by writers with a contradictory worldview. Then the measure of their nationality is determined by the depth of the critical problematics of their work. This can be judged by the works of A. Ostrovsky or Dickens. The spontaneous-democratic worldview gave them the opportunity to create the brightest pictures exposing the world of profit. But writers who are progressive only in the critical side of their work are usually unstable in their positions. Along with sharp, revealing images, they have implausible idyllic pictures of patriarchal life. The researcher must be able to reveal such contradictions of a writer whose national significance is recognized by the history of literature. It is in this approach to understanding artistic creativity that the methodological meaning of Lenin’s assessment of L. Tolstoy, whose ideals reflected the “immaturity of daydreaming” of the patriarchal peasantry, but at the same time led the writer to realistically tearing off “all and every mask” (13, 212, 209).

Folk literature, in its significance, equips the advanced forces of the nation, its progressive social movements, which serve to emancipate the working masses and establish new forms of social life. It raises the civic activity of the lower social classes, freeing workers from authoritarian ideas and their dependence on those in power. The words of V. I. Lenin, retold by K. Zetkin, correspond to the modern understanding of nationality: “Art belongs to

To the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very depths of the broad working masses. It must be understandable to these masses and loved by them. It must unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, lift them up" (16, 657).

To fulfill this function, art must be accessible to the people. Dobrolyubov saw one of the main reasons for the absence of nationality in the long centuries of development of Russian literature in the fact that literature remained distant from the masses due to the illiteracy of the latter. The critic was extremely sensitive to the narrowness of Russian reading circles: “... the greatness of it (literature. - S.K.) meaning is weakened in this case only by the smallness of the circle in which it acts. This is the last circumstance that is impossible to remember without regret and which chills us every time we get carried away by dreams of the great significance of literature and its beneficial influence on humanity” (55, 226-226).

Contemporary writers in Latin America and many countries in Asia and Africa write about the same tragic separation of the bulk of the people from national culture. Such a barrier can only be overcome by social transformations of society. An example is the transformations in our country after the Great October Socialist Revolution, when cultural achievements ceased to be the property of the “top ten thousand.”

The nationality of art is determined not only by the merits of its content, but also by the perfection of form. The people's writer strives for the capacity and expressiveness of each word, artistic detail, plot twist. Sometimes this is given to him with great difficulty. Reading in L. Tolstoy’s “Resurrection” a simple, at first glance, phrase: “Katyusha, beaming with a smile and eyes as black as wet currants, flew towards him,” the reader imagines a girl charming in her youthful defenselessness. But he has no idea how long the artist worked on these words until he found the only necessary comparison (the initial comparison of Katyusha’s eyes with cherries destroyed the artistic effect).

Simplicity and accessibility artistic form in this sense, they are determined by the creative demands of the writer, his aesthetic sense, and the measure of his talent. To convey to the reader the ideological wealth of their

Works, the artist must give them high perfection artistic form and style.

Genuinely folk literature expresses national interests most fully, therefore it also has a pronounced national identity. It is through the works of such artists as Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gorky, Sholokhov, L. Leonov, Tvardovsky that our idea of ​​both the nationality of art and its national identity is determined.

However, the development process never occurs in isolation in one national culture. It is very important to understand the interaction not only between the folk and national meanings of literature, but also their connection with its universal meaning. It follows from the role that the nation that created its literature plays in human development. To do this, it is necessary that the writer, in the national identity of the processes occurring in the life of his people, reveal the features of the progressive development of all humanity.

Thus, the poems of Homer, thanks to their national identity, reflected with particular perfection, according to K. Marx, that early stage of development of all peoples, which can be called the childhood of “human society” 1. Italian poetry (Dante, Petrarch, etc.), as well as English drama (Shakespeare); for the era of absolutism - the dramaturgy of French classicism; for the era bourgeois revolutions- romantic poetry of Byron; for the era of development of bourgeois society - realistic literature of France (Balzac, Flaubert), England (Dickens), Russia (Pushkin, Gogol, L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov).

The fusion of the folk, national and universal is most clearly manifested in the literature of socialist realism. The processes of formation of the human personality in the struggle to build a new, classless society are important for all humanity. Writers of socialist realism are armed with a scientific understanding of the objective laws of historical development,

1 See: Marx K., Engels F. Op. 2nd ed. T. 12. P. 737.

Literature is the art of words, therefore the features of the national language in which it is written are a direct expression of its national identity. The lexical riches of the national language affect the nature of the author’s speech and the speech characteristics of the characters, the syntax of the national language determines the intonation moves of prose and poetry, phonetic

The Chinese structure creates the uniqueness of the sound of the work.

Since there are now more than two and a half thousand languages ​​in the world, we can assume that there is the same number of national literatures. However, there are significantly fewer of the latter.

Despite the differences in language, some peoples that have not yet formed into a nation often have a common literary tradition, first of all, a single folk epic. From this point of view, the example of the peoples of the North Caucasus and Abkhazia, which are represented by more than fifty languages, but have a common epic cycle - “Narts”, is very indicative. The epic heroes of the Ramayana are common to the peoples of India who speak different languages, and even to many peoples of Southeast Asia. Such a community arises because, although individual nationalities live in remote places, often closed, isolated from the outside world, which is why differences in language arise, their living conditions are nevertheless close to each other. They have to overcome the same difficulties in their encounter with nature, and they have the same level of economic and social development. There are often many similarities in their historical destinies. Therefore, these nationalities are united by common ideas about life and human dignity, and hence, in literature, the imagination is captivated by the images of the same epic heroes.

Writers can also use the same language, and their work represents different national literatures. For example, Egyptian, Syrian, and Algerian writers write in Arabic. The French language is used not only by French, but also to some extent by Belgian and Canadian writers. Both the British and the Americans write in English, but the works they create bear a vivid imprint of various features of national life. Many African writers, using the language of former colonialists, create works that are completely original in their national essence.

It is also characteristic that with a good translation into another language, fiction may well retain the stamp of national identity. “It would be ideal if every work of every nationality included in the Union was translated into the languages ​​of all other nationalities of the Union,” dreamed M. Gorky. - In this case

We would all quickly learn to understand the national-cultural properties and characteristics of each other, and this understanding, of course, would greatly speed up the process of creating... a unified socialist culture.” (49, 365-366). Consequently, although the language of literature is the most important indicator of its nationality, it does not exhaust its national identity.

A very important role in the formation of the national identity of artistic creativity is played by the commonality of territory, because in the early stages of the development of society, certain natural conditions often give rise to common tasks in the struggle of man with nature, common labor processes and skills, and hence customs, life, and worldview. Therefore, for example, in the mythology that developed during the clan system among the ancient Chinese, the hero is Gong, who managed to stop the flood of the river (a frequent occurrence in China) and saved the people from the flood, obtaining a piece of “living earth”, and among the ancient Greeks - Prometheus, who mined sky fire. In addition, impressions of the surrounding nature influence the properties of the narrative, the features of metaphors, comparisons and other artistic means. Northern peoples rejoice in the warmth and sun, so they most often compare a beauty to the clear sun, while southern peoples prefer the comparison With the moon, because the night brings coolness that saves from the heat of the sun. In Russian songs and fairy tales, a woman’s gait is compared to the smooth stride of a swan, and in India - with the “wonderful gait of royal elephants.”

Territorial community often leads to common paths of economic development and creates a common historical life of the people. This influences the themes of literature and gives rise to differences in artistic images. Thus, the Armenian epic “David of Sasun” tells about the life of gardeners and cultivators, about the construction of irrigation canals; the Kyrgyz “Manas” captured the nomadic life of cattle breeders, the search for new pastures, life in the saddle; in the epic of the German people, “The Song of the Nibelungs,” the search for ore, the work of blacksmiths, etc. are depicted.

As a nation is formed from a nationality and the community of spiritual make-up of the people crystallizes, the national identity of literature is manifested not only in labor and everyday customs and ideas, peculiarities of perception of nature, but also in

benefits of social life. The development of class society, the transition from one socio-economic formation to another: from slave-owning to feudal and from feudal to bourgeois - occurs among different peoples at different times, under different conditions. The external and internal political activities of the national state develop differently, which influences the organization and strengthening of property and legal relations, the emergence of certain moral norms, and hence the formation of ideological (including religious) ideas and traditions. All this leads to the emergence of a national characteristic of the life of society. From childhood, people are brought up under the influence of a complex system of relationships and ideas of national society, and this leaves an imprint on their behavior. This is how the characters of people of different nations - national characters - are historically formed.

Literature has an honorable place in revealing the peculiarities of national character. The versatility of this phenomenon, its connection with the main subject of artistic knowledge - man in his social character - give the artist advantages over the scientist. “Images of fiction,” writes I. Kon, “embrace national-typical features deeper and more multifaceted than scientific formulas. Fiction shows the diversity of national types, their specific class nature, and their historical development.” (63, 228).

It is often believed that national character is determined by one dominant psychological trait inherent only to one nation, exclusively to it. But common features can appear among representatives of different nations. The uniqueness of the national character lies in a certain relationship between these traits and the trends in their development. Literary characters perfectly show how the same character trait, in unity with others, takes on different national incarnations. So, for example, Balzac portrays Gobsek’s stinginess, but it is not at all similar in its psychological manifestation to the stinginess of Gogol’s Plyushkin. Both characters, striving to accumulate wealth, have ceased to distinguish what is necessary from what is unnecessary, and for both it is senselessly rotting under the watchful supervision of

Miser's rum. However, these common features are formed in different ways - by bourgeois society for one and feudal-serf society for the other. The most important role in reflecting national character traits in literature belongs to critical realism. Critical realists, to a much greater extent than romanticists or even more so classicists, had the opportunity to reveal in their works all the contradictory complexity of the national characters of their characters who belonged to different strata of society. An artist who has mastered the art of the finest realistic detail conveys both the social determination of a certain character trait or manifestation of feeling, and his national identity.

With the emergence of critical realism in literature, an important quality of national originality is revealed. Since a realistic work bears the imprint of the writer’s personality, his individuality, and the writer himself acts as a bearer of national character, national originality becomes an organic property of the work itself. The characters of people in their national characteristics not only act as an object of artistic knowledge, but are also depicted from the point of view of the writer, who also carries within himself the spirit of his people, his nation. The first profound exponent of the national Russian character in literature is Pushkin. Belinsky wrote about this more than once, Gogol expressed it especially aptly: “Pushkin is an extraordinary phenomenon and, perhaps, the only manifestation of the Russian spirit: this is the Russian man in his development, in which he may appear in two hundred years. In it, Russian nature, Russian soul, Russian language, Russian character were reflected in the same purity, in such purified beauty, in which the landscape is reflected on the convex surface of optical glass.” (46, 33).

The imprint of national originality is borne not only by those works that directly depict the characters and events of national reality or history (“Eugene Onegin” and “Poltava” by Pushkin, “War and Peace” or “Resurrection” by L. Tolstoy), but also those , which reflect the life of other peoples (for example, “Lucerne” or “Hadji Murat”), but comprehend and evaluate its contradictions from the point of view of a person shaped by Russian reality.

At the same time, national identity is not limited to

only depicting individual characters, it covers the creative process so deeply that it manifests itself in the plots and themes of the works. Thus, in Russian literature the theme of the “superfluous man” has become widespread - a nobleman, a person of progressive views, who is in conflict with the surrounding reality, but is unable to realize his dissatisfaction with the existing order. For French literature, the conflict of a person making his way in the bourgeois world turned out to be typical. As a result, certain genres received preferential development in national literature (the novel of education, for example, in German and English literature).

Thus, the literature of critical realism, developing in Europe in the 19th century, contains the most complete, profound expression of national identity.

National character plays a large role in determining the national identity of literature, however, when analyzing, it is necessary to take into account that this is not only a psychological, but also a socio-historical category, because the formation of character is determined by the socio-historical conditions prevailing in society. Therefore, national character cannot be considered as something given forever. The development of historical life can change the national character.

Some writers and critics, taking a superficial approach to the problem of national identity, idealize patriarchal life with its stability and even rigidity. They do not try to understand the national identity in the life of those sections of society that have become familiar with the achievements of international culture. As a result, a falsely interpreted love for their nation leads them to misunderstanding the progressive phenomena of national life. An exclusive interest only in what distinguishes one nation from others, a belief in the chosenness of one’s nation, in the superiority of its ancestral customs, rituals and everyday habits leads not only to conservatism, but also to nationalism. Then the national feeling of the people is used by the exploiting classes in their own interests. Therefore, the concept of national identity must be considered in relation to the concept of nationality.

NATIONALITY OF LITERATURE

The concepts of nationality and nationality of artistic creativity did not differ for a long time. When national literatures began to take shape, the German scientist I. Herder came up with a theory of national identity based on the study of folk legends and oral folk art. In 1778-1779 he published collections of folk poetry entitled “Voices of Peoples in Songs.” According to Herder, folk poetry was “the flower of the unity of the people, its language and its antiquity, its activities and judgments, its passions and unfulfilled desires” (62, 213). Thus, the German thinker found the expression of the national spirit, the national “substance” primarily in the psychological makeup of the working people, and he had to endure a lot of ridicule for turning to the poetry of the “plebeians.”

Interest in folk art in connection with the problem of national identity was both natural and progressive for the 18th century. In the feudal era, national identity was most clearly manifested in oral folk art and in the works that were influenced by this creativity (“The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” in Russia, “The Song of Roland” in France, etc.) The ruling class, trying to oppose itself the working masses, to emphasize the exclusivity of their position, gravitated towards a cosmopolitan culture, often using even a language foreign to the people. At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries. progressive figures - educators and romantics - turned to folk poetry.

This was especially evident in Russia. For the noble Decembrist revolutionaries, who in their way of life were far from the popular, working masses, familiarity with folk art became one of the ways to get to know their people and become familiar with their interests. Sometimes in their works they managed to penetrate the spirit of folk art. Thus, Ryleev created the duma “The Death of Ermak”, adopted by the masses as a folk song.

In Russia, the poetry of the Decembrists and writers close to them in spirit, led by Pushkin, with great force expressed the interests of the progressive, revolutionary movement. Their poetry was national in character, non-national and democratic in meaning. But they themselves and the critics of subsequent decades had not yet seen the difference between these concepts. Yes, Belinsky

constantly called Pushkin and Gogol “national poets,” meaning by this the high national originality of their work, and only towards the end of his activity did he gradually come to an understanding of the nationality itself.

In the 30s of the XIX century. The ruling circles of autocratic Russia created the nationalist theory of “official nationality”. By “nationality” they understood devotion to autocracy and Orthodoxy; Literature was required to depict native Russian life, permeated with religious prejudices, historical paintings glorifying the love of the Russian people for the Tsar. Pushkin, Gogol, Belinsky did a lot to show the limitations of the authors (Zagoskin, Kukolnik and some others) who spoke in line with the nationalistically understood “nationality”.

A decisive turning point in the understanding of nationality in literature was made by Dobrolyubov’s article “On the degree of participation of nationality in the development of Russian literature” (1858). The critic showed that nationality is determined not by the range of topics that interest the writer, but by the expression in literature of the “point of view” of the working people, the masses, who form the basis of national life. Moreover, assessing the nationality of the writer’s work, the critic demanded that the interests of the oppressed masses be elevated to the height of the interests of general civil, national development. Therefore, he reproached even Koltsov for his narrow-mindedness (55, 263). The expression of the advanced ideas of the time, which in one way or another meet the interests of the masses, is a condition for literature to achieve true nationality.

Revolutionary-democratic writers, following Dobrolyubov, consciously strove for nationality in their artistic work, but nationality may also be unconscious. So, Dobrolyubov, for example, wrote about Gogol: “We see that Gogol, although in his best creations came very close to people's point of view but he approached unconsciously, simply with an artistic touch" (55, 271; emphasis added - S.K.). In this case, the nationality of works can only be assessed historically, raising the question of what works, how and to what extent this or that writer could, in his era of national development, express the interests of the masses.

The most important ones are the works

Folk in meaning can also be those works that depict the best representatives of the ruling class, dissatisfied with the meaninglessness of the existence of the environment to which they belong by birth and upbringing, looking for ways to activity and to other forms of human relations. Such are “Eugene Onegin” by Pushkin, the best novels of Turgenev and L. Tolstoy, “Foma Gordeev” and “Yegor Bulychev” by Gorky, etc. V. I. Lenin attached great importance to the work of L. Tolstoy, primarily because he found

in his works there is an expression of popular protest in the era of “preparation for a revolution in one of the countries oppressed by the serfs...” (14, 19).

And lyrical works that reproduce the inner world, reflecting the diversity of the poet’s emotional responses to the surrounding reality, can also be folk in their meaning if they are distinguished by the depth and truthfulness of their ideological orientation. Such are the sonnets of Petrarch and Shakespeare, the lyrics of Byron and Shelley, Pushkin and Lermontov, Heine, Blok, Yesenin, Mayakovsky. They enrich the moral, emotional and aesthetic experience of the nation and all humanity.

To create works of national significance, the most important role is played by the progressiveness of the writer’s worldview and his ideals. But works that are folk in their meaning can also be created by writers with a contradictory worldview. Then the measure of their nationality is determined by the depth of the critical problematics of their work. This can be judged by the works of A. Ostrovsky or Dickens. The spontaneous-democratic worldview gave them the opportunity to create the brightest pictures exposing the world of profit. But writers who are progressive only in the critical side of their work are usually unstable in their positions. Along with sharp, revealing images, they have implausible idyllic pictures of patriarchal life. The researcher must be able to reveal such contradictions of a writer whose national significance is recognized by the history of literature. It is in this approach to understanding artistic creativity that the methodological meaning of Lenin’s assessment of L. Tolstoy, whose ideals reflected the “immaturity of daydreaming” of the patriarchal peasantry, but at the same time led the writer to realistically tearing off “all and every mask” (13, 212, 209).

Folk literature, in its significance, equips the advanced forces of the nation, its progressive social movements, which serve to emancipate the working masses and establish new forms of social life. It raises the civic activity of the lower social classes, freeing workers from authoritarian ideas and their dependence on those in power. The words of V. I. Lenin, retold by K. Zetkin, correspond to the modern understanding of nationality: “Art belongs to

to the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very depths of the broad working masses. It must be understandable to these masses and loved by them. It must unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, lift them up" (16, 657).

To fulfill this function, art must be accessible to the people. Dobrolyubov saw one of the main reasons for the absence of nationality in the long centuries of development of Russian literature in the fact that literature remained distant from the masses due to the illiteracy of the latter. The critic was extremely sensitive to the narrowness of Russian reading circles: “... the greatness of it (literature. - S.K.) meaning is weakened in this case only by the smallness of the circle in which it acts. This is the last circumstance that is impossible to remember without regret and which chills us every time we get carried away by dreams of the great significance of literature and its beneficial influence on humanity” (55, 226-226).

Contemporary writers in Latin America and many countries in Asia and Africa write about the same tragic separation of the bulk of the people from national culture. Such a barrier can only be overcome by social transformations of society. An example is the transformations in our country after the Great October Socialist Revolution, when cultural achievements ceased to be the property of the “top ten thousand.”

The nationality of art is determined not only by the merits of its content, but also by the perfection of form. The people's writer strives for the capacity and expressiveness of every word, artistic detail, and plot twist. Sometimes this is given to him with great difficulty. Reading in L. Tolstoy’s “Resurrection” a simple, at first glance, phrase: “Katyusha, beaming with a smile and eyes as black as wet currants, flew towards him,” the reader imagines a girl charming in her youthful defenselessness. But he has no idea how long the artist worked on these words until he found the only necessary comparison (the initial comparison of Katyusha’s eyes with cherries destroyed the artistic effect).

The simplicity and accessibility of the artistic form in this sense are determined by the creative demands of the writer, his aesthetic sense, and the extent of his talent. To convey to the reader the ideological wealth of their

works, the artist must give them the highest perfection of artistic form and style.

Truly folk literature expresses national interests most fully, and therefore it also has a pronounced national identity. It is through the works of such artists as Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gorky, Sholokhov, L. Leonov, Tvardovsky that our idea of ​​both the nationality of art and its national identity is determined.

However, the development process never occurs in isolation in one national culture. It is very important to understand the interaction not only between the folk and national meanings of literature, but also their connection with its universal meaning. It follows from the role that the nation that created its literature plays in human development. To do this, it is necessary that the writer, in the national identity of the processes occurring in the life of his people, reveal the features of the progressive development of all humanity.

Thus, the poems of Homer, thanks to their national identity, reflected with particular perfection, according to K. Marx, that early stage of development of all peoples, which can be called the childhood of “human society” 1. Italian poetry (Dante, Petrarch, etc.), as well as English drama (Shakespeare); for the era of absolutism - the dramaturgy of French classicism; for the era of bourgeois revolutions - the romantic poetry of Byron; for the era of development of bourgeois society - realistic literature of France (Balzac, Flaubert), England (Dickens), Russia (Pushkin, Gogol, L. Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov).

The fusion of the folk, national and universal is most clearly manifested in the literature of socialist realism. The processes of formation of the human personality in the struggle to build a new, classless society are important for all humanity. Writers of socialist realism are armed with a scientific understanding of the objective laws of historical development,

1 See: Marx K., Engels F. Op. 2nd ed. T. 12. P. 737.

they consciously defend the interests of the people. Soviet multinational literature fully includes the words about Soviet culture spoken in the Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the XXVII Party Congress: “By absorbing the wealth of national forms and colors, it becomes a unique phenomenon in world culture.” (17, 53).

The best works of fiction, in which artists capture the present of a people in its connection with the past, and thereby reflect the general movement from the present to the future, retain enduring national, and often world-historical, significance. They live for centuries in the consciousness of society, being monuments of the natural stages of development of both individual peoples and all of humanity. They are rethought by the public of different nations at new stages of their historical development in different aspects of their content, each time acquiring new ideological and aesthetic relevance.

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102. Chernyshevsky N. G. Childhood and adolescence. Works of the Count
L. N. Tolstoy. War stories of Count L.N. Tolstoy // Complete. collection
cit.: In 15 volumes. M., 1947. T. 3.

103. Chernyshevsky N. G. Notes on magazines (June 1869)//
Full collection cit.: In 15 volumes. M., 1947. T. 3.

104. Chernyshevsky N. G. Works and letters of N.V. Gogol // Complete.
collection cit.: In 15 volumes. M., 1948. T. 4.

105. Schelling F. Philosophy of art. M., 1966.

106. Schiller F. Criminal because of lost honor // Collection. Op.:
In 7 volumes. M., 1956. T. 3.

107. Schiller F. About tragic art // Collection. Op.: In 7 vol. M.,
1957. T. 6.

108. Schiller F. Articles on aesthetics. M, 1935.

109. Shaw B. About drama and theater. M., 1963.