Natural school
Natural school
NATURAL SCHOOL - a contemptuous nickname thrown by F. Bulgarin at the Russian literary youth of the 40s. and then rooted in the criticism of that time, already without any negative connotation (see, for example, V. Belinsky, A Look at Russian Literature of 1846). Having arisen in an era of increasingly aggravated contradictions between the serfdom and the growth of capitalist elements with the development of the process of bourgeoisization of landowners' households, the so-called. N. sh. with all its social heterogeneity and contradictions, it reflected the growth of liberal and democratic sentiments, which manifested themselves differently in different class groups.
N. sh. in the expanded application of the term, as it was used in the 40s, it does not denote a single direction, but is a largely conditional concept. To N. sh. they included writers as diverse in their class basis and artistic appearance as Turgenev and Dostoevsky, Grigorovich and Goncharov, Nekrasov and Panaev, etc. The most general characteristics on the basis of which a writer was considered to belong to the N. school were the following: socially significant topics that captured more wide circle, than even a circle of social observations (often in the “low” strata of society), a critical attitude towards social reality, realism of artistic expression, which fought against the embellishment of reality, self-sufficient aesthetics, and romantic rhetoric. Belinsky highlights the realism of N. sh., asserting that the most important feature is the “truth” and not the “falsehood” of the image; he pointed out that “our literature... from rhetorical, sought to become natural, natural.” Belinsky emphasized the social orientation of this realism as its peculiarity and task when, protesting against the self-entity of “art for art’s sake,” he argued that “in our time, art and literature, more than ever, have become an expression of social issues.” Realism N. sh. in Belinsky's interpretation it is democratic. N. sh. refers not to ideal, fictional heroes - “pleasant exceptions to the rules”, but to the “crowd”, to the “mass”, to ordinary people and, most often, to people of “low rank”. Common in the 40s. all sorts of “physiological” essays satisfied this need to reflect a different, non-noble life, even if only in a reflection of the external, everyday, superficial. Chernyshevsky especially sharply emphasizes as the most essential and main feature of the “literature of the Gogol period” its critical, “negative” attitude towards reality - “literature of the Gogol period” is here another name for the same N. school: specifically to Gogol - the author “ Dead souls ", "The Inspector General", "Overcoats" - as the founder was erected N. sh. Belinsky and a number of other critics. Indeed, many writers classified as N. sh., experienced the powerful influence of various aspects of Gogol’s work. Such is his exceptional strength of satire on the “vile Russian reality”, the severity of his presentation of the problem “ small person
", his gift for depicting "the prosaic essential squabbles of life." In addition to Gogol, they influenced the writers of N. Sh. such representatives of Western European petty-bourgeois and bourgeois literature as Dickens, Balzac, George Sand.
The novelty of the social interpretation of reality, although different for each of these groups, led to hatred of N. sh. on the part of writers who fully supported the bureaucratic regime of the feudal-noble monarchy (N. Kukolnik, F. Bulgarin, N. Grech, etc.), for the abuse of naturalistic details who dubbed the writers N. sh. "dirtphiles". general features. However, the specific social and artistic expression of these characteristics, and therefore the degree of consistency and relief of their manifestation, were so different that N. sh. as a whole it turns out to be a convention. Among the writers who were included in it, it is necessary to distinguish three movements.
The first, represented by the liberal, capitalizing nobility and the social strata adjacent to it, was distinguished by the superficial and cautious nature of its criticism of reality: this was either harmless irony in relation to certain aspects of noble reality or a beautiful-hearted one appealing to good feelings and a noble-limited protest against serfdom. The range of social observations of this group is not wide and familiar. It is still limited to the manor's estate. The significant news is a detailed display of the types of peasants and their lives. Writers of this movement N. sh. (Turgenev, Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev) often depict the estate and its inhabitants with intonations of light ridicule, either in a poem (“The Landowner”, “Parasha” by Turgenev, etc.) or in a psychological story (works by I. I. Panaev). A special place was occupied by essays and stories from peasant life (“Village” and “Anton Goremyk” by Grigorovich, “Notes of a Hunter” by Turgenev), although not free from the lordly sentimental “pity” of the peasant, from the humanistic sweetening of peasant types and aesthetic depiction of rural nature. Realism in the works of writers of this group is a noble realism, devoid of sharpness and courage in denying the evils of the surrounding reality, infected with the desire to aestheticize life, to smooth out its contradictions. The writers of this group continue the line of liberal-noble literature of the 20-30s. only at a new stage and do not bring with them anything qualitatively new in the social and artistic sense. This is the literature of the ruling class represented by its advanced group, which takes into account new phenomena in social life and tries to adapt to them through amendments to the existing system.
Another current of the N. highway. relied primarily on the urban philistinism of the 40s, disadvantaged, on the one hand, by the still tenacious serfdom, and on the other, by growing industrial capitalism. A certain role here belonged to F. Dostoevsky, the author of a number of psychological novels and stories (“Poor People”, “Double”, etc.). The work of writers of this movement is undoubtedly distinguished by much greater originality, the novelty of social issues, the novelty of the world they depict - petty bureaucracy, urban philistinism, etc., which became the central object here artistic image. Socially oriented realism addressed to “low” reality, the denial of certain aspects of social reality, these features of the qualitatively new “original” literature of N.S., opposed to the literature of the ruling class, seem to be given in the works of this movement of N.S., for example. in "Poor People" by Dostoevsky. But already at this stage, the literature of this group, in an undeveloped form, contained those contradictions that do not remove it from the influence and alliance with the ruling class: instead of a decisive and consistent struggle with the existing reality, it contains sentimental humanism, humility, and later - religion and alliance with reaction; instead of depicting the essential aspects of social life, there is a deepening into the chaos and confusion of the human psyche.
Only the third current in the N. Highway, represented by the so-called. “raznochintsy”, ideologists of revolutionary peasant democracy, gives in his work the clearest expression of the tendencies that were associated by contemporaries (Belinsky) with the name N. sh. and opposed the noble aesthetics. These tendencies manifested themselves most fully and sharply in Nekrasov (urban stories, essays - “Petersburg Corners”, etc. - especially anti-serfdom poems). A burning, flagellating protest against the serf lordship, the dark corners of urban reality, the simple depiction of which is a sharp accusation against the rich and well-fed, heroes from the “low” classes, the merciless exposure of the underside of reality and the erasing from it of the aesthetic embellishments of noble culture, manifested in the images and style of his works, make Nekrasov a true representative of the ideological and artistic features associated by contemporaries with the name N. sh. Herzen (“Who’s to blame?”) and Saltykov (“A Confused Affair”) should also be included in this group, although the tendencies typical for the group are expressed less sharply in them than in Nekrasov, and will reveal themselves in full later.
So. arr. in the motley conglomerate of the so-called N. sh. one must see different and, in certain cases, hostile class currents. In the 40s the differences have not yet reached their limit. So far, the writers themselves, united under the name N. sh., were not clearly aware of the full depth of the contradictions separating them. Therefore, for example on Sat. “Physiology of St. Petersburg,” one of the characteristic documents of N. Sh., we see next to the names of Nekrasov, Iv. Panaev, Grigorovich, Dahl. Hence the convergence in the minds of contemporaries of urban sketches and stories of Nekrasov with the bureaucratic stories of Dostoevsky. By the 60s. the class division between writers classified as N. sh. will sharply worsen. Turgenev will take an irreconcilable position in relation to the “Contemporary” of Nekrasov and Chernyshevsky and define himself as an artist-ideologist of the “Prussian” path of development of capitalism. Dostoevsky will remain in the camp that supports the dominant order (although democratic protest was also characteristic of Dostoevsky in the 40s, in “Poor People,” for example, and in this regard he had connecting threads with Nekrasov). And finally, Nekrasov, Saltykov, Herzen, whose works will pave the way for broad literary production of the revolutionary part of the commoners of the 60s, reflect the interests of peasant democracy fighting for the “American” path of development of Russian capitalism, for the peasant revolution.
So. arr. not all of these trends, which were included by contemporaries in the concept of N. sh., can be equally rightly spoken of as representatives of new trends that oppose noble literature in its ideological and artistic features and express new stage in the development of social reality. Features of N. sh. in the content given by Belinsky and Chernyshevsky as a democratic reality associated with the denial of feudal reality and the struggle against noble aesthetics, they are most sharply presented by Nekrasov and his group. It is this group that can be called the exponent of the principles of the new aesthetics, already put forward in Belinsky’s criticism. Others either come to support the existing system or, like the Turgenev-Grigorovich group, embody, albeit at a new stage, the principles of that noble aesthetics that representatives of revolutionary democracy are fighting against. This opposition will reveal itself with all convincingness later, in the 60s, when the literature of revolutionary peasant democracy sharply opposes the noble camp. See “Russian Literature”, section on the 40s. Bibliography:
Chernyshevsky N. G., Essays on the Gogol period of Russian literature (several ed.); Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky, Forties, Art. in "History of Russian literature of the 19th century century", part 2, M., 1910; Belinsky V.G., A look at Russian literature 1847, “Complete collection. works.”, Edited by S. A. Vengerov, vol. XI, P., 1917; His, Reply to the “Moscowite” (regarding Gogol’s natural school), ibid.; Beletsky A., Dostoevsky and the natural school in 1846, “Science in Ukraine”, Kharkov, 1922, No. 4; Tseitlin A., The Tale of Dostoevsky’s Poor Official, M., 1923; Vinogradov V., The Evolution of Russian Naturalism, “Academia”, L., 1928. See also the literature on the decree. in the text by writers.
Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .
Natural school
A designation that arose in the 1840s. in Russia, a literary movement associated with the creative traditions of N.V. Gogol and aesthetics by V.G. Belinsky. The term “natural school” was first used by F.V. Bulgarin as a negative, disparaging characteristic of the work of young writers, but then was picked up by V. G. Belinsky himself, who polemically rethought its meaning, proclaiming the main goal of the school to be “natural,” i.e., a non-romantic, strictly truthful depiction of reality.
The formation of the natural school dates back to 1842-45, when a group of writers (N.A. Nekrasov, D.V. Grigorovich, I.S. Turgenev, A.I. Herzen, I.I. Panaev, E. P. Grebenka, V. I. Dahl) united under the ideological influence of Belinsky in the magazine “ Domestic notes" Somewhat later, F.M. was published there. Dostoevsky and M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Soon, young writers released their program collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1845), which consisted of “physiological essays” presenting live observations, sketches from nature - the physiology of life big city, mainly the life of workers and the St. Petersburg poor (for example, “Petersburg Janitor” by D. V. Grigorovich, “Petersburg Organ Grinders” by V. I. Dahl, “Petersburg Corners” by N. A. Nekrasov). The essays expanded readers' understanding of the boundaries of literature and were the first experience of social typification, which became a consistent method of studying society, and at the same time presented a holistic materialist worldview, with the affirmation of the primacy of socio-economic relations in the life of the individual. The collection opened with an article by Belinsky, explaining creative and ideological principles natural school. The critic wrote about the need for mass realistic literature, which “in the form of travel, trips, essays, stories would introduce us to various parts of boundless and diverse Russia...”. Writers must, according to Belinsky, not only know Russian reality, but also correctly understand it, “not only observe, but also judge.” The success of the new association was consolidated by the “Petersburg Collection” (1846), which was distinguished by genre diversity, included artistically more significant things and served as a kind of introduction to readers of new literary talents: F. M. Dostoevsky’s first story “Poor People” was published there, Nekrasov’s first poems about peasants, stories by Herzen, Turgenev, etc. Since 1847, the magazine “ Contemporary", the editors of which were Nekrasov and Panaev. It publishes “Notes of a Hunter” by Turgenev, “Ordinary History” by I.A. Goncharova, "Who is guilty?" Herzen, “The Entangled Case” by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and others. A statement of the principles of the natural school is also contained in Belinsky’s articles: “Answer to the “Moscowite””, “A Look at Russian Literature of 1840”, “A Look at Russian Literature of 1847” ." Not limiting themselves to describing the urban poor, many authors of the natural school also began to depict the countryside. D. V. Grigorovich was the first to open this topic with his stories “The Village” and “Anton the Miserable,” which were very vividly received by readers, followed by “Notes of a Hunter” by Turgenev, peasant poems by N. A. Nekrasov, and Herzen’s stories.
Promoting Gogol's realism, Belinsky wrote that the natural school more consciously than before used the method of critical depiction of reality inherent in Gogol's satire. At the same time, he noted that this school “was the result of the entire past development of our literature and a response to the modern needs of our society.” In 1848, Belinsky already argued that the natural school occupies a leading position in Russian. literature.
The desire for facts, for accuracy and reliability put forward new principles of plotting - not novelistic, but essayistic. Popular genres in the 1840s become essays, memoirs, travel, short stories, social, everyday and socio-psychological stories. The socio-psychological novel also begins to occupy an important place (the first, completely belonging to the natural school, are “Who is to Blame?” by A. I. Herzen and “Ordinary History” by I. A. Goncharov), which flourished in the second half. 19th century predetermined the glory of the Russian. realistic prose. At the same time, the principles of the natural school are transferred to poetry (poems by N. A. Nekrasov, N. P. Ogarev, poems by I. S. Turgenev) and drama (I. S. Turgenev). The language of literature is enriched by the language of newspapers, journalism and professionalism and is reduced due to the widespread use by writers vernacular and dialectisms.
The natural school was subjected to the most varied criticism: it was accused of being partial to “low people”, of “mudophileness”, of political unreliability (Bulgarin), of a one-sided negative approach to life, of imitation of the latest French literature.
From the second floor. 1850s the concept of “natural school” is gradually disappearing from literary usage, since writers who once formed the core of the association either gradually cease to play a significant role in the literary process, or go further in their artistic quests, each in their own way, complicating the picture of the world and the philosophical issues of their early works (F. M. Dostoevsky, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov, L. N. Tolstoy). Nekrasov, a direct successor to the traditions of the natural school, becomes more and more radical in his critical depiction of reality and gradually moves to the position of revolutionary populism. It can be said, therefore, that the natural school was initial phase formation of Russian 19th century realism
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .
Today we will talk about the era of the 1840s, in which one of the the most important stages Russian realism. We will look at the problems of the natural school, look at its authors and talk about three stages and at the same time three directions of this literary phenomenon of the 19th century.
in 1841 - Lermontov (Fig. 2),
Rice. 2. M.Yu. Lermontov ()
and one gets the feeling that the literary scene is somewhat empty. But at the same moment, a new generation of writers, who were born around 1820, rises up to it. In addition, at the same moment the famous critic V.G. moved from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Belinsky (Fig. 3),
Rice. 3. V.G. Belinsky ()
who becomes the main one ideological inspirer and the leader of this circle of young writers, who, in turn, give birth to a new literary direction.
The name of this direction was not immediately determined, although we know it as natural school. Although there are other names: natural movement in literature, Gogol school, Gogol movement in literature. It was meant that N.V. was the teacher and unquestioned authority for these young writers. Gogol (Fig. 4),
Rice. 4. N.V. Gogol ()
who writes almost nothing during this period, is abroad, but he is the author of great works with enormous authority: Petersburg stories, the collection “Mirgorod”, the first volume of “Dead Souls”.
Where does the idea of depicting society in all its details come from? It is precisely this idea, promoted by Belinsky and supported by a young circle of writers (Nekrasov (Fig. 5),
Rice. 5. N.A. Nekrasov ()
Turgenev (Fig. 6),
Rice. 6. I.S. Turgenev ()
Dostoevsky (Fig. 7),
Rice. 7. F.M. Dostoevsky ()
Grigorovich (Fig. 8),
Rice. 8. D.V. Grigorovich ()
Druzhinin (Fig. 9),
Rice. 9. A.V. Druzhinin ()
Dahl (Fig. 10)
Rice. 10. V.I. Dal()
and etc.). The environment, which is understood very broadly: as a person’s immediate environment, as an era, and as a social organism as a whole, becomes extremely important for this circle of young writers. So where did the idea of depicting a social organism in all its advantages and disadvantages come from? This idea came from the West: in France and England in the 1830s - early 1840s. works of this kind appeared in droves. And this idea was given birth to by an extraliterary phenomenon. The reason for this is the huge, very important discoveries, which were committed in the 1820-30s. in the field of natural sciences. By that time he had weakened somewhat church ban on anatomy, anatomical theaters arose, and an extraordinary amount was learned about human anatomy and physiology.
Accordingly, if the human body was recognized in such detail, then it became possible to treat many before that time incurable diseases. But a curious transference occurs from the human body to the body of society. And an idea arises: if we study the social organism in all its details, it will be possible to eliminate the glaring contradictions and cure the social ills of society. A lot of so-called physiologies appear, telling about social groups, about representatives of individual professions, about social types often found in society. This kind of literature is often published anonymously and resembles investigative journalism. Here, for example, are works published in France: “Physiology of Paris”, “Physiology of the Grisette”, “Physiology of a Married Man”, and it is by no means about his intimate life, but about how he spends his day, how he communicates with loved ones. The physiology of a shopkeeper, the physiology of a salesman or saleswoman, the physiology of an actress. There were even physiologies dedicated to objects: the physiology of an umbrella, the physiology of a hat, or the physiology of an omnibus. Balzac began working in this genre in France (Fig. 11),
Rice. 11. Honore de Balzac ()
Dickens in England (Fig. 12),
Rice. 12. C. Dickens ()
who devoted a lot of time to researching social ills. And this idea comes to Russia - to study a dysfunctional environment - this is the task that young writers set for themselves under the leadership of Belinsky. Soon the first work appears, the first collective collection, which is a manifesto of this emerging trend. This is “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (Fig. 13).
Rice. 13. Title page publication “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1845) ()
Here are Belinsky’s articles: “Petersburg and Moscow”, “Alexandrinsky Theater”, “Petersburg Literature”; and Dahl’s essay “The Petersburg Janitor”, which was published under the pseudonym Cossack Lugansky; and “Petersburg Corners,” an excerpt from Nekrasov’s unwritten novel “The Life and Adventures of Tikhon Trostnikov.” Thus, a direction is formed. It is curious that the name of this direction - “natural school” - was given by its ideological enemy - F.V. Bulgarin (Fig. 14),
Rice. 14. F.V. Bulgarin ()
who was also both an enemy of Pushkin and an opponent of Gogol. In his articles, Bulgarin mercilessly condemned representatives of the new generation, spoke of a base, dirty interest in the unsightly details of social life, and called what young writers were trying to do dirty naturalism. Belinsky picked up this word and made it the motto of the entire movement. Thus, the name of the school, the group of young writers and what they did, gradually became established.
The natural school as a phenomenon developed quite quickly, and they usually talk about three stages, or directions, of this school. The first direction is essay. What the young writers did may be reminiscent of investigative journalism. For example, Grigorovich became interested in an everyday phenomenon that seemed mysterious to him - the St. Petersburg organ grinders. Everyone hears their sounds, but where do they come from and where do they go, where do they eat, spend the night, what do they hope for? And Grigorovich literally undertakes a journalistic investigation. He dresses warmly and casually and sets off to wander with the organ grinders. In this way he spent about two weeks and found out everything. The result of this investigation was the essay “St. Petersburg Organ Grinders,” which was also published in “Physiology of St. Petersburg.” V. Dahl became interested in the colorful, in an interesting way Petersburg janitor. In his work of the same name, he describes with great interest both the appearance of this social type and the furnishings of his closet, and does not shy away from even the most unsightly details. For example, Dahl says that the janitor had a towel, but the dogs, who often ran into the closet, constantly mistook this towel for an edible object, it was so dirty and greasy. An excerpt from Nekrasov’s novel “Petersburg Corners” sounded even more vivid and provocative. It begins with a completely journalistic description of such a St. Petersburg phenomenon as the third courtyard. “Do you know what the third courtyard is?” - asks the author. It is said that the first courtyards retain decency and a formal appearance. Then, if you go under the arch, a second courtyard will appear. It is in the shadows, it is a bit dirty and unsightly, but if you look closely, you can see a low arch that resembles a dog hole. And if you squeeze through there, the third courtyard will appear in all its glory. The sun never hits there; these courtyards are decorated with a terrible, fetid puddle. This is exactly the path that Nekrasov’s young hero takes and tries to find a place for himself in a shelter. With anxiety and trepidation he looks at this huge puddle, which completely blocks the entrance to the shelter. The entrance to the shelter looks like a stinking hole. The hero feels that he will not be able to go to the shelter without passing this puddle, over which green flies fly in swarms and which is teeming with white worms. Naturally, such details could not previously serve as a subject for consideration in the literature. Writers of the new generation act fearlessly: they explore life themselves and present the results of their research to the reader. But why are we talking specifically about investigative journalism, why do we call this direction feature writing? Because here, as a rule, there is no artistic plot, the personalities of the characters are not at all interesting to the writer or they fade into the background. It is the nature that is important. The motto of this direction can be chosen as follows: “Such is life. Look, reader, maybe you will be surprised, maybe you will be horrified, but that’s just how life is. It is necessary to know the social organism.” At the same time, one can note a certain mechanistic approach, characteristic of both Western writers and young Russian ones. They imagined society as a kind of organism akin to the human. For example, in French physiologies it was assumed that such an organism had lungs, a circulatory, digestive and even an excretory system. For example, numerous gardens and city parks were declared light; the circulatory system was represented as financial system, which washes all parts of this organism; they compared digestion to the market, which in Paris was called the “Belly of Paris”; Accordingly, the excretory system is the sewerage system. In Paris, young writers ventured into the Parisian sewer and carried out all kinds of research there. In the same way, writers in St. Petersburg ventured on the most risky expeditions to find out everything the smallest details and flaws in the social organism. Daguerre’s discovery also had a certain influence on sketch prose of the early 1840s (Fig. 15)
photographs in 1839. The first method of photography was named after him: the daguerreotype.
Daguerreotype- This is a photograph taken using the daguerreotype method.
Daguerreotype- This is a method of directly obtaining a positive image when shooting.
The sketch method was sometimes called daguerreotype in Russia, that is, it is a method of direct photographing of existence. A snapshot of life is taken, and then it’s up to the reader how to react to it. The main goal is educational.
But of course fiction does not stand still, and without the author’s attitude it was quite difficult to present all new flaws in reality. The author had to express his inner attitude to what was happening, and readers also expected this.
Therefore, a new direction, or the next stage in the development of the natural school, appears quite quickly - sentimental-natural(1846). The new motto of the direction is the question: “Is this life? Is this how life should be? In 1846, the next landmark publication was published: “Petersburg Collection”.
Rice. 16. Title page of the publication “Petersburg Collection” (1846) ()
The most important works for writers of this trend are the famous “The Overcoat” by Gogol and “The Station Agent” by Pushkin. These are the examples with which I wanted to be equal, but not everyone succeeded. Young writers sought to depict the life of a small, unhappy, oppressed person. As a rule, this was a St. Petersburg official. Gradually, images of peasants also appeared (Grigorovich’s story “Anton the Miserable,” where sorrows rain down on the unfortunate peasant, like cones on poor Makar), from all sides. But it seemed to young writers that Gogol in his “Overcoat” treated Akaki Akakievich Bashmachkin somewhat harshly and not entirely humanely. We see a whole series of misfortunes that haunt Gogol’s hero, but we do not see how the hero relates to the world, to life, we do not see his thoughts, we are not present inside the soul of this character. Young writers wanted to somehow soften and “stamp” this image. And a whole series of works appears in which a small official also suffers and suffers in a huge, cold, inhumane city, but he develops attachments to, say, his wife, his daughter, his dog. In this way, young writers wanted to strengthen the humanistic side of the story. But in practice it turned out that they could not reach Gogol’s heights. After all, for Gogol it’s not so important what his hero feels, but that he is a man, he is our brother and has the right to warmth, to a place where no one will touch him. Akaki Akakievich does not have such a niche - he dies from the cold, from the indifference of the surrounding world. This is Gogol’s idea, but in numerous essays and stories of a sentimental-natural direction, everything looks somewhat simpler and more primitive.
A huge exception against this background is the story of F.M. Dostoevsky “Poor People”, published in the “Petersburg Collection”. Largely thanks to this story, the collection gained enormous popularity and was published in an incredible edition of 5,000 copies at that time, which sold out very quickly. So the hero of the story “Poor People” Makar Devushkin is a petty official. He is poor, homeless, he rents not a room, but a corner in the kitchen, where there is fumes, a stench, where the screams of guests bother him. It would seem that we should only feel pity for him. But Dostoevsky poses the question completely differently: his little people are, of course, poor, but poor in the absence of money, but mentally and spiritually these people are rich. They are capable of high self-sacrifice: they are ready to give their last without hesitation. They are capable of self-development: they read books, think about the fate of the heroes of Gogol and Pushkin. They are able to write beautiful letters to each other, because this story is in letters: Varenka Dobroselova writes the letters, and Makar Devushkin answers her. Thus, Dostoevsky, in a sense, immediately stepped over the rather narrow boundaries of the sentimental-natural direction. It is not just sympathy for the characters that evokes his story, but deep respect for them. And the powerful of this world turn out to be spiritually poor in this story.
Thus, the first two directions appeared quite quickly, and after them the third direction, or the third stage in the development of the natural school, appeared. The issue of environment is still important for the writer, but now the idea appears to shine a brighter light on the hero himself. The third level is the level big story, or novel. And here Russian literature makes a world-class discovery: the introduction of a hero of the Onegin-Pechorin type into Gogol’s milieu. The Gogol environment is the environment that is generously and vividly depicted in Gogol's works. And into such a gray, hopeless environment, a bright, educated, intelligent hero is introduced, who has retained the rudiments of conscience. Those. a hero similar to Onegin or Pechorin. With such a connection, the following will arise: the environment will torment and crush the hero. And then the plot can go in two directions. First direction. The hero holds firm and does not yield to the environment in anything, and the environment is fate, life, which is given to a person only once. The hero refuses to deal with vulgar people, to serve in a department where they do meaningless and vulgar things, he wants to prove himself somehow, but the situation is such that the hero cannot prove himself. And at some point the hero may come to the conclusion that life was in vain, he was unable to accomplish anything, he was unable to defeat the environment, although he remained true to his beliefs and ideals. He turns into a smart uselessness. And it’s bitter for the hero to realize such an ending own life. All this is the problematic of the novel by A.I. Herzen "Who is to blame?" (Fig. 17)
Rice. 17. Cover of the edition of the novel “Who is to Blame?” ()
Second direction. The hero feels complete hopelessness and hopelessness to follow his pure youthful ideals. Still, life is stronger, and he has to give in and reconcile. It seems to the hero that he remains true to himself, but the environment comes inexorably and at some point suppresses the hero so much that he disappears as a person, he has turned into the same vulgarity as those around him. Sometimes the hero understands this, and sometimes he is not even able to realize the terrible transformation that has happened to him. This is the problematic of the novel by I.A. Goncharov “Ordinary History” (Fig. 18).
Rice. 18. Cover of the edition of the novel “An Ordinary Story” ()
Both of these novels were published in 1847 and mark the beginning of the third stage of the natural school.
But we are talking about the natural school in relation to the 1840s. And at the end of the 40s, a whole series of events took place: Belinsky dies, finds himself under arrest and sentenced to execution, but then exiled to the distant Omsk prison of Dostoevsky. And it turns out that writers are now going their own way and the most important classics are already creating a certain direction for themselves. Therefore, we say that the time for apprenticeship, common labor and the development of ideology falls precisely in the 40s years XIX century.
Bibliography
- Sakharov V.I., Zinin S.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. - M.: Russian Word.
- Arkhangelsky A.N. and others. Russian language and literature. Literature (advanced level) 10. - M.: Bustard.
- Lanin B.A., Ustinova L.Yu., Shamchikova V.M. / ed. Lanina B.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. - M.: VENTANA-GRAF.
- Internet portal Km.ru ( ).
- Internet portal Feb-web.ru ().
Homework
- Make a table of the main stages of development of a natural school.
- Compose comparative characteristics romantic and naturalistic literature based on brief analysis most significant works these two periods.
- * Write an essay-reflection on the topic “The ideological confrontation between Bulgarin and Belinsky.”
Natural school is designation of the type of Russian realism that existed in the 19th century, successively associated with the work of N.V. Gogol and developing his artistic principles. The natural school includes early works I.A. Goncharov, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.I. Herzen, D.V. Grigorovich, V.I. Dal, A.N. Ostrovsky, I. I. Panaeva, Y. P. Butkova and others. The main ideologist of the natural school was V. G. Belinsky, the development of its theoretical principles was also promoted by V. N. Maikov, A. N. Pleshcheev and others. Representatives of the natural school were grouped around the magazines “ Otechestvennye zapiski" and later "Contemporary". The program collections for it were “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (part 12, 1845) and “Petersburg Collection” (1846). In connection with the latest publication, the very name of the natural school arose: F.V. Bulgarin (Northern Bee. 1846. No. 22) used it with the aim of discrediting writers of the new direction; Belinsky, Maikov and others took this definition, filling it with positive content.
The novelty of the artistic principles of the natural school was most clearly expressed in “physiological essays” - works that set as their goal an extremely accurate recording of certain social types(“physiology” of a landowner, peasant, official), their specific differences (“physiology” of a St. Petersburg official, Moscow official), social, professional and everyday characteristics, habits, attractions, etc. With its desire for documentation, for precise detail, the use of statistical and ethnographic data, and sometimes the introduction of biological accents into the typology of characters, the “physiological sketch” expressed the tendency of a certain convergence of figurative and scientific consciousness at that time and, as in French literature (“physiology” O de Balzac, Jules Janin, etc.), contributed to the expansion of the positions of realism. At the same time, it is unlawful to reduce the natural school to “physiology,” since its other genres, the novel and the story, towered over them. It was in the novels and stories of the natural school that the conflict between the “romantic” and the “realist” found expression (“Ordinary History”, 1847, Goncharova; partly “Who is to Blame?”, 1845-46, Herzen; “Contradictions”, 1847 and “Confused Affair” ", 1848, M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrin), the evolution of a character experiencing the irresistible influence of the social environment was revealed. With its interest in the hidden reasons for a character’s behavior, in the laws of the functioning of society as a social whole, the natural school also turned out to be close to Western European realism of the 1840s, which was noted by Belinsky when comparing the novels of Gogol and Charles Dickens: “The content of the novel is artistic analysis modern society, the revelation of those invisible foundations of him, which are hidden from him by habit and unconsciousness” (Belinsky V.G. Complete collection works: In 13 volumes, Volume 10. Page 106).
The natural school, strictly speaking, does not represent the unity that is suggested by this very concept - “school” - and how it sometimes seemed to contemporaries. By school we mean, as a rule, a number of literary phenomena with high degree commonality - even to the point of commonality of theme, style, language. It is hardly possible to find such a commonality among writers of the natural school. At the same time it is unlawful to abandon the concept of “Natural school” altogether, since it corresponds to an objective series of phenomena. The natural school can be understood only in the perspective of literary evolution as the development and sometimes straightening of the achievements and discoveries of the first Russian realists. Overcoming the philosophy and poetics of the natural school, first of all with Dostoevsky and later with the writers of the sixties, began with criticism of its main provisions and, in connection with this, with a deepening into human psychology, with the refutation of attempts to fatally subordinate the character to circumstances, with every possible emphasis on the role of human activity and self-awareness .
Option 1
1.Which literary movement dominated the literature of the second half of the 19th century?
A) romanticism B) sentimentalism
B) classicism D) realism
2.Indicate the founders of the “natural school”.
A) V.G. Belinsky, I.S. Turgenev B) M.Yu. Lermontov, F.I. Tyutchev
B) A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol D) V.G. Belinsky, N.V. Gogol
3. Which Russian writer was called “Columbus of Zamoskvorechye”?
A) I.S. Turgenev B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) A.N. Ostrovsky D) F.M. Dostoevsky
4. The heroine of Ostrovsky’s play “The Thunderstorm,” Kabanikha, was called:
A) Anna Petrovna B) Katerina Lvovna
B) Marfa Ignatievna D) Anastasia Semyonovna
5.Indicate what artistic device A.A. Fet uses in the highlighted phrases:
“Again the birds are flying from afar // To the shores breaking up the ice // The warm sun goes high //And fragrant lily of the valley is waiting."
A) personification B) epithet
B) inversion D) allegory
6.Which work’s hero was promised to God at birth, “died many times and did not die”?
A) L.N. Tolstoy, “War and Peace”, Prince Andrei B) I.S. Turgenev, “Fathers and Sons”, Bazarov
B) A.N. Ostrovsky, “The Thunderstorm”, Katerina Kabanova G) N.S. Leskov, “The Enchanted Wanderer”. Flyagin
7. In what work of Russian literature does a nihilist hero appear?
A) A. N. Ostrovsky “Forest” B) F. M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment”
B) I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons” D) I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”
8. Katerina Izmailova is a heroine:
A) essay by N.S. Leskov “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District”
B) plays by A.N. Ostrovsky “Dowry”
B)F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”
D) novel by I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”
A) A.N. Ostrovsky B) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
B) F. M. Dostoevsky D) L. N. Tolstoy
10.Which of the heroes of the novel “War and Peace” proposed a plan for a guerrilla war to M. Kutuzov?
A) Dolokhov B) Bolkonsky
B) Denisov D) Drubetskoy
11.Which character in “War and Peace” owns the statement “The chess is set. The game starts tomorrow"?
A) Prince Andrei B) Napoleon
B) Emperor Alexander 1 D) M.I. Kutuzov
12. Which hero of the novel “Crime and Punishment” does Razumikhin characterize with the following words: “Gloomy, gloomy, arrogant and proud”?
A) Porfiry Petrovich B) Raskolnikov
B) Zosimova D) Svidrigailova
13.Indicate which of the heroes of Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” goes through the path of quest.
A) Platon Karataev B) Pierre Bezukhov
B) Fedor Dolokhov D) Anatol Kuragin
14.Which Russian poet owns the words “You may not be a poet, but you must be a citizen”?
A) A.S. Pushkin B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) M.Yu. Lermontov
15.What type of literature should the genres of novel, story, story be classified as?
A) lyrics B) epic
B) drama D) lyric-epic
16.Name the main character trait of Sonya Marmeladova (F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment”)
A) sacrifice B) hypocrisy
B) frivolity D) love of freedom
17. Indicate which Russian writer is the author of the cycle “Frigate Pallas”?
A) L.N. Tolstoy B) I.A. Goncharov
18.Indicate which of the Russian critics called the heroine of A.N. Ostrovsky’s drama “The Thunderstorm” “a ray of light in a dark kingdom.”
A) V.G. Belinsky B) N.G. Chernyshevsky
B) N.A. Dobrolyubov D) D.I. Pisarev
19.Name the poet who was a supporter of “pure art.”
A) A.S. Pushkin B) N.A. Nekrasov
B) A. A. Fet D) M. Yu. Lermontov
20. Indicate the correct name of the Kirsanovs’ estate (I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”)
A) Yagodnoye B) Maryino
B) Zamanilovka D) Otradnoe
21. How was Dolokhov punished (L.N. Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”) for a joke with the policeman?
A) expelled from St. Petersburg B) was not punished because he gave a bribe
B) demoted to the rank and file D) was not punished because he had support among those in power
22. Raskolnikov’s theory (F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment”) is
A) strict scientific basis dividing people into categories
B) division of people into categories depending on their social affiliation and education
C) division of people into categories: material and people themselves
23. Ivan Flyagin (N.S. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”) has never been
A) babysitter B) soldier
B) gardener D) artist
24.Name works in which the motif of wandering plays an important role in organizing the plot:
A) “Thunderstorm”, “Enchanted Wanderer”
B) “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, “Man in a Case”
D) “Thunderstorm”, “Man in a Case”
Final test for the 10th grade course Option – 2
1. Indicate the writers of the second half of the 19th century whose titles of works contain opposition.
A) A.N. Ostrovsky, I.S. Turgenev, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
B) I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy
B) I.A. Goncharov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov
G) L.N. Tolstoy, N.S. Leskov, I.S. Turgenev
2. In the work of which poet was the impressionistic style of depiction first used?
A) N.A. Nekrasov B) A.A. Fet
B) F.I. Tyutchev D) A.K. Tolstoy
A) A. N. Ostrovsky “Thunderstorm” B) L. N. Tolstoy “The Living Corpse”
B) F. M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment” G) N. S. Leskov “Lady Macbeth...”
4. What artistic device did the author use in this passage: “Blessed is the gentle poet, // In whom there is little bile, a lot of feeling // Greetings to him so sincere // Friends of calm art..”
A) allegory B) antithesis
B) metaphor D) hyperbole
5.Name the main criteria for assessing personality in L.N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”.
A) pride and pride B) naturalness and morality
B) nobility and kindness D) generosity and courage
6.Which of the Russian writers was sentenced to hard labor?
A) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin B) F.M. Dostoevsky
B) A.I. Herzen D) N.A. Nekrasov
7.What literary type is depicted in the image of the Wild (A.N. Ostrovsky “The Thunderstorm”)?
A) type " little man» C) tyrant
B) type of “extra person” D) romantic hero
A) I.A. Goncharov B) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) A.P. Chekhov
9.Indicate what position the author occupies in the epic novel “War and Peace”.
A) participant in ongoing events
B) a person who deeply experiences and comments on the events described
B) dispassionate observer
D) a narrator who interrupts the story to tell the reader about himself
10.Indicate the name of the regiment in which Nikolai Rostov served (L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”).
A) Preobrazhensky B) Izmailovsky
B) Pavlogradsky D) Semenovsky
11.What type of literature became dominant in the second half of the 19th century?
A) lyrics B) epic
B) drama D) lyric-epic
12.Indicate which of the Russian writers spoke about the need to “squeeze the slave out of yourself drop by drop.”
A) I.A. Goncharov B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) A.P. Chekhov D) F.M. Dostoevsky
13. In the work of which writer is the type of “little man” first shown?
A) Samson Vyrin in “ Stationmaster» A.S. Pushkin
B) Akakiy Akakievich in “The Overcoat” by N.V. Gogol
B) Maxim Maksimych in “Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov
D) Captain Tushin in “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy
14. Agafya Pshenitsyna is the heroine:
A) the novel by I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”
B) F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment” G
B) I. A. Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov”
D) L.N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”
A) A.S. Pushkin B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) A.A. Fet
16.Which of the heroes of the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky asked the question “Am I a trembling creature or do I have the right”?
A) Sonya Marmeladova B) R. Raskolnikov
B) Pyotr Luzhin D) Lebezyatnikov
17. Indicate which of the Russian poets owns the poem “I met you - and all the past ...”
A) N.A. Nekrasov B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) A.S. Pushkin D) A.A. Fet
18.Name the “happy” person in N.A. Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'.”
A) Savely B) Matryona Korchagina
B) Grigory Dobroslonov D) Ermil Girin
19.Indicate what the teacher Belikov taught, a character in the story “The Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov.
A) geography B) literature
B) Greek language D) God's law
20. In the novel “War and Peace” there is goodies who have reached the pinnacle of moral and spiritual development. One of them is Kutuzov, the other is
A) Pierre Bezukhov B) Andrey Bolkonsky
B) Platon Karataev D) Vasily Denisov
21.What mistakes did Raskolnikov make (F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment”) during the murder of the old woman?
A) forgot to close the apartment door B) left his hat at the crime scene
B) forgot to take the crime weapon D) got dirty in blood
22. The genre definition of “epic novel” means:
A) a novel about the ideological and moral quest of the individual associated with the fate of the nation
B) a novel in which not one, but several central characters, and among other characters there are historical figures
B) a novel dedicated to historical event influencing the fate of the country
23. The turning point in the life of Ivan Flyagin (N.S. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”) comes when
A) he recognizes himself as a great sinner and wants to atone for his guilt through suffering
B) he renounces faith and stops praying
C) because of his fault a person dies
24. The following character has nothing to do with the story “The Man in a Case” by A.P. Chekhov
A) Gurov B) Kovalenko
B) Burkin D) Belikov
Final test for the 10th grade course Option – 3
1. Indicate the reasons for the changes in the character of D.I. Startsev (A.P. Chekhov “Ionych”).
A) the influence of his fiancee B) the influence of the environment
B) parental influence D) medical profession
2. Indicate to which literary direction L.N. Tolstoy’s epic novel “War and Peace” should be classified.
A) romanticism B) classicism
B) sentimentalism D) realism
3.Indicate the work of A.P. Chekhov, which is a lyrical comedy.
A) “Man in a Case” B) “Bear”
B) “Seagull” D) “Lady with a Dog”
4.Indicate which writer owns the statement “There is no greatness where there is no simplicity, goodness and truth.”
A) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) F.M. Dostoevsky D) A.P. Chekhov
5.Indicate where the main action of I.A. Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov” takes place.
A) Petersburg B) city NN
B) Moscow D) Oblomov’s Tula estate
6.Which of the characters in the novel “Crime and Punishment” is troubled by dreams?
A) Lebezyatnikov B) Luzhin
B) Sonya D) Svidrigailov
7. To which character in Chekhov’s story does the following remark belong: “The Little Russian language, with its tenderness and pleasant sonority, is reminiscent of ancient Greek”
A) Belikov (“Man in a Case”) B) Ochumelov (“Chameleon”)
B) Turkin (“Ionych”) D) Ippolit Ippolitych (“Literature Teacher”)
8.Name the writer who was an artillery officer and took part in the defense of Sevastopol in 1854.
A) I. A. Goncharov B) F. M. Dostoevsky
B) L.N. Tolstoy D) I.S. Turgenev
9.Indicate the second name of the Gogol movement in literature.
A) pure art B) decadence
B) natural school D) socialist realism
10.Indicate which of the listed compositional parts is optional.
A) prologue B) climax
B) beginning D) resolution
11.As in Art Theater named characteristic of Chekhov's plays development of action?
A) “stormy stream” B) “undercurrent”
B) “stream of consciousness” D) “invisible life”
12.What theme is predominant in the work of N.A. Nekrasov?
A) city theme B) love
B) loneliness D) citizenship
13.Indicate which of the Russian writers wrote the words that “beauty will save the world.”
A) F.M. Dostoevsky B) I.A. Bunin
B) L.N. Tolstoy D) A.P. Chekhov
14.What vice does A.P. Chekhov expose in the story “Ionych”?
A) spiritual emptiness B) servility
B) veneration of rank D) hypocrisy
A) N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'” V) N.S. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”
B) A.N. Ostrovsky “Thunderstorm” D) I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”
16. In which of the listed works does the action take place against the backdrop of a panorama of the Volga?
A) “The Cherry Orchard” B) “Dead Souls”
B) “Thunderstorm” D) “Gooseberry”
17. Indicate to whom the following lines from the poem by N.A. Nekrasov are dedicated: “A naive and passionate soul, // In whom beautiful thoughts were boiling, // Persevering, worrying and hastening, // You honestly walked towards one, high goal...”
A) N.G. Chernyshevsky B) V.G. Belinsky
B)N.V.Gogol D)M.Yu.Lermontov
18.Indicate to which literary direction L.N. Tolstoy’s epic novel “War and Peace” can be attributed.
A) classicism B) romanticism
B) realism D) sentimentalism
19.Indicate what social status Marfa Ignatievna Kabanova (A.N. Ostrovsky “The Thunderstorm”)
A) bourgeois B) peasant woman
B) noblewoman D) merchant's wife
20.What literary device is used by the author in this passage: “The Neva swelled and roared // Like a cauldron, bubbling and swirling...”
A) grotesque B) allegory
B) personification D) comparison
21. Oblomov’s Dream (I.A. Goncharov “Oblomov”) is
A) history of the Oblomov family
B) realistic depiction of a Russian village during serfdom
C) a poetic picture of Russian life, where reality and fairy tales are mixed
22.A statement containing a factual error (L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”).
A) Tolstoy compares the maid of honor A.P. Sherer with the mistress of a spinning workshop
B) the heroic act of Prince Andrei determined the outcome of the Battle of Austerlitz
C) Danilo Kupor is a dance that is danced at Rostov’s name days
23. Ivan Flyagin (N.S. Leskov “The Enchanted Wanderer”) is characterized by the following of these qualities
A) callousness B) simplicity
B) indifference D) arrogance
24.Name works in which there are heroes whose images go back to the images of epic heroes
A) “The Enchanted Wanderer”, “About Love”
B) “The Enchanted Wanderer”, “Who Lives Well in Rus'”
B) “Who Lives Well in Rus'”, “Thunderstorm”
D) “Thunderstorm”, “About Love”
Final test for the 10th grade course Option – 4
1. Why did A.P. Chekhov call his play “The Cherry Orchard” a comedy?
A) funny plot B) farcical situations
B) a comical ending D) the characters’ claims contradict their capabilities
2. Indicate which of the Russian writers wrote the words “You can’t understand Russia with your mind, you can’t measure it with a common yardstick...”
A) A.K. Tolstoy B) A.A. Fet
B) A.S. Pushkin D) F.I. Tyutchev
3.Indicate which of the Russian writers took part in the defense of Sevastopol.
A) F.M. Dostoevsky B) F.I. Tyutchev
B) L.N. Tolstoy D) I.A. Goncharov
4.Indicate which of the Russian poets wrote the words “You may not be a poet, but you must be a citizen.”
A) A.A.Fet B)N.A.Nekrasov
B) F.I. Tyutchev D) A.K. Tolstoy
5.Indicate which of the named works is not included in the cycle “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev.
A) “Raspberry water” B) “Singers”
B) “Mumu” D) “Biryuk”
6.Indicate to whom I. S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons” was dedicated.
A) N.G. Chernyshevsky B) V.G. Belinsky
B) N.A. Nekrasov D) A.A. Grigoriev
7. Which Russian writer served hard labor in the Omsk prison?
A) N.G. Chernyshevsky B) F. M. Dostoevsky
B) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin D) N.A. Nekrasov
8.Name the writer who committed trip around the world on board the frigate "Pallada"
A) I.S. Turgenev B) L.N. Tolstoy
B) I.A. Goncharov D) A.P. Chekhov
9.Indicate the name of the writer who made a trip to Sakhalin Island.
A) L.N. Tolstoy B) A.P. Chekhov
B) I.A. Goncharov D) M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
10.Name the name of a writer who is not a native of Moscow.
A) A.S. Pushkin B) F.M. Dostoevsky
B) M.Yu. Lermontov D) A.P. Chekhov
11.Select the correct sequence for changing one literary direction to others.
A) sentimentalism, romanticism, classicism, realism, modernism
B) modernism, romanticism, realism, sentimentalism, classicism
B) classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism
D) realism, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, modernism
12. N.A. Nekrasov’s favorite genre of poetry is:
A) ode B) elegy
B) ballad D) message
13.Name a poet in whose work the poem “Prophet” is not found
A) A.S. Pushkin B) N.A. Nekrasov
B) M.Yu. Lermontov D) F.I. Tyutchev
14.What does L.N. Tolstoy mean by the concept of “people”?
A) all workers who create material values
B) serfs working on the land
C) the totality of representatives of all social groups and classes showing spirituality and patriotism
D) artisans, craftsmen
15.Which of the heroes of L.N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace! Are the words “You have to live, you have to love, you have to believe”?
A) Andrei Bolkonsky B) Pierre Bezukhov
B) Nikolai Rostov D) Platon Karataev
16.What is the highest point in the development of the plot of a literary work called?
A) hyperbole B) exposition
B) grotesque D) climax
17. Indicate what determines Lopakhin’s activity in A.P. Chekhov’s comedy “The Cherry Orchard.”
A) the desire to ruin Ranevskaya and appropriate her fortune for himself
B) the desire to take revenge on the owners who fell into poverty
C) an attempt to help Ranevskaya improve her financial situation
D) the dream of destroying the cherry orchard, which reminds him of his difficult childhood
18.Indicate a work in the plot of which there is no duel episode.
A) A.S. Pushkin “Shot” B) A.S. Griboedov “Woe from Wit”
B) L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace” D) M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”
19.Identify the author and work by final words: “No matter what passionate, sinful, rebellious heart hides in the grave, the flowers growing on it serenely look at us with their innocent eyes; not only about the eternal peace of “indifferent” nature; they also speak of eternal reconciliation and endless life.”
A) M.Yu. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time” B) F.M. Dostoevsky “Crime and Punishment”
B) L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace” D) I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”
20. What artistic device does A.A. Fet use in the following passage: “This morning, this joy, // This power of day and light, // This blue vault, // This cry and lines, // These flocks, these birds,//This talk of the waters..."
A) personification B) anaphora
B) antithesis D) epithet
21. Bazarov (I.S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”) says to Arkady about his father: “The same eccentric as yours, only in a different way.” Fathers are similar in that they
A) close in age and social status
B) love nature, music and poetry
C) they love their sons and strive to keep up with the times
22. In the poem by N.A. Nekrasov “Who Lives Well in Rus'” there are the following characters:
A) Ermil Girin, Kuligin, Yakim Nagoy B) Ermil Girin, Utyatin, Yakim Nagoy
B) Yakim Nagoy, Kudryash, Utyatin D) Feklusha, Utyatin, Kuligin
23. Leskov’s concept does not consider the next aspect of the concept “righteous person”.
A) the ability to be content with little, but never act against conscience
B) religious detachment from earthly passions, service to God
C) the ability of an ordinary person to self-sacrifice.
24. The following problem is not raised in the story “Gooseberry” by A.P. Chekhov
A) the relationship between man and nature
B) personality degradation
B) personal responsibility for what is happening in the world
D) Russian intelligentsia
The term was first used by Thaddeus Bulgarin as a disparaging description of the work of Nikolai Gogol’s young followers in “The Northern Bee” 1846, but was rethought by Belinsky in the article “A Look at Russian Literature of 1847”: “ natural" - truthful depiction of reality.
Belinsky developed this idea about Gogol’s “school” - the movement of Russian literature towards realism - earlier: in the article “On the Russian story and the stories of Mr. Gogol” in 1835.
The main doctrine of the school: literature should be an imitation of reality. The formation of the “Natural School” dates back to 1842-1845, when a group of writers (Nikolai Nekrasov, Dmitry Grigorovich, Ivan Turgenev, Alexander Herzen, Vladimir Dal) united under the ideological influence of Belinsky in the journal Otechestvennye zapiski. Later, Fyodor Dostoevsky and Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin published there. These writers also appeared in the collections “Physiology of St. Petersburg” (1845), “Petersburg Collection” (1846), which became the program for the “Natural School”.
The most common signs on the basis of which a writer was considered to belong to the school:
1) socially significant topics,
2) critical attitude to social reality,
3) realism of artistic expression, against embellishment of reality.
Belinsky emphasized that art and literature, more than ever, became an expression of social issues.
4) appeal to the “crowd”, to the “mass”, to ordinary people and to people of “low rank”. The "physiological" essays common in the 1840s met this need.
Gogol's influence:
1) satire on the “vile reality”,
2) the severity of his formulation of the problem of the “small man”
In addition to Gogol, such representatives of Western European literature as Dickens, Balzac, and George Sand influenced the writers of the natural school.
The school was criticized:
1) Bulgarin - for his passion for “low people”, for “filthy filth”, for political unreliability.
2) was ridiculed in Pyotr Karatygin’s vaudeville “Natural School” (1847). After Belinsky’s death, the very name “N.sh.” was prohibited by censorship. In the 1850s the term “Gogolian direction” was used
Among the writers included in it, the Literary Encyclopedia identifies three movements:
1) presented liberal nobility- superficial and cautious criticism of reality. Turgenev, Grigorovich, I. I. Panaev depict the estate and its inhabitants with intonations of light mockery, either in the poem (“The Landowner”, “Parasha” by Turgenev, etc.) or in the psychological story (works by I. I. Panaev). A special place was occupied by essays and stories from peasant life (“Village” and “Anton Goremyk” by Grigorovich, “Notes of a Hunter” by Turgenev). This is noble realism.
2) relied on urban philistinism of the 1840s. A certain role here belonged to Fyodor Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “The Double”, etc.). Novelty of social issues. Denial of certain aspects of social reality.
But instead of depicting the essential aspects of social life, there is a deepening into the chaos and confusion of the human psyche.
3) presented "commoners"”, ideologists of “revolutionary peasant democracy”. The features of the school emerged most clearly. They manifested themselves most fully and sharply in Nekrasov (urban stories, essays - “Petersburg Corners”, anti-serfdom poems). Protest against the serf nobility, the dark corners of urban reality, merciless exposure of the underside of reality. Herzen (“Who’s to blame?”) and Saltykov (“A Confused Affair”) should also be included in this group, although the tendencies typical for the group are expressed less sharply in them than in Nekrasov.
By the 1860s, the division between writers classified as belonging to the natural school would sharply worsen.
Ex: Turgenev will take an irreconcilable position in relation to the “Contemporary” of Nekrasov and Chernyshevsky.
Belinsky
"A Look at Russian Literature 1847"(48) consists of 2 items:
"General assessment and origins of "nat.shk";
"About specific works of "NAT.SHK" writers.
The first article says that the school is at the head of modern Russian literature. The school is headed by Gogol. The origins are the satires of Kantemir, and then Khemnitser, Fonvizin, Krylov. Another Lomonosov line. These lines come together in Derzhavin and merge in Pushkin. Modern writers of the school went further than Gogol, strengthened democratic ideas, commoners and peasants became their heroes.
The second article examines Herzen, Goncharov, Turgenev, Grigorovich, Dal, Druzhinin, Dostoevsky. A comparative analysis of Goncharov's "Ordinary History" and "Who is to Blame?" is given. Herzen (Herzen the thinker, Goncharov the artist; a different image of a woman - not cloyingly sentimental; great attention to Aduev Jr. - like Werner - a romantic, incapable of friendship, love). "Turgenev looked for his way in literature and found him in “Notes of a Hunter.” B especially notes “Khor and Kalinich,” where Turgenev raised the images of ordinary men to a high level.
3. Futurism as literary movement. Early creativity V. Mayakovsky.
The beginning of the 20th century is a time of unprecedented rise of Russian poetry, a time characterized by the appearance of many artistic directions- as continuing traditions Russian classics, and modernist. The latter undoubtedly includes futurism (from the Latin futurum; literally meaning “future”).
Futurism originally originated in Italy. Its first theorist and practitioner was the writer F. Marinetti. The Futurist Manifesto, published by him in 1909, became a programmatic statement of the aesthetic principles of the new direction. New art must be directed towards the future; tomorrow belongs to it. Its supporters advocated for the rejection of the cultural achievements of the past, for the search for new artistic means, linguistic techniques, futurism is characterized by pronounced formalistic features: concern for increasing the “vocabulary in its volume,” “word innovation,” and the creation of a new syntax. But at the same time, he is not alien to openly social content, revolutionary pathos, protest against those “abominations of life” that the reality of his time brought.
Out of dissatisfaction traditional art According to Mayakovsky, Russian futurism was born. It developed in its own way, independent of the European one. The Russian futurists did not have a single creative organization, but they still had one artistic and aesthetic platform. Their ideological manifesto can be called the collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” published in 1912. Its main provisions: firstly, to discard “Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, etc. from the ship of modernity"; secondly, to recognize the poet’s right to “increase the vocabulary in its volume with arbitrary and derivative words.”
Futurists asserted the priority of form over content; The main thing in artistic creativity is the search for new formal techniques; the goal of poetry is a valuable, “self-sufficient” word.
The new movement took on the role of revolutionary art. As such, it proposed the following principles: anti-aestheticism, poeticization of the ugly and ugly, shocking the public, demonstrative cynicism and nihilism. The futurists developed these principles not only in their creativity, but also in their way of life. Hence the extravagant costumes (for example, Mayakovsky’s yellow jacket), painted faces, ridiculous accessories, and deliberate rudeness in dealing with the public. The design of their collections was also provocative, from the titles to the dirty gray cheap paper. To bring the bourgeois public out of balance - this was the goal the futurists set for themselves.
The work of young Mayakovsky is inextricably linked with futurism. Together with D. Burliuk, V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh, he participated in the creation of the collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” spoke at futurist debates, wrote critical articles, and was published in futurist publications of that time. Mayakovsky's experimental search was largely determined by the artistic guidelines of futurism; this concerns the main themes, poetic devices, and the language of his works.
At one of the poetry evenings, the author defined beauty this way: “This living life urban mass, these are the streets along which trams and cars run, reflected in mirrored windows and signs.” And it is precisely this kind of beauty that the poet praises. For him there is only one landscape - the urban one. In this regard, the titles of his poems are especially eloquent: “Port”, “Street”, “Signs”, “Theatres”, “Hell of the City”. At the same time, the pictures of city life amaze with their frank naturalism and rudeness: “The street sunk like the nose of a syphilitic person” or: “And some kind of rubbish was watching from the sky.” And this is how the night landscape looks like, according to Mayakovsky:
There will be a moon.
Already have
a little bit.
But the full one hung in the air.
This must be God
a wonderful silver spoon
rummages in the stars ear.
The author contrasts the primitive poetic description of the first part with a complicated prosaic explanation.
In these and other lines there is demonstrative anti-aestheticism, the desire to amaze the reader, so characteristic of futurist art. The poet defends the right to look at the world in his own way. He's writing:
And somewhere behind the suns of the streets she hobbled
useless, flabby moon.
The night lights of the city are called the sun, while the real luminary is declared unnecessary and “flabby.” To apply such an epithet to the moon, sung throughout the centuries, is not this a challenge to all previous poetry?
In the poem “Could You?” the hero addresses the readers:
play nocturne
we could
on the drainpipe flute?
He is a poet, he “has the right” to create according to his own laws. And “they” - they “understand nothing”:
Crazy!
Ginger!
“To them” the poet addresses his sharp “Nata”:
And if today I, a rude Hun,
I don’t want to grimace in front of you - so
I will laugh and spit joyfully,
I'll spit in your face.
Mayakovsky's works are characterized by a sharp social sound - anti-war, revolutionary. “Down with your love, art, religion, system!” - the poet proclaims in the four parts of the poem “A Cloud in Pants.”
Leaves.
After the lines of foxes there are dots.
Mayakovsky, not without challenge, called this poem “An exhaustive picture of spring.” So the author, using futurist verbal painting, paints a spring landscape. Mayakovsky, engaged in a formal search, arbitrarily divides words into syllables and violates the usual construction of a poetic line. He often resorts to various techniques of sound writing (“and from the north - gray snow”; “we will poison the waters of the Rhine with blood”; “with verses, order it to decay”). He breaks the rules of grammar:
Where is the rose more tender and tea-like? Or:
I’ll pull out your soul and trample it so that it’s big!
Kind business card Mayakovsky can be considered neologisms. The poet's word creation undoubtedly has its source in the poetics of the futurists. In his poems - “the hell of the city”, “the emaciated lonze of the earth”, “December evening”.
If I were to be tongue-tied,
like Dant
or Petrarch!
Ignite the soul to one!
The paradox of the first part is “removed” in the second: the hero’s talent and love are so great that ordinary earthly standards are not applicable to them.
When assessing Mayakovsky's work, one should not deny the influence of futurism on the author's aesthetics. It was this direction that largely shaped the future “lyricist and tribune”. The pathos of revolutionary renewal, the poetry of the industrial city, the challenge to bourgeois life, on the one hand, and active search new artistic forms, on the other hand, is what the poet inherited in his work from the ideas and methods of futurism. The years during which he was associated with this direction became for him years of study, the formation of poetic skill, a literary credo, according to the laws of which his further work developed.
