On the topic: “The history of the creation of geographical maps. How did the cards appear?

Diners Club

In the 1920s, the first payment cards, called “shopper cards,” appeared in the United States. The very first payment card was the Diners Club card, issued in 1950, the first credit card was Bank Americard (1958), later renamed Visa. Owners of payment cards had to pay the credit company according to certain numbers, and owners of credit cards - to the extent possible and at established rates.

In 1950, New York businessman Frank McNamara was treating several guests to dinner when he suddenly realized that he had forgotten his wallet. Fortunately, he was a regular customer at this restaurant and was allowed to leave his business card as a promissory note. This gave the businessman the idea of ​​creating a card that would confirm the owner’s solvency. In the same year, he issued the first 200k Diners Club cards. Then the world's first payment cards appeared.

Card idea

But by that time, the very idea of ​​payment cards was no longer new: back in the 20s of the 20th century, chains of American hotels and gas stations, and later stores, issued “customer cards” intended for use in branches and promoting the development of customer loyalty. Diners Club cards were distinguished by the fact that they were accepted in various establishments; they gave the owner the opportunity to visit any of 27 New York restaurants and pay with a payment card instead of cash.

Diners Club then paid the restaurant, and the cardholder paid Diners Club, but later. Half a century later, the number of establishments where these cards were accepted exceeded eight million, and there are almost 200 million owners of these cards in more than 200 countries.

Bank of America

Even though Diner's Club and later American Express cards gave cardholders the ability to eat now and pay later, the companies that issued them required that the cards be paid off in full each month. In 1958, Bank of America became the first bank to issue the Bank Americacard, which was renamed the Visa card in 1976. Owners of such a card could pay only part of the amount, and interest was charged on the balance - therefore, this card was the first real credit card.

In the UK, American Express cards were issued in 1963, although many places already accepted customer cards issued in the United States. Such card issuances in the UK were so successful that British banks soon began issuing their own cards, and in 1966, Barclays Bank introduced the first British credit card, the Barclaycard. Shortly thereafter, the manager of Mercantile Credit Bank announced: “By the year 2000, credit cards will be firmly in circulation, and cash will remain only in the form of change.”

Dmitry Demyanov, Samogo.Net (

Topic 1. HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT

Plan
1. Cartography of ancient times.
2. Cartography of the Middle Ages (V-mid 17th century).
3. Cartography of the New Age.
4. Cartography of modern times.
5. Historical process in cartography.

1.1. CARTOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT TIMES

The origins of cartography date back to ancient times. Even in primitive society, long before the advent of writing, schematic drawings (drawings) of the location of hunting and fishing areas appeared, indicating the roads to them, etc. These drawings were depicted on rocks, cave walls, birch bark, bone or clay plates.

Rice. 1.1. Chukotka map on leather

Rice. 1.2. "Relief" maps of the Greenlandic Eskimos

Rice. 1.3. Plan of the hunting ground (3rd century BC)

In ancient Mesopotamia, the development of irrigation agriculture caused the need to describe and depict irrigation systems (the most ancient cartographic images). The expansion of the state necessitated the construction of new cities, fortifications, water supply systems and other things that required the preparation of their plans. The flourishing of the state in Mesopotamia led to the expansion of trade relations and campaigns of conquest, which contributed to the expansion of the geographical horizon and the depiction of new lands on plans and maps. Clay tablets of Babylon, papyrus images of ancient Egypt are historical evidence of the development of cartographic methods in the ancient world.

Rice. 1.4. Babylonian clay tablet depicting a map of the world (5th century BC)

Rice. 1.5. Egyptian "Map of Gold Mines"

Greek thinkers, who created the first natural science theories about the origin and structure of the world, first imagined the Earth as a round or oval disk floating on the surface of a boundless ocean. But already in the 5th century. BC e. Parmenides put forward a purely speculative assumption about the sphericity of the Earth. Convincing evidence of this hypothesis was given in the writings of the great ancient scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC), who noted that mathematicians who calculated the length of the earth’s circumference considered its value to be equal to 400 thousand stadia (i.e. approximately 60 thousand km, which is one and a half times more than actual exchanges).
The closest to reality determination of the length of the earth's meridian, made in ancient times, belongs to Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) - an outstanding astronomer and geographer, head of the Library of Alexandria. He calculated the length of the meridian to be 252 thousand stadia, which (with the stadia used in his time being 157.5 m) corresponds to 39.7 thousand km, i.e. very close to the actual size of the meridian (40,009 km).
In his work “Geography” (known in fragments), Eratosthenes examined in detail the question of the figure of the Earth, provided data on the size and shape of its inhabited part - the ecumene, and showed the latter on the map.
Figure 1.6 shows the map of Eratosthenes. He created it according to his ideas about the populated part of the land around the Mediterranean (Inland) Sea: Southern Europe, North Africa and the western part of Asia. To compile his map, Eratosthenes used the coordinates of a dozen points. The meridians on it are drawn not at equal intervals, but through certain points, for example through Alexandria, Carthage. Parallels are also drawn. Nevertheless, the grid of parallels and meridians allowed Eratosthenes, using known distances, to correctly show the relative positions of continents, mountains, rivers and cities.

Rice. 1.6. Eratosthenes Map

Following Eratosthenes, other scientists of the ancient world included a graphic representation of the Earth in the tasks of geography. Since that time, for almost two millennia, geography and cartography (the latter term came into use only in the middle of the 19th century) developed inseparably, although the ratio of the two components - descriptive and cartographic - was different among different authors.
A major step in the further improvement of images of the Earth was made by the largest astronomer of antiquity, Hipparchus (about 190-126 BC), who proposed building maps on a grid of meridians and parallels, determining the position of points on the earth’s surface by latitude and longitude; to designate them, he began to use the division of the circle, borrowed from the Babylonians, into 360 degrees and then into minutes and seconds.

Rice. 1.7. Map of Hipparchus (detail), 150 BC.

The scientific foundations of cartography were laid by the famous ancient Greek mathematician, astronomer, cartographer and geographer Claudius Ptolemy (I-II centuries AD). His famous “Manual of Geography” was essentially a guide to drawing up geographical maps. It included a map of the world and 26 maps of various parts of the land, a description of the then known map projections, including the conical and pseudoconical projections he developed. His cards were considered the best at that time. So many terrestrial geographical features were plotted on them that one would think that land occupied almost the entire earth's surface. However, detailed detailed images of the Earth's surface were worth their weight in gold among the Greek seafarers. An accurate depiction of the coastline was vital to them. After all, ships that went on long voyages to unknown shores risked breaking on rocks and reefs without the correct detailed map.

Rice. 1.8. Map of the world drawn by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century

The maps also contained various informative drawings, and until the 18th century, explanatory texts were also attached, which told about what nationalities lived in the described territory, what language they spoke and what their customs were. Old maps are very interesting for various studies in the field of geography, because... they usually showed sea currents and wind directions quite accurately. The different images on the maps are especially interesting to study. In addition to travel stories, on the maps you can see pictures illustrating ancient myths, and later biblical tales. For example, many cards depict divine images, sea monsters, and multi-armed people. The latter, for example, are often found on the maps of travelers who managed to reach India.
One of the most common themes of illustration on medieval maps was the depiction of wind directions. On some cards it is the head of an old man blowing in one direction or another, on others it is a cherub. Often, from the facial expression of the depicted “wind,” one could draw conclusions not only about its direction, but also about its strength and character. As time passed, other images of directions appeared, and the heads of the winds were replaced by the compass rose and compass.
The world map of Claudius Ptolemy (Fig. 1.9) presents geographic coordinates in the form of a geographic grid with equal intervals, calculated in degrees, where latitudes were measured from the equator, and longitudes were measured from the westernmost point of the then known world.

Rice. 1.9. World map of Claudius Ptolemy with parallels and meridians

No less than sailors, merchants traveling to overseas countries on trade matters needed accurate maps. They needed to know exactly where the big cities with rich fairs and bazaars were located. Settlements were shown on them with symbols.
Ancient Greek geographers distinguished only two parts of the world - Europe and Asia. At that time, Europe included the countries located to the north and west of Greece, and Asia included the eastern territories. During the period of Roman rule on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, the name of the third part of the world - Africa - appeared on maps.
In ancient Rome, maps were widely used for military and economic purposes for transport links with remote provinces and countries. By decision of the Senate, under Julius Caesar, measurements of roads were begun, marked every mile by stone pillars indicating distances. The results of these measurements, completed under Augustus, allowed Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (about 63-12 BC) to prepare materials for creating a map of the world known to the Romans, completed after Agrippa's death (not preserved).
Road maps have appeared for use on the road. A copy of one of these maps, found in the 16th century, has survived to this day. by the German historian Peutinger and in literature therefore received the name “Peuitinger Table”.

Rice. 1.10. Part of the Peutinger Table - a Roman road map of the 4th century.

The map depicts the Roman Empire and other countries known at that time from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges inclusive. The continents are washed by the ocean from the north and south. Its content: settlements - cities, fortifications, Roman legion sites, road networks, rivers, mountains, lakes and forests. For populated areas, perspective symbols were used. Breaks on the roads indicate the position of stations, the distances between which are marked along the roads. The original stripe map seems strange and primitive; the image is deliberately compressed from north to south. This is like a perspective drawing when looking at the flat surface of the Earth from the south. The Mediterranean, Black and other seas are stretched along the map in the form of narrow ribbons. Rivers and roads are forced to follow the same direction. But, taking into account the peculiarity of the construction of the map, it is fair to give it the highest rating - it is remarkable for the detail of the image, the abundance of information and its realism.
The land policy of Rome needed to carry out surveys when organizing new settlements and colonies, when allocating land to veterans (choosing a location, planning settlements, dividing land plots, laying roads, etc.) and in general in the interests of land ownership. The profession of land surveyors emerges, for which instructions and manuals are developed that describe surveying techniques and are accompanied by drawings; These documents have been preserved and from them one can get a clear idea of ​​the land surveying methodology. The duties of land surveyors also included drawing up maps showing settlements, rivers, mountains, roads, land plots, etc. It was prescribed to prepare maps of military-administrative units on bronze in two copies, one of which was intended for the archive in Rome.

1.2. CARTOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES (V-XVII CENTURIES)

After Ptolemy, the development of cartography not only stopped, but even went backwards. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, under the influence of the dominance of the religious worldview, the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth was rejected; therefore, projections become unnecessary, and the maps of that time have the same primitive appearance as they had by Anaximander, differing from his map only in a large number of details and the introduction of new elements (like the “navel of the earth” - Jerusalem, the “Earthly Paradise” in the east, mythical the nations of Gog and Magog are nations that will go to war against the people of God, but will be destroyed by fire from heaven, etc.).

1.2.1. Early Middle Ages

The early Middle Ages (V-XIV centuries) in Europe were characterized by the dominance of the church. This period is characterized by monastic maps, which were compiled by monks in monasteries and were mainly illustrations of the Bible.
At the same time, in the countries of the Arab East and Armenia, cartography achieved certain successes, consisting primarily in the preservation of monuments of ancient times, in the translation of the “Manual of Geography” by C. Ptolemy and others. For a long time, Muslims were content with textual descriptions and road maps, the first news The actual geographical maps of the Arabs date back to the 9th century. But even after this, Muslim cartographers continued for a long time to follow the path set by ancient and medieval European templates. True, the appearance of their maps is often very unusual for the European eye. As an example, consider the Istakhri map of the 10th century (Fig. 1.11).

Rice. 1.11. Map of Istakhri, X century

On the old map on the left, slightly obliquely, a blue oval figure with three red circles is wedged into the yellow field. This is the Mediterranean Sea with its islands. A blue straight line approaches the oval figure from below - this is the Nile. The same line fits on top. This, as you might already guess, is the mouth of the river. Don. Our Northern Azov region is located somewhere here... You can notice that this part was stupidly torn from the European monastic map. But the right side of the picture was probably filled out according to Muslim data. These areas were very well known to them.
To the right of the oval figure are two blue circles with “tails”. These are the Caspian Sea with the Volga and the Aral with the Syr Darya or Amu Darya. On the right side of the picture, another large water basin is wedged into the land. This is the Indian Ocean. Its arc-shaped bay, flaunting close to the Nile, is the Red Sea. The round bay is slightly to the right, with two “antennas” - this is the Persian Gulf with the Tigris and Euphrates flowing into it. Another stripe to the right is the great Indus River.
Gradually, the Arabs began to gradually accumulate new information about the world around them. Over time, their maps have also improved significantly. This can be seen, for example, from Ibn Said’s map of the 13th century. The Mediterranean and Black Sea zones are shown to be quite recognizable. The Iberian, Apennine and Balkan peninsulas, Asia Minor are clearly visible. But, nevertheless, the main attention is paid to regions that are more interesting for Arabs - Asia, North-East Africa and the Indian Ocean.

Rice. 1.12. Map of Ibn Said, 13th century.

The flourishing of Arab cartography is associated with the name of the Arab geographer and cartographer Idrisi (1100-c. 1165), who created a map of the part of the world known at that time on a silver plate measuring 3.5 x 1.5 m, as well as on 70 sheets of paper. An interesting feature of the Idrisi map, as well as other maps compiled by the Arabs, is that the south was depicted at the top of the map.

Rice. 1.13. Circular map of the world by al-Idrisi, 1154.

Later, already in the 20th century, Conrad Miller glued together all the sheets from the “satin” part of the collection of maps and rewrote the Arabic inscriptions in Latin. This map was published in Stuttgart in 1928 (Fig. 1.14). Naturally, working with such a card has become much more convenient.

Rice. 1.14. Fragment of the “rectangular” world map of al-Idrisi 1154 (publication by K. Müller)

1.2.2. Late Middle Ages

The rise in the development of cartography in Europe dates back to the late Middle Ages, when the need arose for geographical maps to develop trade in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. In this regard, in the XIV century. marine compass portolan charts have become widespread
One of the most famous, if not the most famous example of portolans of the Mallorcan cartographic school is the Catalan Atlas. Prepared in Palma de Mallorca around 1375 by the Jew Abraham Creskes with his son Yehuda Creskes (English) Russian. commissioned by the Aragonese king Juan I. The atlas originally consisted of six sheets of parchment, which were subsequently cut in half and stretched onto wooden shields. The first pages deal with issues of cosmography, astronomy and astrology (in particular, the spherical shape of the Earth is noted). Practical advice for seafarers is also provided.
The last four sheets of the atlas (Fig. 1.15) are an expanded portolan map including information about overseas countries according to Marco Polo and John Mandeville.

Rice. 1.15. Expanded portolan map

Rice. 1.16. Fragment of an unfolded portolan map

Portolan maps depicted the coastline and mooring sites in detail. To plot the ship's course, a special grid of compass lines (points of reference) was drawn on them.

Figure 1.17. Portolan of the Black Sea, 1559

To measure distances, a linear scale was placed on maps. However, compass maps were not suitable for navigation on the oceans, so sailors turned to globes, which from the end of the 15th century. began to be manufactured for navigation purposes.
The first globe was created by the German scientist Martin Beheim. His model of the Earth was published in I492, the year when Christopher Columbus set off to the shores of fabulous India by the western route. The globe depicted Europe, Asia, Africa, which occupy about half of the entire surface of the Earth, and no North and South America, Antarctica, or Australia. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans are represented as a single water basin, and in place of the Indian Ocean are the East Indian Ocean and the Stormy South Sea, separated by a vast archipelago of islands. The outlines of the oceans and continents are far from reality, since the creation of the globe was based on information based on the ideas of ancient geographers and data from Arab and other travelers who visited the countries of the East, India and China.

Rice. 1.18. Globe of M. Behaim

The development of trade, navigation and colonization during the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries (XV-XVI centuries) created a huge demand for geographical maps, in particular world maps, which required the development of new geographical projections and led to a general improvement in cartography.
Since the 16th century, the creation of maps has become the prerogative of scientists. When solving problems, a scientific approach began to be increasingly used, and in cartography, scientists turned to astronomy and various methods of measuring terrain. By the 17th century, the mythical element had completely disappeared from maps. Among the cartographers of the 16th century, it is necessary to note Gerard Mercator and Abraham Ortelius, thanks to whose efforts in creating maps it was possible to completely get rid of outdated methods. In 1570, Ortelius published the first atlas, which was called “The Theater of the World.” This work became so popular that over the next 50 years its circulation amounted to 31 copies, which by the standards of that time was an incredible figure!

Rice. 1.19. World map from the atlas of Abraham Ortelius 1584

Rice. 1.20. Map of Asia from the atlas of Abraham Ortelius, 1584

G. Mercator was the first person to make clear measurements an integral part of cartography. He developed several geographical projections, including a conformal cylindrical projection for navigation purposes (currently the Mercator projection is used to compile marine navigation and aeronautical maps), prepared a large collection of maps, giving it the name “Atlas”, published after his death in 1595 d. However, in those days it was dangerous to engage in science, and the great scientist was accused of heresy, although he managed to avoid violent death.

Rice. 1.21. World map of G. Mercator

The usual knowledge of Europeans about the northern countries was changed in the 16th century by the Catholic priest Olaf Magnus. As a result of the reform of the church, he was expelled from his native Sweden, and now he really wanted to show the Pope what amazing land the Catholic Church was losing in Sweden. Magnus creates his famous creation “Marina Map”, which would later become the main map of Northern Europe for a long time. In addition, Olaf Magnus wrote explanations for his map, the history of the peoples of Northern Europe.

Rice. 1.22. Marina Map (copy 1949)

The invention in the 15th century was of great importance for the development of cartography. engraving and printing cards. The great demand for maps led to the publication of voluminous atlases in many large format volumes. Among them, Wagener's two-volume atlas of marine navigation charts, published for the first time in the Netherlands at the end of the 16th century, stands out. and subsequently reprinted 18 times in several languages.

Rice. 1.23. Map of the coast of Portugal by L. Wagener

At the beginning of the 17th century. Great strides were made in astronomy and geodesy, which served as the basis for the further development of cartography: Galileo’s invention of the astronomical telescope, with the help of which they began to determine the geographical coordinates of points by celestial bodies; in 1616, the Dutch scientist Snell made the first degree measurements based on the triangulation method he invented. By this time, the mensula had already been invented. At the end of the 17th century. The English scientist I. Newton proved that the Earth has the shape not of a ball, but of an ellipsoid of revolution. All this made it possible to carry out precise degree measurements and create maps on a geodetic basis.

1.2.3. Cartography in Russia in the pre-Petrine era

In Rus', almost all land owners had drawings of their properties. These maps, made on birch bark, were rather approximate and short-lived. From them it was impossible to get an idea of ​​the structure of the territories and their geographical features. At the same time, the beginning of the unification of Russian lands and their consolidation into a great and strong power required a “visual aid” in the form of a map for studying the territory of the country. In 1525, the first printed map of Rus' appeared; it was created with the help of the “Scribe Map of Russia” compiled by the traveler Dmitry Gerasimov.

Rice. 1.24. Drawing compiled according to information from “Ambassador Demetrius,” 1525.

With the formation of the Russian centralized state at the end of the 15th century. There was also a need to create a detailed map of the country. Numerous geographical maps, or “drawings” as they were then called, and descriptions for them began to be created for various territories of the country, and subsequently served as the source material for compiling consolidated maps of Russia.
After the unification of the Russian lands, Ivan IV the Terrible in 1552 “ordered the land to be measured and a drawing made for the entire state.” This was the beginning of a global-scale work of collecting information and creating “blueprints.” Information was accumulated on territories covering the interior regions of the Northern Dvina, Kama, Volga, Pechora, Oka with their tributaries, as well as part of the Trans-Ural steppes and lands south of the lower reaches of the Don and in the Caspian region.
Over several decades, a lot of cartographic and descriptive information was collected, and between 1595 and 1600. A “Drawing for the entire Moscow State” appeared, called the “Big Drawing”.
Unfortunately, the “Big Drawing...” itself has not survived, but the description for its second edition, “The Book of the Big Drawing,” has been preserved, which is a detailed geographical description of the state.
The annexation of Siberia required a geographical study of its territory. In connection with this, Siberian explorers were instructed to draw up descriptions and drawings of the new lands they were developing, on the basis of which in 1667, under the Tobolsk governor Peter Godunov, the first consolidated map of all of Siberia was drawn up. By decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, the steward and Tobolsk governor Peter Godunov prepared a drawing “for the testimony of all ranks of people who ... towns, and forts, and tracts, and roads, and lands, they know authentically, and what passages from city to city and from settlement to settlement, and to which place... how many days and how many miles do I drive, and where between the settlements of the Tobolsk district to build... military people..., what fortresses and how many people in which fortress to plant dragoons, to which fortress how many walking for days and weeks across the steppe and waters to China...”

Rice. 1.25. Map of Peter Godunov

The map reflected a fairly realistic diagram of the rivers of Siberia and the Far East, as well as towns and areas of tribal settlement. A copy of Godunov's Map, secretly acquired and printed by the Swedish ambassador in Moscow, became a valuable contribution to European geographical science. Godunov also compiled the “Gazette of the Chinese Land and Deep India,” which was subsequently translated into Greek and became widespread.
This is how an ancient manuscript tells about the first map of Siberia, which for a long time was considered irretrievably lost. By the way, it was its compilers who introduced a system of symbols - “signs by which to recognize in a drawing cities and forts, and settlements, and rivers, and lakes, and volosts, and winter huts, and nomadic camps.”
Of particular note is the outstanding cartographer of his time, Tobolsk resident Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov, who summarized a large amount of geographical material in maps and at the end of the 16th century. compiled the “Drawing Book of Siberia” - the first Russian geographical atlas of 23 large format maps, giving a comprehensive description of the natural conditions, economy and ethnography of Siberia.

Rice. 1.26. Drawing of the land of the Nerchinsk city by S. Remezov

Rice. 1.27. Ethnographic map of Siberia. S. Remezova

1.3. CARTOGRAPHY OF NEW TIMES

1.3.1. Development of cartography in Europe (XVIII-XIX centuries)

The further development of capitalist relations in Western Europe, the expansion of economic ties, and the colonization of new territories increased the need for new maps of various scales and purposes. Cartographic work occupied a prominent place in the activities of a number of academies of sciences (Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg).
At the end of the 18th century. Much work on creating a geodetic basis for topographic maps for the territory of France was carried out by astronomer C. Cassini. Thanks to the use of a method for determining points on the earth's surface - triangulation - the accuracy of maps has significantly increased. This method later became widespread in many European countries. In the 19th century In many countries, special military topographical units were organized, which then acquired the status of state cartographic services. As a result of the work of cartographic services, by the middle of the 19th century. Many European countries published topographic maps of their territories depicting the relief using the line method.
Increasing requirements for topographic maps, in particular in determining the heights of terrain points and slope angles, led in the second half of the 19th century. to the use of the method of contours for depicting relief. As a result, by the end of the 19th century. many European countries, including Russia, have compiled updated, more accurate and larger-scale topographic maps with detailed relief images. The First World War created a great need for maps and was the impetus for the introduction of new survey methods, in particular aerial photography, which later led to radical improvements in topographic surveys.
In addition to providing the army, topographic maps began to be widely used for civilian purposes when conducting various scientific research and drawing up thematic maps. Thematic maps (climatic, geological, etc.) appeared in the 17th century, but they were few in number. In the 19th century In all major maritime countries (including Russia), the compilation of navigational charts for navigation purposes became of great importance, and special hydrographic services were created. Already by the beginning of the 20th century. Navigation charts were compiled for all seas along which regular ship traffic was carried out.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries. many sciences have accumulated a large amount of factual material, which, when displayed on maps, made it possible to identify connections between the phenomena being studied among themselves and with the environment and to establish certain patterns in nature and society. Thus, A. Humboldt in 1817, based on maps with isotherms, established the patterns of temperature distribution on the globe. In the second half of the 19th century. many sciences (geology, meteorology, soil science, oceanography, economic geography, etc.) began to widely use thematic maps in their research. The maps made it possible to identify patterns of location and interconnections of the phenomena under study, as well as their development and prediction. Thus, starting from the 19th century. Cartography is characterized by the widespread development of thematic mapping.
When compiling various maps and atlases in the 19th century. and subsequently, cartographic and descriptive materials from expeditions organized by geographical societies, including the Russian Geographical Society, organized in 1845, were widely used.
In the 19th century In many countries, for the commercial publication of maps and atlases, large specialized map publishing firms were created, along with small map publishing houses, including the cartographic publishing house of A. Ilyin in St. Petersburg (1859).

1.3.2. Development of Russian cartography in the XVIII-XIX centuries.

Russian cartography under Peter I takes the path of scientific development. The main achievements of cartography under Peter 1 were: training personnel for cartographic surveys and drawing up maps; conducting systematic state surveys to create a general map of Russia, organizing expeditions to map the seas; publication of maps.
Great contribution to the development of cartography in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. contributed by the outstanding cartographer of that time, Chief Secretary of the Senate I.K. Kirilov is the head of the country's mapping work. He advocated for the development of Russian cartography, independent of foreign ones, for displaying his country on maps in its entirety, planned to create a large “Atlas of the All-Russian Empire” in three volumes of 120 sheets each, but due to his early death he only managed to print and prepare for printing 37 cards.
After the death of I.K. Kirilov, cartographic work in the country came under the jurisdiction of the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences, where the first complete “Russian Atlas” was prepared and published in 1745.

Rice. 1.28. Atlas of Russia (fragment) 1745

The department published more than 250 geographic maps reflecting the results of government surveys and various studies. Great influence on the development of cartography in the 18th century. provided by the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, who headed the Geographical Department since 1757. He did a lot to train cartographic and geodetic personnel, to improve the accuracy of surveying and cartographic work, to update and improve the compilation of maps.
At the end of the 18th century. Based on the materials of the general survey, atlases of individual provinces and a consolidated atlas of 42 provinces with a general map of Russia were compiled and published, and at the beginning of the 19th century. Using the same materials, a multi-sheet map of Russia was compiled on a scale of 1:840,000. An outstanding cartographic work of the mid-19th century. a three-verst map of European Russia appeared (1:126,000), on which the relief is depicted using the method of strokes. From the second half of the 19th century. On large-scale topographic maps of Russia, horizontal lines began to be used instead of strokes to display relief.
In the 19th century In Russia, as well as in the countries of Foreign Europe, thematic mapping began to develop more and more widely. Thematic maps were created for various fields of knowledge. The works of V.V. were especially important. Dokuchaev on soil mapping, A.A. Tillo on the compilation of hypsometric maps of European Russia, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky on mapping the economy and population.

Rice. 1.29. Map of zonal distribution of soils in the Northern Hemisphere created by Dokuchaev

Rice. 1.30. Fragment of a hypsometric map of European Russia compiled by
A. A. Tillo in 1889

1.4. CARTOGRAPHY OF MODERN TIMES

1.4.1. The origin and development of Soviet cartography

In 1919, the Higher Geodetic Directorate was formed, which was later transformed into the Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography (GUGK) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, which headed all geodetic, topographic and cartographic work in the country.
The priority measures were: the transition to the metric system of measures, the development of graphics and nomenclature of maps and a new scale series, the adoption of a single projection for all topographic maps, the introduction of a system of flat rectangular coordinates and uniform symbols. Since 1930, aerial photography began to be used to create topographic maps, and somewhat later, methods for creating maps in office conditions using a variety of stereophotogrammetric instruments were introduced.
In the post-war period, a lot of work was carried out to find cartographic projections (F.N. Krassovsky, V.V. Kavraisky, M.D. Solovyov), work was completed on calculating the earth's ellipsoid, named after the leader of the work, the Krasovsky ellipsoid (1940), A number of major geographical atlases of the USSR and the world have been created, including the Great Soviet Atlas of the World. In 1928, the Central Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Photography and Cartography was opened. In accordance with a special government decree, school atlases and wall maps on geography and history began to be published in 1938.
In the post-war years, much work was carried out to update topographic maps, restore the geodetic reference network in the European part of the USSR, and create larger-scale maps for intensively developing areas. By the mid-50s, mapping of the USSR was completed on a scale of 1:100,000, and by the beginning of the 90s - on a scale of 1:25,000. A huge role in the accelerated mapping of the country belongs to the use of aviation, more advanced aerial photography and material processing instruments using stereophotogrammetric instruments.
Significant results were achieved in the field of thematic mapping: geological maps of scales 1:200,000 and 1:1,000,000, soil map of scale were created
1:1,000,000, hypsometric map of the USSR on a scale of 1:2,500,000, etc. A large place in the development of cartography of the post-war period is occupied by complex mapping, which consists in the creation of a series of wall thematic maps of the USSR on a scale of 1:4,000,000 for higher education, as well as unique atlases, among which stand out: Geographical Atlas for Secondary School Teachers (first edition in 1954), three-volume Marine Atlas (1953-1958), Physico-Geographical Atlas of the World (1964), Atlas of the Antarctic (1966-1969) , three-volume atlas of the oceans (1974-1981), etc., scientific reference atlases of individual union republics, regions, territories and the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The publication of school maps (including contour maps) and atlases received further development in the post-war period.
The successes achieved by Soviet cartography are largely due to the outstanding Soviet cartographer K.A. Salishchev, founder of Soviet economic cartography N.N. Baransky and their students.

1.4.2. Development of cartography in modern times abroad

After the First World War, work intensified on an international million-dollar map of the world and the creation of national atlases in a number of countries. After the Second World War, certain changes occurred in the organization of cartographic and geodetic work. If before the Second World War, cartographic and geodetic work was mainly carried out by military departments in their interests, then later many types of work were transferred to the jurisdiction of civilian institutions. In many foreign countries, thematic and comprehensive mapping, the study of the resources of the World Ocean and its mapping, the creation of environmental maps, and the publication of national and regional atlases are becoming increasingly important. International relations in cartography are developing, which led to the creation in 1961 of the International Cartographic Association, the chairman of which for a number of years was K.A. Salishchev. Prior to this, scientific connections in the field of cartography were carried out within the framework of international geographical congresses, and since 1927 also of the International Geographical Union.
The current stage of cartography development is characterized by great demand and a correspondingly large amount of work on the creation of electronic (digital) maps. One of the important stages of creating digital maps is the digitization of cartographic information. During digitization, various software tools were used, such as: Macrostation, AutoCAD, MapInfo, Geographic Information System (GIS) ARC/INFO, GIS Object Land, Panorama and others. Modern GIS have extensive capabilities, which allows you to perform a wide range of operations with graphic objects.
Currently, the creation of digital maps is dictated by the need to create and maintain the State Land Cadastre and the implementation of the Automated System of the State Land Cadastre throughout the state.

1.5. HISTORICAL PROCESS IN CARTOGRAPHY

The historical process in cartography covers the history of the creation of specific works: maps, globes, atlases, as well as the stages of development of cartographic tools, methods and technologies, ideas and concepts. Below are the main milestones in the development of tools for surveying and measurements on the ground, methods and technologies for mapping, which marked turning points in the history of cartography.

Table 1.1

Development of tools for measurements and surveys on the ground

The main trend in the development of devices and instruments for surveying and mapping on the ground has always been aimed at expanding spatial coverage, increasing accuracy and efficiency. Visual observations and simple measurements in small areas gradually gave way to high-precision geodetic methods and remote sensing of global coverage. It should be noted that the pace of technological progress has increased rapidly in the last two centuries; surveying and field mapping tools are undergoing dramatic changes in historically short periods of time - 30-50 years.
Similar trends are observed in the development of map-making methods - from primitive cartographic drawings on stone and papyrus to modern technologies for constructing maps in computer networks (Table 1.2). And in this case, rapid and dramatic changes, radically changing mapping, occurred in the last decades of the 20th century.

Development of map-making methods and map publishing technologies

Table 1.2

The main trends in the development of technologies for mapping and publishing maps are associated with the improvement of methods for creating, reproducing and distributing cartographic works among users. At the present stage, fast (operational) mapping technologies have acquired particular importance. Ultimately, the economic efficiency of cartographic science and production depends on how quickly the created works reach the user and are applied to solve specific problems.
Technical and technological progress directly influenced the development of methods for using maps (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3

Development of methods for using maps

This line has always had a fairly clear orientation towards satisfying the practical and scientific needs of society, transforming cartography from a simple means of orientation into a planning and design tool.
Thus, one can see that with the development of tools, methods and technologies, cartography is increasingly expanding its spatial coverage (today it has already entered outer space), improving the quality, accuracy and - most importantly - the efficiency of creating cartographic works. It gradually covers wider layers of users, penetrates into many spheres of political, economic, cultural life of society, and this means an increase in the value of cartographic data as information resources.
The study of the historical process leads to important conclusions about the prospects for the development of cartography. It becomes obvious that over many centuries, the methods of creating maps and their appearance have changed dramatically, but the purpose and functions have remained almost the same. One notable example is the remarkable Roman road map known as the Peutinger Table. The image on it is strongly deformed in distances and directions, but quite accurate in topological terms. This principle of showing communication routes has been preserved to this day; Suffice it to recall the metro maps, which do not reflect true distances and directions, but accurately convey the topology of underground roads.
A drawing, a photograph, a printed print, an electronic image is always the language of visual images that is most accessible to a person, the most convenient and familiar model of reality for him. Therefore, throughout the history of mankind, the map remains one of the most effective means of understanding the surrounding world and transmitting spatial information.

Test questions and assignments for self-preparation of students

1. Tell us about the origins of cartography in ancient times.
2. Who gave the first scientific evidence of the sphericity of the Earth?
3. Who first determined the size of the Earth?
4. Who suggested applying a degree grid when creating maps?
5. Who first used the terms “geographical latitude” and “geographical longitude”?
6. Tell us about the features of the development of cartography in the Middle Ages (V - mid-XVII centuries).
7. What is special about monastery cards?
8. For what purposes were potolans used?
9. Who is the author of the first globe?
10. Tell us about the contribution of G. Mercator to the development of cartography.
11. Tell us about Galileo’s contribution to the development of cartography.
12. Tell us about Snell’s contribution to the development of cartography.
13. Tell us about Newton’s contribution to the development of cartography.
14. What is the merit of P. Godunov and S. Remezov in the development of cartography.
15. Tell us about the development of Russian cartography in the 18th-19th centuries.
16. Tell us about the origin and development of Soviet cartography.
17. Tell us about the development of cartography in modern times abroad.
18. Tell us about the prospects for the development of cartography.

1. Berlyant A.M. Cartography: textbook for universities / A.M. Berlyant. - M.: Aspect Press, 2002.-336 p. pp. 26 - 29.
2. Berlyant A.M. Cartology: textbook for universities / A.M. Berlyant, A.V. Vostokova, V.I. Kravtsova. - M.: Aspect Press, 2003. - 477 p. pp. 29 - 32.
3. Zhmoydak R.A. Cartography: Course of lectures / R.A. Zhmoydyak, L.V. Atoyan. : Minsk 2006. pp. 8 - 19.
4. Website of teacher Eshtokin A.N.

Maps are a product that countless people have worked on over six thousand years. Cartography appeared before writing, and the methods of drawing the earth and sea surfaces changed along with the entire human civilization: from the first rock paintings to digital online and offline maps containing ethnographic, economic, and social information about the inhabitants.

From the first day when maps began to be used for orientation in the world, shortcomings were identified in them: rivers changed their courses, fires destroyed forests, human settlements migrated from place to place, making it difficult to fix objects on the map. So the history of cards is also the ancient history of fixing bugs in attempts to create the perfect product.

Today we will decide whether, centuries later, we have managed to get closer to the canonical scheme of reflecting the world.

The oldest maps of the world

In the picture above you see an exact copy of the original piece of mammoth tusk found in the vicinity of the city of Pavlov (Czech Republic). After many years of research, the design on the tusk was recognized as the oldest map known to date. Its age is estimated at 25–27 thousand years. The tusk depicts river bends, ridges, ravines of loose loess slopes, rocky peaks and a hunter's house.

Such a map, even for its creators, could not last long. It was necessary to change the drawing each time, make a new map, or find a fundamentally different way of orientation on the ground.

On the left is a bronze Heavenly disk from Nebra. On the right is Murdorff's gold disk (possibly a fake). Both discs contain maps of the locations of celestial bodies

How to capture an image of a terrain if the territory is undergoing constant transformation?

Perhaps it is worth navigating by unchanging objects - stars. The polar star, part of the constellation Ursa Minor, always points north, deviating during the night by only one and a half degrees (due to precession, the role of the polar star was assigned to different stars at different times). Knowing where the North Star is located, it is easy to determine the cardinal directions: when you look directly at the star, there will be east on the right side, west on the left, and south behind your back.

The first constellations were identified about 16 thousand years ago and appeared in various drawings of Paleolithic art. It should be borne in mind that the cartographic feature of the night sky drawings was used as a side effect. The celestial disk from Nebra (≈ 3000 BC), which depicts the Sun, Moon and 32 stars, was supposedly used to measure the angle between the points of sunrise and sunset during the solstices.

Selecting a Perspective

More than 6,000 years ago, the first top-down maps appeared. The fresco in the ancient settlement of Çatalhöyük is regarded as a detailed plan of the village. The streets in the village were not marked - probably, the isolation of each house was shown with light lines.

Modern reconstruction of the map at Çatalhöyük. A presumably real volcano is indicated in orange. White rectangles - houses covered with flat roofs

Copy of the "Carta Marina" map, made in 1949

The 1539 Carta Marina is remarkable because, perhaps for the first time, images of eerie sea creatures began to have practical utility - they correspond to currents, storm fronts, dangerous underwater rocks and shoals.

A map of Venice from 1565 is made in a style that is still used in tourist guides today.

Conformal Mercator projection, thanks to which it is possible to construct nautical charts on which the ship's course is depicted as a straight line

In 1569, cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in an effort to make the world "look right" on maps, developed a new projection using mathematical formulas. With the Mercator projection, maps take on the form we are familiar with.

“Map of the World placed in the head of a Fool”, 1590. The map depicts the world “dressed” in the traditional entourage of a court jester: a two-horned cap with bells and a jester’s staff

Map by Claes Janson Vischer "Leo Belgicus", 1611. Leo Belgicus is the Latin name for the Dutch lion. Since 1583, the Netherlands has often been depicted as a lion. The map shows the period of truce between Spain and the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands.

In 1675, John Ogilby depicted roads on the map as narrow strips, excluding the rest of the surrounding area, leaving only the objects necessary for orientation. This ancient map became the prototype of maps in modern car navigators.

The fashion for axonometric projection in maps was established by the French in a detailed plan of Paris drawn up in 1734–1736. The Louvre Palace is visible in the image above. To appreciate the scale of the work, open the entire city plan. Almost three hundred years later, the Chinese did something similar for the Baidu search engine.

Have you heard of a “travel map”? On such a map, you need to paint over / erase a piece of the territory you visited, revealing the name and full geographical information. The first such map was created in 1761 by John Spilsbury, who invented the “cut map.” Each individual map piece contained a bit of geographic information. By collecting the necessary sites, it was possible to study the entire world known at that time.

By the 19th century, map creators began to try to visually display economic, social, and political information. However, until the mass adoption of digital maps in the 21st century, additional information on maps quickly became outdated.

Ultra-modern

In the 20th century, maps became incredibly detailed, thanks first to aerial photography and then to space imaging. However, satellite images, while quickly gaining popularity, also quickly turned into just a tool for creating diagrams. On a city scale they are practically useless. Above forest areas - completely useless. Then projects came to the rescue, in which people began to independently mark on maps inaccessible objects for photography.

Nowadays, maps appear that reflect the interests of a variety of people. Thus, Greek researchers have developed a system that converts images of traditional paper maps into three-dimensional city plans. Using virtual reality gloves, a blind person can literally touch the map and read data from it (or turn on a voice engine that reads street names).

Airbnb is experimenting with creating maps whose boundaries are drawn according to cultural and contextual principles. On the map above, traditional “tourist” accommodations are highlighted in green, and accommodation from the Airbnb database is highlighted in red. Any template map recommends housing in the “green” zone, but more complete impressions of real life in the city can be gleaned from the “red” territory.

Once the blind spots finally disappeared, value-added cards quickly gained popularity. For example, on a map of New York you can see the most crime-ridden areas and areas where you can feel safe.

It is no coincidence that the second open source project in Mail.Ru Group (after the Tarantool database) was offline maps MAPS.ME, based on OpenStreetMap data. The point of the OSM project (like MAPS.ME) is to give every person in the world a free map with which they can do anything. Over the thousands of years of card history, it was difficult to imagine such a thing, and pocket cards themselves appeared only in the 19th century. Now instead of pockets there is a smartphone, but at least the cards no longer need the Internet. Another difference between OSM and cartography of the past is accessibility. Anyone can independently make additions to the map almost as easily as making edits to a Wikipedia article. One of the most high-profile updates to MAPS.ME this year was the ability to edit maps by users themselves. Thanks to this, we will be able to find benches, fountains, and the best places to take photos on maps.

The advantages of open (in every sense) cards over commercial solutions are their versatility. The same terrain map with different sets of data is used in a huge number of situations. With the help of OSM, they mark forest trails and dirt roads, food distribution points in the poorest regions, forest fires... You name it!

Disadvantages of the era

Comparing maps of the past - not only from the Middle Ages, but also two thousand years ago - with modern ones, you involuntarily come to the conclusion that maps have evolved into a utilitarian information product. The design has become much simpler, and the cards themselves, oddly enough, are less detailed. Looking around the three-meter Renaissance canvas, you could see dozens, if not hundreds of additional objects along your route. The smartphone offers to reflect only what reflects the UX logic of the map creators: that is, the minimum available information per unit area.

The digital map does not need to impress with its design, because it seems to be just an add-on above the search bar - we are looking for ATMs, hotels, the shortest route, the nearest attraction. The map became not a guide to the world, but a time-saving tool. Extra information on it only wastes a person’s time resource. “People's Maps” solves this issue to the best of its ability by introducing filters - while there is still an opportunity to see the city with all the diversity of its objects.

What does data minimization lead to? . This does not mean that some objects disappear from the map: you just need to reduce the scale. This method has both supporters (maps look clearer on a mobile device) and opponents (an unfamiliar area needs to be scaled and searched by squares if you don’t know the exact name of the object). The map, which at first glance is not overloaded with information, will only suggest the shortest route, and not the one where the most beautiful, safe, quiet path opens.

Modern maps are made not by artists/designers, not even cartographers, but by programmers. This is the requirement of the era, because if you don’t adapt the map to any mobile device, simply no one will use it. The map has ceased to be a work of art, has lost the terrible monsters that swallow ships, and at the same time has become surprisingly monotonous.

However, compared to ancient maps, modern ones have one significant advantage - they change very quickly. The day is not far off when the card will become completely personalized. For some, it will give details that require comprehension of all the details and nuances, for others - only a condensed, concentrated fact about the area.

One of the interesting examples of the movement towards “personalization” is a map (with open source) of places of real walking distance Galton, built on the basis of OSM. The map is named after Francis Galton, an English explorer and geographer who in 1881 compiled the Isochronic passage chart, indicating the number of days to travel from Great Britain to various places.

A fragment of a map of "quiet" areas of New York, obtained based on an analysis of data on noise complaints.

What does such a card give? In addition to the obvious solution (where you can get to in a certain time, if you don’t know how to walk on water and pass through walls), you can calculate the rating of a place taking into account many parameters of objects located within walking distance.

Sooner or later, a single map of the world will cease to exist, because for different groups of people the world will be filled with different events. The metamorphoses will not affect basic concepts, such as generally accepted state boundaries or distances between cities, but the motorist, pedestrian, cyclist and bar-goer will be able to find exactly what interests them in the geography of the surrounding space.

And the map will again become a source of discoveries.

Love gives rise to a thirst for knowledge. The desire to know everything about your beloved is an indispensable factor in the depth of feeling. The impulse of love makes every nuance, every detail, even the most microscopic, important. Together with knowledge, you seem to absorb the object of love itself - you make it a part of yourself, and at the same time dissolve in it. This is the mystery of the Great Unity.

All these descriptions also apply to love for the Motherland. When the glorious pages of history have been studied, when the feeling has been tested by the knowledge of inglorious episodes, you plunge into a new depth, where an endless labyrinth of details and nuances awaits you. Here a new horizon of feeling opens up - the horizon of the abyss.

Contemplating childhood photographs of the object of love is the highest stage of feeling. Here, the love inside your heart no longer requires a foundation, proof of its presence. For great unity with the beloved, all that remains is to destroy temporary boundaries. In the mystery of contemplating children's photographs, the realization comes that you have always known your beloved - you remember her birth, you remember the color of her stroller, you remember her first word. Time is broken. The pillars of Hercules have been passed, and infinity opens before you...

Rodina does not have children's photographs. This role is played by ancient maps that captured her first steps in this world. Russian cartography appeared relatively late, so we can judge the first moments of Muscovite Rus' solely from the atlases of European cartographers. This makes contemplation acquire additional intrigue and depth.

Octava Europae Tabula, 1511

Let's start with one of the earliest published maps depicting Russia. Its author, the Venetian cartographer Bernard Silvanius, hardly visited Moscow lands before creating the tabula. For this reason, we probably will not find familiar toponyms on the map. However, those that exist are simply mesmerizing: the Riphean and Hyperborean mountains, Sarma, Roxolans, the Venedian Sea. There is not even a hint of Moscow, Novgorod, Kyiv, and this adds additional intrigue. From history we know that by this time the Italians had built the Moscow Kremlin, and the entire Italian guard was in the service of the then ruling Vasily III. Has the Venetian cartographer really not heard anything about the Grand Duchy of Moscow? Hardly! Cartographers in those days were quite informed in terms of geography. Apparently, Bernard Silvanius had his own reasons for hiding the fact of the existence of Muscovy.

Russiae, Moscoviae et Tartariae Descriptio, 1562

And here is a map issued by the publisher Ortelius in Antwerp. There are already many names close to the heart. And just as many mysteries.

In the upper left corner, between Korelia and Biarmia, we see the majestic figure of Ioannes Basilivs Magnus, in whom we recognize Ivan the Terrible. Here he is presented with the title of Emperor of Russia and Duke of Moscow.

This is probably the first evidence of the fact that a Russian monarch was named emperor. John IV most likely owes such honors to the English diplomat Anthony Jenkins, who was directly involved in the creation of the map.

It was Jenkins who convinced Grozny to give England the most favorable preferences in trade on the territory of Muscovy. And it was through Anthony Jenkins that John wooed the British Queen Elizabeth I. Probably, the British actually allowed a marriage alliance with the “Emperor of Russia,” since the map was actively spreading throughout Europe, demonstrating the “geographical” power of the potential chosen one of the unapproachable Virgin Queen.

Studying the map, we will certainly note the abundance of cities on the territory of Muscovy. The names of some of them are now difficult to identify. For example, the city of Kholopia, located next to Uglich and Yaroslavl.

Map of Tsarevich Fyodor, son of Boris Godunov

This unique map was published in Amsterdam in 1613 by the Dutch cartographer Hessel Gerrits. The full name of this "tabula" is “Map of Russia according to the manuscript, which Fyodor, the son of Tsar Boris, took the trouble to draw.”

It is known that Fyodor Godunov was very interested in cartography and took lessons from Dutch cartographers, who were specially invited to Moscow. Gerrits, who had never been to Russia, most likely got Fyodor’s manuscript thanks to the merchant Isaac Massa, who lived in Muscovy for several years.

It is interesting that with the light hand of Isaac Massa this map appeared, which was created by Dutch cartographers based on geographical notes made by a merchant during a trip to Russia.

Mercator's Two Russias

In a cartographic opus attributed to Gerardus Mercator, Russia is represented as an appendage of a certain Tartaria. Moscow is isolated from other civilization by forests. But life is in full swing in the northeast of the capital, where the concentration of cities reaches its maximum. We also observe relatively high urbanization near the Riphean Mountains and the White Sea region. It is curious that on an earlier map of the Flemish, published in 1595, Muscovy looked much more representative in terms of the number of settlements.

It is worth noting that the “Tartar tabula” was released only in 1619, 25 years after the death of the cartographer. Perhaps the editors made adjustments to the master’s work, taking into account that Russia experienced the Time of Troubles, and many cities were desolate.

A few more decades will pass, and Tartary as a toponym will disappear from the lexicon of European cartographers, along with Sarmatia, the Riphean, Hyperborean mountains and the mysterious area called Baida. Their place in Latin cartographic terminology will be replaced by a neologism - Imperium Russicum.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE

NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

"KHARKIV POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE"

DEPARTMENT OF "INFORMATION SYSTEMS"

Essay

on the topic: “History of the creation of geographical maps”

course "Cartography"

Completed:

1st year student Afonina Ekaterina Viktorovna group VK -345 _______ Delivery date_________________________

Checked:____________________________

Valdai – 3

INTRODUCTION

Cartography is the science of displaying and understanding natural and socio-economic geosystems through maps as models. Cartography also exists as a field of technology and technology for the creation and use of cartographic works and as a branch of production that produces cartographic products (maps, atlases, globes, etc.). The development of computerization has expanded the understanding of cartography; its interests also include technologies for creating electronic maps, databases and banks of digital cartographic information.

Cartography originated in ancient times; there are even references to maps in the Bible. The first manuals on cartography were compiled in ancient Greek. scientist K. Ptolemy. Ancient cartographers created geographic maps that took into account the sphericity of the Earth and were equipped with a degree grid. Cartography flourished during the Renaissance and the Great Geographical Discoveries. The authors of the famous world maps and the first atlases were the Dutch cartographers G. Mercator and A. Ortelius. In Russia, the development of cartography is associated with the names of S. U. Remezov, V. N. Tatishchev, F. F. Schubert, A. I. Mende, I. A. Strelbitsky, A. A. Ilyin, A. A. Tillo. In the 19th century active differentiation of the Earth sciences contributed to the development of thematic cartography. A significant contribution to domestic science was made by the works of F. N. Krasovsky, V. V. Kavraisky, N. A. Urmaev, G. A. Ginzburg on mathematical cartography, K. A. Salishchev, A. V. Gedymin, A. F. Aslanikashvili, A. A. Lyuty on cartography, cartographic semiotics and general theory of cartography, and Yu. M. Shokalsky on marine cartography, N. N. Baransky and A. I. Preobrazhensky on economic-geographical mapping, M. I. Nikishova on agricultural cartography, I. P. Zarutskaya on thematic cartography, A. M. Berlyant on the theory and cartographic method of research, L. A. Goldenberg, A. V. Postnikov on the history of cartography, etc.

Part of the Roman road map (4th century). The map, which is a scroll, shows the roads of the Roman Empire from Britain to India

There are several concepts that interpret the subject and method of cartography differently. The model-cognitive concept considers it as the science of understanding reality through cartographic modeling, and the map itself as a model of reality. According to the communication concept, cartography is considered the science of transmitting spatial information, and the map is a channel of information, a means of communication. The concept of map semiotics considers cartography as the science of the language of the map, and the map itself as a special text composed using conventional signs (written in the language of the map). In the 1980s An integral geoinformation concept began to take shape, according to which cartography is considered as the science of information-cartographic modeling and knowledge of geosystems, closely connecting it with geoinformatics, earth sciences and society.

Map of Transylvania from the “Atlas” of G. Mercator - J. Hondius (1607)

Modern cartography is an extensive system of scientific disciplines and technical branches. The general theory of cartography examines the subject and method of cartography, issues of methodology for creating and using maps. Basic theoretical developments are carried out within the framework of cartology - the general study of maps. The history of cartography studies the history of ideas, concepts, methods of science, the development of cartographic production, as well as old cartographic works. Mathematical cartography is a discipline within which cartographic projections are developed; This branch of cartography, such as the design and compilation of maps, studies and develops methods and technologies for the desk production and editing of maps of general geographic, nature, socio-economic, environmental, etc. Cartographic semiotics is a discipline that deals with systems of cartographic signs and the rules for their use. Map design (cartographic design) studies the theory and methods of artistic design of cartographic works, their line and colorful design, including using computer graphics. Map publishing is a technical branch that deals with the preparation of maps and atlases for publication, their reproduction and printing. The use of maps develops the theory and methods of using cartographic works (maps, atlases, globes, etc.) in practical, scientific, cultural, and educational activities. Cartographic source studies develop methods for evaluating and systematizing cartographic sources, and cartographic toponymy studies geographical names and their semantic meaning from the point of view of correct representation on maps. The objectives of this discipline include the normalization and standardization of names and terms shown on maps.

Fragment of a hypsometric map of European Russia compiled by A. A. Tillo in 1889.

In cartography, many thematic branches have developed, such as general geographic, geological, soil, ethnographic mapping, etc. According to the method, they belong to cartography, and according to the subject - to specific sciences (geology, soil science, ethnography). With the advent of new branches of knowledge, new sections of thematic cartography arise - for example, geoecological, geopolitical, and electoral mapping have appeared relatively recently. By purpose and practical orientation, such industries as educational, scientific, tourism, navigation (marine, aeronautical), engineering mapping, etc. are quite clearly distinguished.

In domestic cartography, two directions (scientific schools) have emerged: geographical and engineering cartography. The geographical direction is primarily concerned with the display and study of geosystems and their components. In this case, priority is given to interaction with geosciences and socio-economic disciplines. The School of Engineering Cartography emphasizes technical aspects and connections to the geodetic sciences. Both schools closely cooperate in the cartographic and geodetic study of the country, in the creation of large works - maps and atlases.

Cartography has bilateral contacts with many philosophical, natural and technical sciences, mathematics, geodesy and especially remote sensing. It takes advantage of their achievements, ideas and technologies, while at the same time providing them with a field for the development of their theory and methodology. Since ancient times, there have been strong contacts between cartography and art. Drawing and engraving maps have always been akin to art, and the graphics and colors on maps have been influenced by different artistic styles. The design solutions of modern cards are also influenced by trends in artistic design and computer graphics.

Modern cartography interacts most fruitfully with geoinformatics and computer modeling. Based on the integration of the two sciences, a promising direction has been formed - geoinformation mapping. At the intersection with telecommunications, Internet mapping has developed, i.e., the creation and placement of maps and atlases on the worldwide electronic network.

Complex scientific reference atlases are considered the most significant achievements in cartography. The Great Soviet Atlas of the World in 2 volumes is world famous. (1937–1940), Marine atlas in 3 vols. (1950–1953), Physiographic Atlas of the World (1964), Atlas of the Peoples of the World (1964), Atlas of the Antarctic (1966), Atlas of the Oceans in 5 vols. (1977–95), Atlas of the World (1st ed. 1954, 2nd – 1967, 3rd – 1999), Atlas of Snow and Ice Resources of the World (1997), Atlas “Nature and Resources of the Earth” in 2 vols. (1999). The whole territory The country is covered with topographic maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:100,000 - these are the largest single blocks of maps of this scale in the world. Important achievements in the field of thematic mapping are a series of nature maps of the USSR at scales of 1:1,000,000 and 1:2,500,000, maps for higher schools (1st series - 1950–59, 2nd series started in 1974. ), Ecological and geographical map of the Russian Federation on a scale of 1:4,000,000 (1996), etc.

HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT

The creator of the first geographical map is considered to be the ancient Greek scientist Anaximander. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth as a flat circle surrounded by water.

In the 3rd century. BC. The ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes wrote the book "Geography", using the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude" for the first time. The book consisted of three parts. The first part outlined the history of geography; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the climates of the Earth; in the third, the land is divided into parts of the world and sphrageds - prototypes of natural zones, and a description of individual countries is also made. He also compiled a geographical map of the populated part of the Earth.

In the II century. AD The ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe in his eight-volume work “Guide to Geography,” which during the 14th centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, and merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.

Ptolemy's "Geography" contained, as already mentioned, all the information about the Earth available at that time. The maps included with it were very accurate. They have a degree grid. Ptolemy compiled a detailed map of the Earth, the like of which no one had ever created before. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and Indian Seas. The rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa known at that time were depicted quite accurately, which cannot be said about the lesser-known areas of Asia, which were reconstructed based on fragmentary, often contradictory, geographical information and data. 8000 (eight thousand) points from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean were plotted according to coordinates; the position of some of them was determined astronomically, and most were plotted along routes. The map is extended in an easterly direction. Half of the map is devoted to famous countries. In its southern part there is a huge continent called the Unknown Land.

The first map of Russia, called the “Big Drawing,” was compiled, as scientists suggest, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the “Big Drawing” nor its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have reached us. Only the appendix to the map has survived - “The Book of the Large Drawing”. It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activities of the population, the main roads and main rivers as routes of communication, about “cities” and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.

The first globe was created by the German scientist Martin Beheim. His model of the Earth was published in I492, the year when Christopher Columbus set off to the shores of fabulous India by the western route. The globe depicted Europe, Asia, Africa, which occupy about half of the entire surface of the Earth, and no North and South America, Antarctica, or Australia. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans are presented as a single water basin, and in place of the Indian Ocean are the East Indian Ocean and the Stormy South Sea, separated by a vast archilag of islands. The outlines of the oceans and continents are far from reality, since the creation of the globe was based on information based on the ideas of ancient geographers and data from Arab and other travelers who visited the countries of the East, India and China.