Observation. Observation as a research method

Main characteristics

Observation as a research method is a purposeful recording of the phenomena being studied, developed according to a prepared plan, for the purpose of their subsequent analysis and use in practical activities. What is observed, in what way, using what tools, the sociologist displays in the research program. In addition, it substantiates hypotheses, basic concepts, and tactics in general.

Observation as a method of sociological research

Famous Russian sociologist V.A. Yadov This concept means direct registration of facts, phenomena, events by an eyewitness. Scientific observation differs from everyday life. It is one of the common methods in sociology, psychology and other sciences. In fact, the creation of any work begins with it.

Classification

Observation as a research method is divided into:

• Uncontrollable. This is a non-standard, unstructured process in which the researcher uses only a general principled plan.
• Controlled. The researcher develops the entire procedure in detail and follows the initially prepared plan.

Other types of method

In addition, there are differences depending on the position of the researcher who conducts the observation. As a research method, in theory it is proposed to distinguish between participant and simple observation.

Complicit

It is included, it presupposes the adaptation and entry of the author into the environment that is to be analyzed and studied.

Simple

The researcher records events or phenomena from the outside. This and the previous cases allow for open surveillance. As a research method, you can use the hidden option and disguise.

Stimulating observation

This species is a variety of included. Its difference lies in the creation of an experimental setting in order to better identify the characteristics of the object under study.

Observation as a research method: primary requirements

1. Formulation of a clear goal and clear research objectives.

2. Planning. The procedure for carrying out the method is thought out in advance.

3. Data recording for the purpose of objectivity and accuracy. Availability of diaries and protocols.

4. The ability to control information for stability and validity.

Observation as a method of psychological research

In psychology, it can exist in two forms:

• introspection (introspection);
• objective.

Helpful advice

Often self-observation is a component of the objective, then it is important for the researcher to direct the individual’s questions not so that he communicates his emotions and experiences, but to coordinate his actions himself and thus determine patterns that are unconscious to the recipient, which would be the basis of the corresponding processes.

Advantages of the observation method in psychology

• the opportunity to study mental processes in life conditions;
• display of events in their course;
• obtaining information about the actions of individuals, regardless of their attitudes towards the corresponding model of behavior.

Expert opinion

Experts say that observation is best used in combination with other scientific research methods for greater reliability and objectivity of the data.

Observation method− one of the main empirical methods of psychological research, consisting in the deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of mental phenomena in order to study their specific changes in certain conditions. Observation method in animal psychology used both to observe the natural behavior of animals in their habitats and in artificially created conditions.

As G.G. Filippova notes, the essence of the observation method is the careful and consistent recording of all behavioral manifestations of the activity of the object of study. The advantage of the observation method is that it is carried out in natural conditions for animals. Researchers study and trace the changes that occur in the behavior of an animal during certain changes in the environment. This information provides the opportunity to draw conclusions both about the external causes of mental activity and about the adaptive forms and functions of behavior. The result of observations is a qualitative assessment of the activity and forms of manifestation of the animal (for example, the observation and analysis of the usual, unsupported manipulation of animals with certain objects is of interest to animal psychologists).

Despite the apparent simplicity (look and record what you see), the observation method is very complex. Its effectiveness depends entirely on the experience, research skills of the observer, the accuracy and quality of his work.

As a scientific method, observation has its own principles of organization and conduct, rules, as well as methods of implementation (specific techniques), which are revealed by G.G. Filippova. So, to the main principles The author makes the following observations:

1. Objectivity. According to G.G. Filippova, this is the most important principle of observation, closely related to the very essence of the scientific approach to the study of the psyche of animals. The researcher cannot directly penetrate into the subjective world of another living being (this is especially true for animals with whom we interact) and evaluates it only by behavioral manifestations. Objectivity in observation means that the researcher describes only those behavioral manifestations that he directly sees. Compliance with this principle is directly related to the qualifications of the observer, his skill and ability to impartially and accurately record the observed facts.

2. Systematicity. In order to avoid errors in the interpretation of the obtained data related to the situational state of the animal (which, in particular, may be determined by the situational state of the environment), it is advisable to conduct observations repeatedly and systematically. Thus, atmospheric pressure has different effects on the activity of warm-blooded animals with different individual characteristics of the nervous system, and in order to make an objective conclusion, it is necessary to analyze a very large amount of factual data on the characteristics of behavioral manifestations of not only different representatives of the same species of animals, but also different their types. Repeated, systematic observations will help provide this evidence.

3. Accuracy of data recording. The complexity of observation is also due to the fact that the researcher must simultaneously observe the behavioral manifestations of the animal, its activity, and record these data. A high level of professionalism and qualifications of the researcher will help solve these two problems at the same time.

4. Ensuring natural behavior of the subject in an observation situation. It was already noted above that the advantage of observation is that it is carried out in the animal’s natural habitat conditions. The researcher should not influence the behavioral manifestations of the animal being observed. This means that the animal should not be aware of the presence of the observer or perceive him as a natural component of the environment, which is only possible if the animal is accustomed to the researcher and does not change its behavior in his presence.

Rules for conducting observation :

1. Setting the purpose of observation. According to G.G. Filippova, there can be two such goals: 1) obtaining a general picture of the animal’s behavioral manifestations (as a rule, this task is solved at the preliminary stage of observation, when all behavioral manifestations of the animal are recorded, a general idea of ​​its species and ( or) individual characteristics); 2) a specific goal, which involves observing a certain form of behavior, certain life cycles, etc.

2.Choice of observation technique. The observation technique is determined, first of all, by its purpose. No less significant for the choice of observation methodology will be the conditions in which the observation is carried out. The means of data recording used, as well as the characteristics of the animal being studied, are also important.

3. Repeated observation. As noted above, this will ensure compliance with the principles of objectivity and systematicity. At the same time, it should be noted that the frequency of observations is determined by the goals and characteristics of the observed form of behavior. The results of a single observation can only be interpreted as hypothetical assumptions and should be further verified.

Observation technique – methods and techniques for organizing observation and recording observed data. The choice of a specific observation technique, as noted by G.G. Filippova, is determined by its purpose, the degree of knowledge of the observed animal, the form of its behavior, as well as the conditions of the observation.

The following are used in zoopsychology: types of observations:

1. Continuous observation, when all behavioral manifestations of the observed animal are recorded accurately and in detail. As a result, the researcher receives data about the general picture of behavior, its dynamics, as well as the most striking individual characteristics of the object of observation. As a rule, continuous observation is the basis for other types of observation. In addition, it is on the basis of data obtained as a result of continuous observation that general hypotheses and specific goals for further research are formulated. Continuous observation can also be used as an independent type of observation if the researcher’s goal is to study the daily dynamics of an animal’s behavior (for example, when studying ontogeny or cyclical changes in the activity of animals).

2. Selective observation. It involves setting a specific goal of observation - a detailed and detailed description of certain forms of animal behavior (for example, manipulative activity, play activity, forms of interaction of animals with each other, etc.). To conduct selective observation, phases of the animal’s daily activity are identified when the form of activity being studied is maximally expressed. Observation is carried out repeatedly, which ensures accuracy, detail and detail in the description of all the characteristics of the animal’s behavior.

3. Participant observation. This type of observation involves the observer’s involvement in interaction with the observed animal (for example, observation is carried out during training or caring for the animal). Participant observation provides very accurate information about the characteristics of an animal’s behavioral manifestations, as it allows one to identify with great certainty the goals and motives of behavior. At the same time, participant observation requires great skill from the researcher. In addition, being involved in the observed process complicates the procedure for recording the data obtained (much has to be recorded only in memory and reproduced only after the end of the study).

As noted above, the effectiveness and efficiency of using the observation method is largely related to the methods of recording the data obtained. It should be noted that in animal psychology, either manual fixation(recording what is observed on paper using a pencil or pen), or fixation using technical means(video and audio recording). At the same time, the use of the second method of fixation (technical means) in monitoring animals is very limited (such a limiter can be the mobility of the animal, the presence of any devices, strangers, etc.).

Fixing (recording) what is observed is called an “observation protocol.” The following types of logging of observed data are used:

· continuous recording – involves the most detailed recording of all behavioral manifestations of the animal. Can be used in all types of observation, but most often used in the process of continuous observation;

· selective logging – involves recording only those data that meet the purpose of observation. This recording method is used in the corresponding type of observation;

· time-based protocol – used if it is necessary to identify the dynamics of behavioral manifestations. The observation protocol is divided into time intervals (for example, several minutes or hours). In each such time interval, all behavioral manifestations of the animal are carefully recorded. The time-based protocol allows you to quickly and accurately identify the temporal characteristics of an animal’s behavior. The obligatory technical means that is used in this form of data recording is a stopwatch;

· behavioral protocol – involves partial processing of the received data already during the observation process. According to G.G. Filippova, this form of logging is the most complex. A series of continuous and selective observations is first carried out, which makes it possible to identify forms of animal behavior that interest the researcher (for example, manipulations, acts of communication, etc.). The protocol, in addition to time intervals, is divided into vertical graphs, each of which describes a specific form of animal behavior. Maintaining such a protocol requires highly qualified researchers;

· use of graphic diagrams. When maintaining such a protocol, all movements and behavioral manifestations of the animal are simultaneously recorded and sketched on a diagram. This is an even more complex and time-consuming form of logging. In addition to time-based and behavioral forms, it uses graphical diagrams to illustrate the animal’s movements in space. Such graphic diagrams are prepared in advance, and all the objects necessary for maintaining the protocol are marked on them. The number of graphic schemes, as a rule, corresponds to the number of time intervals. Using graphic diagrams, it is possible not only to accurately describe the dynamics of behavior, but also the speed of movement, the frequency and intensity of the animal’s interaction with surrounding objects, etc.;

· information coding. This form of recording is mainly used when observing complex and dynamic forms of behavior (for example, manipulation of objects, communication with relatives, etc.). A series of observations is first carried out. All forms of observed behavior are described in detail and divided into individual components (acts). In this case, each act is indicated by a symbol. As a result, the observation is recorded using these conventional symbols (and not words).

Like all scientific methods, the observation method has both positive aspects and disadvantages.

The advantages of the observation method, according to G.G. Filippova, are its objectivity, obtaining data on the holistic and natural behavior of the animal, the complexity of the data obtained and a high degree of their reliability, the correspondence of the animal’s behavior to its actual motivation.

The disadvantages (or, as G.G. Filippova believes, limitations) of the observation method are the need for a highly qualified observer, the impossibility of repeated observation of the same fact under the same conditions, the difficulty of recording data during field and participant observation, as well as the complexity and ambiguity in the interpretation of the observation protocol, since descriptive data recording is most often used.

Also, when characterizing the observation method, it should be noted that when studying the psyche of animals, observation can be used not only as an independent method (when carrying out longitudinal studies aimed at studying the development of the animal psyche in ontogenesis), but also as a component of the experimental research procedure (observational data allow you to analyze a behavioral act and identify how the animal achieved certain results, characterize the process of solving the problem itself).

Target:introduce the observation method, its types, teach how to use it in the course of scientific research.

Lesson plan:

1. Definition of the concept "Observation method"

2. Objects of pedagogical observation

3. Classification of types of observation

4. Using the observation method in scientific research
problem solution.

Basic concepts of the topic:

Object, observation, experiment, cognition

1. The essence of the concept of "observation method".

Among the research methods in many sciences, observation is found. This is one of the oldest methods of human knowledge of reality. In pedagogy, observation is still the most common and frequently used method, especially in combination with other research methods: experiment, study of children, conversation.

Observation is a purposeful and systematic perception of a phenomenon, process, object, etc., the results of which are recorded by an observer - a researcher.

The essence of observation is the accurate and complete recording of facts using all senses and existing life experience, knowledge and skills.

"Observation is an active form of sensory
knowledge, with the goal of accumulating facts, education
initial ideas, education

initial ideas about objects in the surrounding world... Observation is perception, closely related to thinking.." (Pedagogical Encyclopedia...)

An important feature of scientific observation is to be able to see while thinking and

analyzing: to isolate essential features from the overall picture of the observed process, to group facts, properties, phenomena on a single basis (criteria, characteristics), to see similarities and differences in related or similar phenomena, events, to classify and generalize the results of primary observations.

Observation is also inseparable from speech, that is, the ability to express what is seen accurately, completely, consistently and objectively. You cannot see everything, but you need to see the main thing, otherwise the value of the information received will be low and unscientific.

Consequently, the observation method can be used by a teacher or researcher who has developed powers of observation, the ability to think and express accurately and objectively the course of a process, phenomenon, event, or fact in written and oral speech. Despite the apparent simplicity of the method, long and serious preparation is required to correctly use observation as a research method.

Observation is an empirical method of scientific research that involves a purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded by the observer.

Observation is carried out with the aim of studying the specific features and changes of a phenomenon under certain conditions. Observation results depend on the level of experience and qualifications of the researcher. Observation is always characterized by some subjectivity, so the interpretation of the results may be in the spirit of the observer's expectations. Therefore, observation should be combined with other research methods for greater objectivity.

The function of observation is to selectively receive information about the subject, process, or phenomenon being studied under conditions of feedback and direct communication between the researcher and the subject of observation.

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Introduction

1. Observation as a general scientific research method

1.1 Observation - as a method of social psychology

1.3 Quantitative assessments of observational data

1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method

2. Classification of types of observation

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Relevance. The observation method is the deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of a person’s external behavior for the purpose of its subsequent analysis and explanation. Objective observation in psychology is aimed not at external actions in themselves, but at their psychological content; here the external side of activity is only the raw material of observation, which must receive its psychological interpretation and be comprehended within the framework of a certain theory.

The observation method is the oldest method of psychological diagnosis. With its help you can obtain extensive information about a person. It is indispensable where standardized procedures have not been developed or are unknown. In this case, the researcher does not need the consent or other form of participation of the observed to conduct the observation. The observation method is especially important for studying the psychological characteristics of children, since a child as an object of study presents greater difficulties for experimental study than an adult.

In our country in the 20s. observation was widely used in the works of M. Ya. Basov in studying the behavior of children. He developed a method of psychological observations. In accordance with his scientific concept, M. Ya. Basov developed a detailed scheme for the psychological analysis of observations and general principles for developing the ability to conduct observations among educational psychologists.

Since in the observation method the observer himself acts as a “measuring instrument,” it is very important that he masters the observation technique at a high level and in full. Observation can be naive (everyday) and scientific. The naive method of observation very much depends on the personal abilities of the observer, his attitudes, intentions, etc. The results of such observation are uncertain and can be interpreted by other researchers in completely different ways. We can say that they characterize the observer himself to a greater extent than the one he is observing.

Scientific observation, or, as M. Ya. Basov called it, “exploring or selecting” observation, is more consistent with psychological goals. Such observation is carried out on the basis of careful preliminary preparation. It is undertaken with a strictly defined purpose, which determines both the time of observation and the selection of the necessary facts.

Observation is a method of social psychology. The main problem that arises when applying the observation method is how to ensure that certain classes of characteristics are recorded so that the reading of the observation protocol is clear to another researcher and can be interpreted in terms of a hypothesis. That is, what to observe and how to record.

In order to answer a number of these questions, it is necessary to become more familiar with what observation is.

Goal of the work- reveal the meaning, essence and features of observation as a research method in psychology.

Research objectives:

1. Analyze the relevant literature on the research topic;

2. Reveal the essence of the observation method and its significance;

3. Characterize the main advantages and disadvantages of the observation method;

4. Highlight ways to increase the effectiveness of the observation method in psychology;

5. Draw conclusions on the research topic.

1 . ObservationHowin generalscientific research method

1 .1 Observation - as a method of social psychology

Observation is a scientific method of psychological research. Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and effectively this field of knowledge is able to absorb and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences.

Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - everyday observations - is used by every person in everyday practice. By registering the facts of the surrounding social reality and his behavior, a person tries to find out the reasons for certain actions and actions. Everyday observations differ from scientific observations, first of all, in that they are random, unorganized and unplanned.

Since psychological observation is associated with direct, immediate perception of events or participation in them, it has much in common with how a person in everyday life perceives what is happening, analyzes and explains people’s behavior, connects it with the characteristics of operating conditions, remembers and generalizes events witnessed by an eyewitness he becomes. But there are also big differences. Psychological observation is always directed, systematic, direct tracking and recording of significant phenomena, processes, and events. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subject to control and verification.

Observation is the simplest and most common of all objective methods in psychology. Scientific observation is directly in contact with ordinary everyday observation. It is therefore necessary, first of all, to establish the general basic conditions that observation must satisfy in general in order to be a scientific method.

As an example, let us cite the rules of psychological observation formulated by RB Cattell (1957): 1) the behavior of the subject should be assessed in a variety of situations (at school or at work, in public places) and in different role positions (student, employee, father, son, friend etc.), therefore the observer must spend a certain amount of time with the subject every day for 2 - 3 months; 2) the personality traits or behavioral characteristics that need to be assessed must be determined in advance; 3) the experimenter must be previously trained in such an assessment; 4) observation must be impartial" 5) one subject must be assessed by at least 10 observers and the final assessment must represent the average of their observations, and the judgment of each of them must be independent.

The first requirement is the presence of a clear goal: a clearly realized goal must guide the observer. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be determined, recorded in the diagram. Planned and systematic observation constitutes its most essential feature as a scientific method. They must eliminate the element of chance inherent in everyday observation. Thus, the objectivity of observation depends, first of all, on its planning and systematicity. And, if observation comes from a clearly realized goal, then it must acquire a selective character. It is absolutely impossible to observe everything in general due to the limitless diversity of what exists. Any observation, therefore, is selective, or selective, partial.

Observation becomes a method of scientific research only insofar as it is not limited to simply recording facts, but proceeds to the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them against new observations. Objective observation is truly scientifically fruitful when it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses. The separation of subjective interpretation from the objective and the exclusion of the subjective is carried out in the process of observation itself, combined with the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

1.2 Units and categories of observation

Unlike everyday scientific observation, scientific observation is mediated by research goals that determine the subject of observation and the area of ​​facts that are included in the reality being studied. It is also mediated by theoretical ideas about the reality being studied and put forward cognitive hypotheses. Observation as a method of collecting data is characterized by an essential feature: the researcher’s theoretical ideas are included not only in the explanations of what is observed, but also in the process of observation itself, in the very description of what is observed.

Observation of the integral flow of activity of a subject and its description are possible only by artificially isolating in it certain “units” of activity, which are assigned certain names. Isolating these “units” allows you to: a) limit the process of observation to a certain framework: in what properties, manifestations and relationships the reality being studied is perceived by the observer; b) choose a specific language for describing what is being observed, as well as a method for recording observation data, i.e. the observer's method of reporting a perceived phenomenon; c) systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical “look” at the phenomenon being studied.

Diagnostics based on observation necessarily involves the introduction of observation and the primary use of its results for psychodiagnostic conclusions. In this case, standard schemes and conditions are introduced into the observation procedure, which precisely determine what to observe, how to observe, how to record the results of observation, how to evaluate, interpret and draw conclusions based on them. Observation that meets all of the listed psychodiagnostic requirements is called standardized observation.

Qualitative description constitutes the first stage of reflecting the results of observation, which occurs as a process of qualification of observed events. An observed phenomenon becomes an empirical fact only after it is described by the observer. All the diverse approaches to describing phenomena can be reduced to two main types. The first is a description of the object in the dictionary of “natural” language. In everyday life, we use ordinary (“everyday”) concepts to describe what we perceive. Scientific observation can also be based on the use of such units if, in accordance with the objectives of the study, their repertoire is clearly defined as a set of possible concepts in which the properties of the observed phenomenon are recorded.

The second approach to description is the development of systems of conventional names, designations, artificially created signs, and codes. The identification of observation units can be based on theoretical ideas about the observed phenomenon. In this case, the means of observation are categories - such units of description that receive their conceptual meaning only in a certain system of theoretical views of the researcher.

Categorized observation comes down not only to the isolation by perception of certain units, but also necessarily includes the stage of meaningful categorization of these units, i.e. generalizations in the process of observation itself. Sometimes a category covers the same behavioral act as a unit, i.e. they can be compared in terms of the degree of dissection of the phenomenon being studied and differ only in the degree of its interpretation. More often, categories subordinate a number of units.

1.3 Quantitative assessmentsand surveillance data

There are two main ways to obtain quantitative data during observation: 1) psychological scaling, used mainly in the form of scores; 2) measurement of time, or timing. Timing is the basis for the use of the so-called time interval technique.

Its second type is the method of time sampling, when from the entire observable process, to record data, certain specific periods of time are selected, which are considered representative - representative - for a longer period of observation. In actual research, qualitative and quantitative observer descriptions of events are usually used in combination. observation psychology timing sampling

Quantitative assessments can be recorded directly during the observation, or they can be issued after the completion of the observations, including in the so-called retrospective report. Retrospective assessments are based on the observer's general impressions, which during long-term observation may, for example, include the frequency of certain observed episodes. Quantitative characteristics can be directly incorporated into observers' value judgments.

Along with such an evaluative description of events, observation based on direct impressions may include scoring of these impressions. A. Anastasi gives an example of scales designed to identify students’ opinions about teachers teaching a psychology course. In them, a certain score is assigned to different forms of events in the system of interpersonal relations - relationships with students.

Retrospective assessments of this type reflect long-term uncontrolled observations in everyday life, and, as some studies show, they can act as the only or one of the main criteria for the adequacy of some psychological tests or assessments of an individual.

The main forms of recording observations include the following: attribute or sign systems, category systems and rating scales. When recording is carried out in a system of signs, specific types of behavior that are symptomatic of an entire behavioral sphere are described in advance, and then they are recorded which of them appear during a given period of observation. The sign must be unambiguous and not require additional explanation. For example, in Schultz’s observation scheme, the following signs are used: a teacher works with a student, a teacher works with a small group, a teacher ignores a student’s question, a student answers a lesson, a student reads loudly, etc.

The system of features is open, that is, it can be continued. This is what distinguishes it from the system of categories. The system of categories must fully describe all types of observed behavior; It is no longer possible to add anything new during the observation process. For example, the categories identified by the American psychologist R. Bales for the study of successive phases in group activity are the following: orientation of group members in relation to a common task, assessment of the progress of the task by group members; control, decision-making phase; emotions accompanying the decision-making process (positive and negative).

To avoid subjectivity, rating scales are used. They require recording not the presence of a sign, but the degree of its severity. For example, “What interest does the student show during class.” The degree of expression of this interest can be assessed using a 5-point system: does not show it at all (1 point); barely shows (2 points), shows some interest (3 points), shows great interest (4 points); shows keen interest (5 points).

1.4 Advantagesand disadvantages of the observation method

The most important advantage of the observation method is that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of the phenomena and processes being studied. It becomes possible to directly perceive people’s behavior in specific conditions and in real time. A carefully prepared observation procedure ensures that all significant elements of the situation are recorded. This creates the prerequisites for its objective study.

Observation allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. It does not depend on the desire of the observed to speak out or comment on the situation.

Objective observation, while retaining its importance, for the most part must be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the observation procedure:

a) defining the task and purpose (for what? for what purpose?);

b) choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);

c) choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?);

d) choice of methods for recording what is observed (how to keep records?);

e) processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?).

The disadvantages of the observation method are divided into two groups: objective - these are those disadvantages that do not depend on the observer and subjective - these are those that directly depend on the observer, since they are associated with the personal and professional characteristics of the observer.

Objective disadvantages primarily include:

The limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation. Therefore, no matter how comprehensive and deep the analysis may be, the conclusions obtained can be generalized and extended to wider situations only with the greatest caution and subject to many requirements.

The difficulty, and often simply impossibility, of repeating observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be “replayed” again so that the researcher can record the necessary features and elements of an event that has already taken place.

High labor intensity of the method. Observation often involves the participation of a large number of fairly highly qualified people in the collection of primary information.

The subjective difficulties are also varied. The quality of primary information may be influenced by:

The difference in the social status of the observer and the observed,

The dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc. For example, addressing each other as “you” in a team of workers often becomes the norm for all its members. But an observer psychologist, whose immediate circle is characterized by a different form of communication, can evaluate this as an example of a disrespectful, familiar attitude of young workers towards older ones. The proximity of the social status of the observer and the observed can sometimes eliminate such errors. It contributes to a more complete and rapid coverage of the observed situation and its correct assessment.

The quality of information is also affected by the attitudes of the observed and the observer. If the observed know that they are the object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adapting to what, in their opinion, the observer would like to see. In turn, the observer’s having a certain expectation regarding the behavior of those being observed can form a specific point of view on what is happening. This expectation may be the result of prior contact between the observer and the observed. Previously formed favorable impressions of the observer are transferred to the picture he observes and can cause an unjustified positive assessment of the events being analyzed. Conversely, negative expectations (skepticism, prejudice) can lead to an exaggerated negative vision of the activities of the observed community of people and increased rigidity in assessing what is happening.

The results of observation directly depend on the observer’s mood, his concentration, his ability to holistically perceive the observed situation, not only to notice relatively clear external signs of activity, but also to record subtle features of the behavior of the observed. When recording the results of observation, the observer’s own thoughts and experiences may not allow him to describe the observed events adequately enough. This description can occur by analogy with one’s own thoughts and feelings.

So, observation is the oldest method of knowledge. It allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. The main advantage is the study of social processes in natural conditions. The main disadvantages are the limitations, the private nature of each observed situation, the impossibility of repeating observations, attitudes, interests, and personal characteristics of the observer. All these shortcomings can greatly affect the results of observation.

2 . Classification of types of observation

Depending on the content of the research objectives, they are divided into free observation (sometimes called unregulated and even untargeted), if there are minimal restrictions on what and when to observe, and targeted observation, if the scheme or plan clearly defines the goals, organization of observation and methods of the observer’s report. Purposeful observation based on the characteristics of its organization can be continuous or selective, depending on whether all manifestations of the process of interest to the researcher, whether all objects or only some are subject to observation.

Unstructured observation is weakly formalized. When conducting it, there is no detailed action plan for the observer; only the most general features of the situation and the approximate composition of the observed group are determined. Directly in the process of observation, the boundaries of the object of observation and its most important elements are clarified, and the research program is specified.

If the researcher has sufficient information about the object of study and is able to determine in advance the significant elements of the situation under study, as well as draw up a detailed plan and instructions for recording the results of observations, the possibility of conducting structured observation opens up. This type of observation corresponds to a high degree of standardization; special documents and forms are used to record the results; a certain closeness of the data obtained by different observers is achieved.

Observation as a method of data collection is applicable at the preliminary stages of research, when there are no developed hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. If an observation is not associated with testing specific hypotheses, it, while remaining “targeted,” is not heuristic, although it is on the basis of such an observation that hypotheses can be formed. The established tradition classifies as heuristic observation those types of observation that are aimed at testing hypotheses. Heuristic, therefore, is not observation at the preliminary stages of studying an object and observation in cases of a consciously adopted goal of minimal selectivity and maximum coverage of different sides and aspects of the observed object (process, phenomenon).

From this point of view, we can distinguish non-involved (external) observation as observation “from the outside,” when the observer is completely separated from the “object” being studied. Observation from the outside can be open or hidden.

Participant observation is a type in which the sociologist is directly involved in the social process being studied, contacts, and acts together with those being observed. The nature of inclusion is different: in some cases the researcher completely maintains incognito, and the observed do not in any way distinguish him from other members of the group or team; in others, the observer participates in the activities of the observed group, but does not hide his research goals.

Participant observation has its advantages and disadvantages: on the one hand, it allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events can affect the objectivity of the observer’s report. Some types of observation may be intermediate between participant observation and outside observation.

Depending on the observation situation, observation can be distinguished: field, laboratory and provoked in natural conditions.

Field observation is carried out in conditions natural to the life of the observed “subject”, and its requirement is the absence of initiation on the part of the observer of the phenomena being studied. Field observation makes it possible to study the natural forms of life and communication of people with minimal distortion, but its disadvantage is that it is very labor intensive, and also that the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control; observation here is often expectant and unsystematic.

In situations where high care and detail in the description of observed processes are required, technical means of recording are used. When the task of developing and experimentally testing a new technique is set, a laboratory form of observation is used.

Systematic observations are carried out regularly over a certain period. This may be long-term, continuous observation or observation carried out in a cyclic mode (one day a week, fixed weeks in a year, etc.).

There are also unsystematic observations. Among them, those stand out when the observer has to deal with an unplanned phenomenon, an unexpected situation.

Expert assessments are quantitative or point estimates of processes or phenomena that cannot be directly measured, based on the judgments of specialists.

Expert (rating) assessment is an indispensable method for obtaining valuable information for a psychologist. In an examination situation, the role of a measurement instrument is played by a person (expert) who knows the subjects well, had the opportunity to observe their behavior in various situations for a long time and is able to quantitatively express his impressions. That is, it is a kind of indirect observation. The positive thing is that almost any quality can be measured, for which a standardized test may not exist in principle. The expert relies on his experience, draws conclusions, flexibly evaluates indirect manifestations, and interprets unique situations. However, this is also where the greatest drawback of the external observation method lies: subjectivity. The assessment of the observed, whether we want it or not, is influenced by personal attitude towards it, and past experience, and a specific understanding of the quality being measured, and the subjective interpretation of the behavioral acts of the subject, as well as various stylistic features of grading (decision-making features).

The considered classification of observations, like any typology, is conditional and reflects only the most significant features of the observation. Therefore, whenever, taking into account the purpose and nature of the planned research, when deciding on the use of an observation method, the positive and negative properties of its various types are correlated.

The classifications listed above do not oppose each other, but reflect independent criteria that complement each other.

Conclusion

Observation is one of the main empirical methods of psychological research, consisting in the deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of mental phenomena in order to study their specific changes in certain conditions and find the meaning of these phenomena, which is not directly given. Observation includes elements of theoretical thinking (design, system of methodological techniques, comprehension and control of results) and quantitative methods of analysis (scaling, data factorization, etc.).

In modern social psychology, observation as a method of data collection is widely used in various psychological research designs. Observation is included in the organization of the conversation with the subject; observation data is taken into account when interpreting the results of psychodiagnostic or experimental procedures.

The success of observation and explanation of its results depends on the state of knowledge in the area under study. Based on a certain understanding of the nature of the phenomenon being studied, a hypothesis is put forward about its dependence on specific factors and their manifestation in external behavior. The hypothesis is tested during observation and can be confirmed, clarified, or refuted.

Observation as a scientific method must meet a number of requirements. It must be selective, i.e. proceed from a clearly defined goal, highlight a certain fragment of the reality being studied. Observation must be planned and systematic, i.e. be built on the basis of a plan and carried out over a certain period of time. It is important to record the behavior being studied in as much detail as possible, i.e. complete observation is necessary.

The objectivity of the observation method increases if the researcher uses technical means, such as a video recorder. In such an observation, the researcher takes a completely outside position, or even completely removes himself from the situation. It is no coincidence that the ideal version of the observation method in psychology was considered to be observation using a “Gesell mirror”, transmitting light in one direction: the researcher could see everything that was happening while remaining invisible. A similar effect can be achieved using a VCR. In other words, a special task is set to achieve the effect of the absence of the researcher, to make sure that the subjects do not know that they are being observed, and behave naturally, as under normal conditions.

The fundamental difficulty of objective observation in psychology is associated with the unambiguity of understanding, interpretation, and explanation of external factors of behavior in psychological concepts. This difficulty can be overcome by using other objective methods of psychology.

The difficult problem that arises when using the observation method is how to record what is observed. The main forms of recording observations include the following: attribute or sign systems, category systems and rating scales.

As you can see, the observation method is a rather labor-intensive and complex diagnostic tool, requiring the observer to have extensive professional experience and special training. Attempts to formalize this method (for example, drawing up a strict observation procedure, obtaining quantitative ratings using a rating scale) help to increase the objectivity and reliability of the information received.

The observation method is not as primitive as it seems at first glance, and, undoubtedly, can be successfully applied in a number of socio-psychological studies.

Bibliography

1. Andreeeva G.M. Social Psychology. M.: Aspect Press, 1999.

2. Burlachuk L.F. Psychodiagnostics of personality. - Kyiv, 1989.

3. Burlachuk L.F., Morozov S.M. Dictionary-reference book for psychological diagnostics. - Kyiv, 1989.

4. Introduction to psychodiagnostics / Ed. K.M. Gurevich, E.M. Borisova. - M.: Mysl, 1997.

5. Gurevich K.M. What is psychodiagnostics? - M.: Psychology, 1985.

6. Psychology / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. - M.: Academy, 2002.

7. Kornilova T.V. Introduction to psychological experiment. - M.: MSU, 1997.

8. Brief psychological dictionary / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky, M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M.: Academy, 1998.

9. Nemov R.S. Psychology. - M.: Vlados, 1997.

10. Workshop on general psychology / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakova. - M.: Academy, 1990.

11. Psychodiagnostic methods / Ed. A.A. Bodaleva et al. - L.: 1976.

12. Psychological Dictionary / Ed. V.P.Zinchenko. - M.: MSU, 1988.

13. Psychological diagnostics: problems and research / Ed. K.M. Gurevich. - M.: Education, 1981.

14. Modern psychology: A reference guide / Ed. V.N.Druzhinina. - M.: Intropak, 1999.

15. Rogov E.I. General psychology. M.:. VLADOS, 1998.

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Observation- this is a purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded by the observer. In the activities of a teacher, various types of objective observation can be used.

Types of observations

The above classification of observations is arbitrary and reflects only their most significant features. Due to the characteristics of each type of observation, it should be applied where it can give the most useful results.

The observation of significant situations should also be noted. Significant situations can occur in children’s playing, educational and other activities. Thus, they may react violently to the arrival of a new person in the group, for example, Santa Claus; for the introduction of a new toy, for a job successfully completed, etc. Observations of children in significant situations will help the teacher understand the peculiarities of interaction in the group, the role behavior of individual children, their statuses, etc.

Conducting research using the observation method requires special preparation for observation. It is necessary to have prior experience in conducting observation, the PURPOSE of observation (for what, for what purpose), and to know the theoretical foundations.

Based on the PURPOSE of observation, select the OBJECT, SUBJECT and situation of observation (what to observe?). Then think carefully about the PLAN, CATEGORY SYSTEM, observation protocols, etc. Choose a METHOD of observation that has the least impact on the research object and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?).

After this, select the METHOD FOR REGISTRATION of the observed (how to record?).

General characteristics of observation

The results depend on the experience, scientific views, and interests of the researcher.

Observation is a complex process. It requires special training of observers.

Before conducting a study using the observation method, it is advisable to conduct TRAINING observation to uncover upcoming difficulties and acquire basic observation skills.

Difficulties in observation may arise (this is usually the case when studying complex phenomena and when the phenomenon occurs at a fast pace and constantly changing situations). After conducting the main observations, the data obtained are processed and interpreted (what is the result?).

System of categories and rating scales contains a complete description of all possible behaviors. Serves as an important means of clarifying and facilitating observation. She performs the role:
A) auxiliary tools for more accurate analytical observation;
b) allows scientific processing of observed facts;
V) draw appropriate conclusions.

Main types of categorical systems

I a. Complete categorical system

Any manifestation of behavior is included in the list of categories, for example, the study of the student’s attitude to the team (Zaluzhny A. S. Children's group and methods of studying it. M., 1931).

II a. Continuum categorical system

Qualitative indicators are located in a continuous series (for example, “the child is ATtentive<--->INATTENTIVE").

Classification can be according to the following continuous system:

II b. Discontinuous categorical system

It does not represent a continuum of a continuous series, for example, when solving mathematical problems, a system of categories is built so that one can follow the process of solving them (problems).

III a. Single change categorical system

III b. Categorical system of several parameters of the studied

IV. Categories according to the nature of the requirements for the level of scientific observation.

IV a. The phenomenon is recorded as the observer sees it (for example, whether the child raises his hand or not).

IV 6. The researcher must know the essence of the question under study, its logic. He must be prepared to observe as a high level of intellectual effort is required.

Observation logging allows you to return to observed facts. The protocol is the basis and starting point for further analysis:

• records must be sufficiently detailed to allow objective analysis;
• take notes at the observation site or immediately after the study. After observation, review the records, correct them and supplement them.

The form of keeping the protocol is determined:

• subject, task and purity of the research;
• the presence of a prepared continuum, conventional signs for recording facts;
• availability of technical means (video, etc.);
• repeatability of a certain kind of observed facts;
• write down only the facts and not their interpretation;
• perceive each response and action not in isolation, but in connection with other actions, words, and accompanying phenomena;
• All records must be processed immediately. Do not accumulate a large amount of observational material, since processing requires more time than the observation itself.

TASK. Due to the purpose of the study, it is recommended that the observation plan be carefully considered.

Why should you carefully consider your surveillance plan?

ANSWER. Usually we quickly highlight in our perception what we know about. With the development of observation skills, the ability to notice significant, characteristic (including subtle) properties of objects and phenomena improves. With the development of observational skills, the effectiveness of research work increases.

TASK. Usually in psychology, everyday and scientific observations are distinguished. How does scientific observation differ from everyday observation (which is typical for scientific observation)?

ANSWER. Scientific observation is characterized by:
1. PURPOSE(having a goal and plan allows you to collect significant research material).
2. PLANNESS(allows you to determine the most effective research program, i.e. when, where and under what conditions the observation will be carried out).
3. SYSTEMATICITY(allows you to highlight regular processes).
4. ANALYTICITY(allows you to explain observed facts).
5. REGISTRATION OF RESULTS(eliminates memory errors, reduces the subjectivity of conclusions).
6. OPERATION WITH UNIQUE CONCEPTS special terms (allows you to clearly identify the observed material).

EXERCISE. Make a description of the student’s personality based on the characteristics of the manifestation, severity and stability of his interests. Observation according to plan:

1. Common interests:

1. sport;
2. tourism;
3. chess;
4. technique;
5. design;
6. music;
7. artistic activity;
8. literature;
9. amateur performances;
10. economy.

2. Expression:

1. test of strength;
2. episodic;
3. constancy.

3. Activity:

1. practical;
2. theoretical.

4. Stability:

1. high;
2. average;
3. low (situational).

5. Mental activity:

1. independent;
2. dependent.

6. Complexity:

1. a) large volume;
2. b) average;
3. c) small.

7. Skills:

1. complex;
2. average;
3. permanent.

8. Creative expression:

1. independent creativity;
2. reproduction with improvement;
3. playback