Music of the High Renaissance. Music education in the Renaissance Musical culture of the Renaissance

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Introduction

1.2 France

1.3 Italy

1.3.2 Venetian school

1.4 England

1.5 Germany

1.6 Spain

2. Musical aesthetics

2.4 Meistersingers and their art

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The Renaissance, or Renaissance (French renaissance), is a turning point in the history of culture European peoples. The defining worldview of the Renaissance, in contrast to medieval theocentrism (a philosophical concept based on the understanding of God as an absolute, perfect, highest being, the source of all life and any good) and asceticism, became humanism (from the Latin humanus - “human”, “ humane"). The individual value of the human personality has come to the fore, and interest in understanding the surrounding world and a realistic reflection of reality has increased. Humanists sought the ideal of a harmonious person in antiquity, and ancient Greek and Roman art served them as a model for artistic creativity. The desire to “revive” ancient culture gave its name to this era, the period between the Middle Ages and the New Age (from the mid-17th century to the present day).

The first half of the 15th century is characterized as the beginning of the Renaissance in music. At this time, the Renaissance ideal of harmony and beauty, the norms of the so-called strict style. Unlike other types of art, the main ideals and criteria of Renaissance music were not the ideals of antiquity, since the musical notations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome to the XIII-XVI centuries. have not yet been fully deciphered and analyzed. Therefore, most often the basis of musical works of this era were poetic, literary works antiquity. For example, by the end of the 16th century. operatic works contained the canons of antiquity. In music, as in other forms of art, there is an increasing tendency to depict the diversity of the world, and the idea of ​​diversity is combined with the desire for harmony and proportionality of all elements of the whole. A rethink is underway. social status music - a democratic public appears, amateur music-making is widespread - the performance of plays not only by famous composers, but also of personal compositions. Thus, it was during the Renaissance that the prerequisites arose for the flourishing of everyday and professional secular musical creativity, which was characterized by life affirmation, joy of life, humanism and bright images.

At the same time, changes occurred in musical writing: heavy wooden printing blocks were replaced by movable metal types invented by the Italian Ottaviano Petrucci. Published musical works quickly sold out, and more and more people began to get involved in music.

Musical works of this period were distinguished by great melodiousness, songfulness, which was inherent in folk music; a certain number of songs were written in their native language, and not in Latin.

The main features of music were melody and a certain rhythm, which were distinguished by greater flexibility and expression than in the Middle Ages. The emergence of polyphony was explained primarily by the fact that the musician, composer, performer, singer had musical freedom of action, expressed their soul, emotional mood, and the right to interpret and come up with their own variations in accordance with their feelings and inner state in songs.

Of great importance in this era was the identification and approval of the major mode (lighter, joyful, inviting compared to the minor mode - sad, calm, mournful), especially in the 15th-16th centuries.

The song with the accompaniment of a lute or performed in polyphony received particular development.

During the Renaissance, instrumental music developed. Often they combined different instruments in one theme. At the same time, dance forms and melodies were preserved and improved, which were combined into suites. The first instrumental works appeared, seemingly of an independent nature, variations, preludes, fantasies.

Just like architecture, sculpture, painting, the musical art of the Renaissance was distinguished by its secular character, and by the XIV-XVI centuries. refers to the formation of national music schools.

1. Musical culture of the Renaissance

The artistic culture of the Renaissance is a personal beginning based on science. The unusually complex skill of polyphonists of the 15th-16th centuries, their virtuosic technique coexisted with the brilliant art of everyday dances and the sophistication of secular genres. Lyric-dramaticism is increasingly expressed in his works. In addition, they more clearly reveal the personality of the author and the creative individuality of the artist (this is typical not only for musical art), which allows us to talk about humanization as the leading principle of Renaissance art. At the same time, church music, represented by such major genres as the mass and the motet, to a certain extent continues the “Gothic” line in the art of the Renaissance, aimed, first of all, at recreating an already existing canon and through this glorifying the Divine.

By the 15th century, the so-called polyphony of “strict writing” was taking shape, the rules (norms of voice guidance, formation, etc.) of which were recorded in theoretical treatises of that time and were an immutable law for the creation of church music. Composers composed their masses using borrowed melodies (Gregorian chant and other canonical sources, as well as folk music) as the main theme - the so-called cantus firmus, while attaching great importance to the technique of polyphonic writing and complex, sometimes sophisticated counterpoint. At the same time, there was a continuous process of updating and overcoming established norms, and therefore secular genres were gradually gaining more and more importance.

So, as you can see, the Renaissance period is a complex period in the history of the development of musical art, so it seems reasonable to consider it in more detail, while paying due attention to individuals and countries.

1.1 Netherlands Polyphonic School

The Netherlands is a historical region in north-west Europe (their territory covered what is now North-East France, South-West Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg). By the 15th century The Netherlands has reached a high economic and cultural level and has become a prosperous European country with extensive trade ties. The intensity of the country's economic development was also caused by the flourishing of science, culture, and the arts in the Netherlands. Along with the brilliant achievements of painting, music has achieved enormous success. Professional composing in the Netherlands developed in close connection with folklore, which had long, rich traditions. It was here that the Dutch polyphonic school emerged - one of the largest phenomena in the music of the Renaissance. The origins of Dutch polyphony can be found in English, French, German and Italian songwriting. At the same time, the Dutch generalized the experience of many national schools and created an original vocal-choral polyphonic style, which became an important stage in the development of strict writing. It was here that imitation was invented - the repetition of a melody in one voice immediately after another voice. (Later, in the time of Bach, imitation would form the foundation of the fugue of the highest form of polyphony.) The Netherlands masterfully used imitation in the canons of the 15th and 16th centuries. In the art of creating such canons, Dutch virtuosos showed a lot of ingenuity and technical ingenuity. The composer wrote in the notes: “Shout without ceasing.” This meant that the piece could be performed without skipping all the pauses. “Turn Night into Day” - performers must realize that black notes can be read as white notes and vice versa. And the piece will sound equally good both in a normal recording and in a transformed one. Composer Ockeghem composed the 36-voice canon, a musical skyscraper of four nine-voice canons.

An outstanding representative and one of the founders of the Dutch school is Guillaume Dufay (1400-1474) (Dufay) (circa 1400 - 11/27/1474), French-Flemish composer. It was he who laid the foundations of the polyphonic tradition in Dutch music (about 1400 - 1474). Guillaume Dufay was born in the city of Cambrai in Flanders (a province in the south of the Netherlands) and sang in a church choir from an early age. At the same time, the future musician took private composition lessons. At a young age, Dufay went to Italy, where he wrote his first compositions - ballads and motets. In 1428-1437 he served as a singer in the papal chapel in Rome; During these same years he traveled around Italy and France. In 1437 the composer was ordained. At the court of the Duke of Savoy (1437-1439), he composed music for ceremonies and holidays. Dufay enjoyed great respect from nobles - among his admirers were, for example, the Medici couple (rulers of the Italian city of Florence). Since 1445, canon and director of musical activities at the cathedral in Cambrai. Master of sacred (3-, 4-voice masses, motets), as well as secular

(3-, 4-voice French chansons, Italian songs, ballads, rondos) genres associated with folk polyphony and the humanistic culture of the Renaissance. Dufay's art, which absorbed the achievements of European musical art, had a great influence on the further development of European polyphonic music. He was also a reformer of musical notation (Dufay is credited with introducing notes with white heads). Complete collection Dufay's works were published in Rome (6 vols., 1951-66). Dufay was the first composer to begin composing the mass as a complete musical composition. To create church music requires an extraordinary talent: the ability to express abstract, intangible concepts through concrete, material means. The difficulty is that such a composition, on the one hand, does not leave the listener indifferent, and on the other hand, does not distract from the service and helps to concentrate more deeply on prayer. Many of Dufay's masses are inspired, full of inner life; they seem to help for a moment to lift the veil of Divine revelation.

Often, when creating a mass, Dufay took a well-known melody to which he added his own. Such borrowings are characteristic of the Renaissance. It was considered very important that the mass be based on a familiar melody that worshipers could easily recognize even in a polyphonic work. A fragment of Gregorian chant was often used; Secular works were not excluded either. In addition to church music, Dufay composed motets based on secular texts. In them he also used complex polyphonic techniques.

Representative of the Dutch polyphonic school of the second half of the 15th century. There was Josquin Despres (c. 1440-1521 or 1524), who had a great influence on the work of composers of the next generation. In his youth he served as a church choirmaster in Cambrai, took music lessons at Okegem. At the age of twenty, the young musician came to Italy, sang in Milan with the Sforza Dukes and in the papal chapel in Rome. In Italy, Despres probably began composing music. At the very beginning of the 16th century. he moved to Paris. By that time, Despres was already famous, and he was invited to the position of court musician by the French king Louis XII. Since 1503, Despres again settled in Italy, in the city of Ferrara, at the court of the Duke

d "Este. Despres composed a lot, and his music quickly gained recognition in the widest circles: it was loved by both the nobility and the common people. The composer created not only church works, but also secular ones. In particular, he turned to the genre of Italian folk song - frottole (Italian frottola, from frotta - “crowd”), which is characterized by a dance rhythm and fast tempo, Despres brought features to church music. secular works: fresh, lively intonation broke the strict detachment and evoked a feeling of joy and fullness of being. However, the composer’s sense of proportion never failed. Depre's polyphonic technique is not particularly sophisticated. His works are elegantly simple, but the powerful intellect of the author is felt in them. This is the secret of the popularity of his creations.

Guillaume Dufay's younger contemporaries were Johannes (Jean) Okeghem (circa 1425-1497) and Jacob Obrecht. Like Dufay, Okegem was from Flanders. He worked hard all his life; In addition to composing music, he served as the head of the chapel. The composer created fifteen masses, thirteen motets, and more than twenty chansons. Okegöm's works are characterized by rigor, concentration, and a long development of smooth melodic lines. He paid great attention to polyphonic technique, striving for all parts of the mass to be perceived as a single whole. The composer's creative style can also be discerned in his songs - they are almost devoid of secular lightness, in character they are more reminiscent of motets, and sometimes fragments of masses. Johannes Okegem was respected both in his homeland and abroad (he was appointed advisor to the king of France). Jacob Obrecht was a choirmaster in the cathedrals of various cities in the Netherlands, and led chapels; He served for several years at the court of Duke d'Este in Ferrara (Italy). He is the author of twenty-five masses, twenty motets, thirty chansons. Using the achievements of his predecessors, Obrecht introduced a lot of new things into the polyphonic tradition. His music is full of contrasts, bold, even when the composer turns to traditional church genres.

The versatility and depth of Orlando Lasso's creativity. The history of Dutch Renaissance music ends with the work of Orlando Lasso (real name Roland de Lasso, circa 1532-1594), called by his contemporaries the “Belgian Orpheus” and the “Prince of Music.” Lasso was born in Mons (Flanders). From childhood, he sang in the church choir, amazing parishioners with his wonderful voice. Gonzaga, Duke of the Italian city of Mantua, accidentally heard the young singer and invited him to his own chapel. After Mantua, Lasso worked briefly in Naples, and then moved to Rome - there he received the position of director of the chapel of one of the cathedrals. By the age of twenty-five, Lasso was already known as a composer, and his works were in demand among music publishers. In 1555, the first collection of works was published, containing motets, madrigals and chansons. Lasso studied all the best that was created by his predecessors (Dutch, French, German and Italian composers), and used their experience in his work. Being an extraordinary person, Lasso sought to overcome the abstract nature of church music and give it individuality. For this purpose, the composer sometimes used genre and everyday motifs (themes of folk songs, dances), thus bringing together church and secular traditions. Lasso combined the complexity of polyphonic technique with great emotionality. He was especially good at madrigals, the texts of which revealed state of mind characters, for example, Tears of St. Peter" (1593) based on poems by the Italian poet Luigi Tranzillo. The composer often wrote for a large number of voices (five to seven), so his works are difficult to perform. Since 1556, Orlando Lasso lived in Munich (Germany) , where he headed the chapel. By the end of his life, his authority in musical and artistic circles was very high, and his fame spread throughout Europe.

The Dutch polyphonic school had a great influence on the development of European musical culture. The principles of polyphony developed by Dutch composers became universal, and many artistic techniques were used in their work by composers already in the 20th century.

1.2 France

For France, the 15th-16th centuries became an era of important changes: the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) with England ended, by the end of the 15th century. the unification of the state was completed; in the 16th century the country experienced religious wars between Catholics and Protestants. In a strong state with an absolute monarchy, the role of court celebrations and public celebrations increased. This contributed to the development of art, in particular the music that accompanied such events. The number of vocal and instrumental ensembles (chapels and consorts), consisting of a significant number of performers, increased. During military campaigns in Italy, the French became acquainted with the achievements of Italian culture. They deeply felt and accepted the ideas of the Italian Renaissance - humanism, the desire for harmony with the surrounding world, for enjoying life.

If in Italy the musical Renaissance was associated primarily with the mass, then French composers, along with church music, paid special attention to secular polyphonic song - chanson. Interest in it in France arose in the first half of the 16th century, when a collection of musical plays by Clément Janequin (circa 1485-1558) was published. This composer is considered one of the creators of the genre.

As a child, Janequin sang in a church choir in his hometown of Chatellerault (Central France). Subsequently, as music historians suggest, he studied with the Dutch master Josquin Despres or with a composer from his circle. After receiving the priesthood, Janequin worked as a regent (choir director) and organist; then he was invited to serve by the Duke of Guise. In 1555, the musician became a singer of the Royal Chapel, and in 1556-1557. - royal court composer.

Clément Janequin created two hundred and eighty chansons (published between 1530 and 1572); wrote church music - masses, motets, psalms. His songs were often figurative in nature. Before the listener's mind's eye there pass pictures of battles ("Battle of Marignano", "Battle of Renta"), scenes of hunting ("The Hunt"), images of nature ("Birdsong", "Nightingale"), everyday scenes("Women's chatter"). With amazing clarity, the composer managed to convey the atmosphere of everyday life in Paris in the chanson “Cries of Paris”: he introduced the exclamations of sellers into the text. Janequin almost did not use long and smooth themes for individual voices and complex polyphonic techniques, preferring roll calls, repetitions, and onomatopoeia.

Another direction of French music is associated with the pan-European Reformation movement. In church services, French Protestants (Huguenots) abandoned Latin and polyphony. Sacred music has acquired a more open, democratic character. One of the brightest representatives of this musical tradition was Claude Gudimel (between 1514 and 1520-1572), the author of psalms based on biblical texts and Protestant chorales.

One of the main musical genres of the French Renaissance is chanson (French chanson - “song”). Its origins are in folk art (rhymed verses of epic tales were set to music), in the art of medieval troubadours and trouvères. In terms of content and mood, chanson could be very diverse - there were love songs, everyday songs, humorous songs, satirical songs, etc. Composers took folk poems and modern poetry as texts.

1.3 Italy

With the advent of the Renaissance, everyday music playing on various instruments spread in Italy; circles of music lovers arose. New forms of musical and social life are emerging - music academies and professional music educational institutions of a new type - conservatories. In the professional field, two of the strongest schools emerged: Roman and Venetian.

In the 16th century, music printing first spread; in 1501, the Venetian printer Ottaviano Petrucci published Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, the first major collection of secular music. This was a revolution in the spread of music, and also contributed to the Franco-Flemish style becoming the dominant musical language of Europe in the next century, since, being an Italian, Petrucci mainly included the music of Franco-Flemish composers in his collection. He subsequently published many works and Italian composers, both secular and spiritual.

During the Renaissance, the role of secular genres increased. In the XIV century. the madrigal appeared in Italian music (from the Latin matricale - “song in the native language”). It was formed on the basis of folk (shepherd) songs. Madrigals were songs for two or three voices, often without instrumental accompaniment. Madrigal reached the pinnacle of its development and became the most popular musical genre of the era. Unlike the earlier and simpler madrigals of the Trecento, Renaissance madrigals were written for several (4-6) voices, often by foreigners who served in the courts of influential northern families. Madrigalists sought to create high art, often using reworked poetry of the great Italian poets of the late Middle Ages: Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio and others. The most characteristic feature of the madrigal was the absence of strict structural canons; the main principle was the free expression of thoughts and feelings.

Composers such as the representative of the Venetian school Cipriano de Rore and the representative of the Franco-Flemish school Roland de Lassus (Orlando di Lasso) - during the period of their Italian creative life, experimented with increasing chromatism, harmony, rhythm, texture and other means of musical expressiveness. Their experience will continue and culminate in the Mannerist times of Carlo Gesualdo. During the 15th century, composers almost did not turn to this genre; interest in it was revived only in the 16th century. A characteristic feature of the 16th century madrigal is the close connection between music and poetry. The music flexibly followed the text and reflected the events described in the poetic source. Over time, unique melodic symbols developed, denoting gentle sighs, tears, etc. In the works of some composers, the symbolism was philosophical, for example, in Gesualdo di Venosa’s madrigal “I Am Dying, Unfortunate” (1611). The genre flourished at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Sometimes, simultaneously with the performance of a song, its plot was played out. Madrigal became the basis of madrigal comedy (choral composition based on the text comedy play), which prepared the appearance of the opera.

1.3.1 Roman polyphonic school

Giovanni de Palestrina (1525-1594). The head of the Roman school was Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, one of the greatest composers of the Renaissance. He was born in the Italian city of Palestrina, from which he received his surname. Since childhood, Palestrina sang in the church choir, and upon reaching adulthood he was invited to the post of conductor (choir leader) at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome; later he served in the Sistine Chapel (the court chapel of the Pope).

Rome, the center of Catholicism, attracted many leading musicians. At different times, the Dutch master polyphonists Guillaume Dufay and Josquin Despres worked here. Their developed compositional technique sometimes made it difficult to perceive the text of the service: it was lost behind the exquisite interweaving of voices and the words, in fact, were not audible. Therefore, church authorities were wary of such works and advocated the return of monophony based on Gregorian chants. The issue of the admissibility of polyphony in church music was discussed even at the Council of Trent of the Catholic Church (1545-1563). Close to the Pope, Palestrina convinced Church leaders of the possibility of creating works in which the compositional technique would not interfere with the understanding of the text. As proof, he composed the "Mass of Pope Marcello" (1555), which combines complex polyphony with a clear and expressive sound of each word. Thus, the musician “saved” professional polyphonic music from persecution by church authorities. In 1577, the composer was invited to discuss the reform of the gradual - a collection of sacred hymns of the Catholic Church. In the 80s Palestrina took holy orders, and in 1584 he became a member of the Society of Masters of Music, an association of musicians that reported directly to the Pope.

Palestrina's work is imbued with a bright attitude. The works he created amazed his contemporaries with both their highest skill and quantity (more than one hundred masses, three hundred motets, one hundred madrigals). The complexity of music has never served as an obstacle to its perception. The composer knew how to find a middle ground between the sophistication of his compositions and their accessibility to the listener. Palestrina saw his main creative task as developing a coherent, large work. Each voice in his chants develops independently, but at the same time forms a single whole with the others, and often the voices form striking combinations of chords. Often the melody of the top voice seems to float above the rest, outlining a “dome” of polyphony; All voices are distinguished by smoothness and development.

The next generation of musicians considered the art of Giovanni da Palestrina exemplary and classical. Many people studied from his works outstanding composers XVIIX-VIII centuries

1.3.2 Venetian school

Another direction of Renaissance music is associated with the work of composers of the Venetian school, the founder of which was Adrian Willart (about 1485-1562). His students were the organist and composer Andrea Gabrieli (between 1500 and 1520 - after 1586), the composer Cyprian de Pope (1515 or 1516-1565) and other musicians. While Palestrina's works are characterized by clarity and strict restraint, Willaert and his followers developed a lush choral style. To achieve surround sound and play of timbres, they used several choirs in the compositions, located in different places of the temple. The use of roll calls between choirs made it possible to fill the church space with unprecedented effects. This approach reflected the humanistic ideals of the era as a whole - with its cheerfulness, freedom, and the Venetian artistic tradition itself - with its desire for everything bright and unusual. In the work of the Venetian masters, the musical language also became more complex: it was filled with bold combinations of chords and unexpected harmonies.

A prominent figure of the Renaissance was Carlo Gesualdo di Venosa (circa 1560-1613), prince of the city of Venosa, one of the greatest masters of secular madrigal. He gained fame as a philanthropist, lute player, and composer. Prince Gesualdo was friends with the Italian poet Torquato Tasso; there are some interesting letters left in which both artists discuss issues of literature, music, visual arts. Gesualdo di Venosa set many of Tasso's poems to music - this is how a number of highly artistic madrigals appeared. As a representative late Renaissance, the composer developed new type madrigal, where feelings came first - stormy and unpredictable. Therefore, his works are characterized by changes in volume, intonations similar to sighs and even sobs, sharp-sounding chords, and contrasting changes in tempo. These techniques gave Gesualdo’s music an expressive, somewhat bizarre character; it amazed and at the same time attracted his contemporaries. The legacy of Gesualdo di Venosa consists of seven collections of polyphonic madrigals; Among the spiritual works - "Sacred Hymns". His music even today does not leave the listener indifferent.

1.4 England

The cultural life of England during the Renaissance was closely connected with the Reformation. In the 16th century, Protestantism spread in the country. The Catholic Church lost its dominant position, the Anglican Church became the state church, which refused to recognize some of the dogmas (fundamental provisions) of Catholicism; Most of the monasteries ceased to exist. These events influenced English culture, including music.

The English musical art of the Renaissance brilliantly declared itself in the first half of the 15th century, putting forward the unique creative personality of John Dunstable, who made a strong impression on the continent. Dunstable's work is an important link between the music of the Middle Ages and the polyphony of the Renaissance. The generally accepted historical role of his works for the development of polyphony in Western Europe was also predetermined by the significant tradition of polyphony (which developed in medieval England), inherited and developed by Dunstable. In addition to him, in the 15th century the names of many English composers were known who created motets, parts of masses, sometimes chansons and ballads. Some of them worked on the continent, some were part of the chapel of the Duke of Burgundy. Of these, Lionel Power owns one of the first masses in England - along with Dunstable's mass. Their contemporaries were J. Bedingham, Forest, J. Benet, R. Morton. In the second half of the 15th century, J. Banaster, W. Lambe, R. Davi, and W. Fry acted. Most of them were singers in chapels and wrote a lot of church music. Both in the choice of main genres and in the consistent development of polyphonic mastery, they largely coincided with the Dutch school, which in turn owed a lot at its inception to the stylistic example of Dunstable.

In the 16th century, the musical art of England achieved significant diversity. Along with traditional forms of Catholic music and spiritual motets to Latin texts, monophonic psalms in English were already being created from the middle of the century - a characteristic phenomenon of the Reformation. It is curious that the same John Merbeck (about 1510-1585), who created masses and Latin motets in the service of the Bishop of Winchester, published in 1549 the first collection of psalms based on English texts. Along with him in the first half of the century there were English polyphonists, authors of large forms John Taverner, John Redford, Nicolae Ludford; The creative lives of Christopher Tye, Thomas Tallis, and Robert White lasted somewhat longer.

At the same time, the humanistic foundations of the new era led in England in the 16th century to the first high flowering of secular musical art in both vocal and instrumental forms. New generations of English composers, who appeared in the last quarter of the 16th century and captured the first decades of the 17th, created the school of English madrigalists. And they laid the foundation for a new area of ​​instrumental music - pieces for virginel (a type of harpsichord), which became widespread already in the 17th century.

The English authors of madrigals William Bird (1543 or 1544 - 1623), Thomas Morley (1557-1603), John Wilby (1574-1638) and others initially relied to some extent on modern Italian models (the madrigal, as is known, originated in Italy ), especially Marenzio, but then they discovered originality - if not in the interpretation of the genre, then in the nature of polyphony. Having emerged at a late stage in the development of polyphony, at the very turning point to the new style of the 17th century, the English madrigal is simpler in polyphonic texture than the Italian one, more homophonic, and sometimes even lacks the rhythmic features of dance. Unlike the times of Dunstable, the English polyphonic school by the end of the 16th century was primarily of national interest (its traditions were passed on to the 17th century and reached Purcell), but, moving on its own path, it no longer had a noticeable impact on the musical art of Western Europe.

It is also necessary to note the significant role of music in English theater Renaissance. This role is specific to its time: in England for a long time there were no prerequisites for the emergence of opera, and nothing had yet prepared it. Music sounded in the dramatic theater primarily as a phenomenon of everyday life (but not as an internally dramatic component), and in the genre of “masks” it took part in magnificent performances at the royal court, combining spectacular effects, ballet scenes, vocal and instrumental fragments, and poetic text.

In Shakespeare's plays, popular tunes to certain words or dances that were well known at that time, such as the galliard, are often named during the action. For him, music became the background of the action, a kind of “environment”, introducing some psychological shades, which is why Shakespeare did not need more than everyday genres.

At the same time, music departments were opened at Oxford and Cambridge universities.

1.5 Germany

By the 16th century Germany already had a rich folklore, primarily vocal. Music was heard everywhere: at celebrations, in church, at social events and in a military camp. The Peasant War and the Reformation caused a new rise in folk song creativity. There are many expressive Lutheran hymns whose authorship is unknown. Choral singing became an integral form of Lutheran worship. The Protestant chorale influenced the later development of all European music. But first of all, on the musicality of the Germans themselves, who even today consider music education to be no less important than natural science education - otherwise how can one participate in a polyphonic choir?

The variety of musical forms in Germany in the 16th century. It’s amazing: ballets and operas were performed on Maslenitsa. It is impossible not to mention such names as K. Paumann, P. Hofheimer. These are composers who composed secular and church music, primarily for the organ. They are joined by the outstanding French-Flemish composer, representative of the Dutch school O. Lasso. He worked in many European countries. He summarized and innovatively developed the achievements of various European music schools of the Renaissance. Master of religious and secular choral music (over 2000 compositions).

But the real revolution in German music was accomplished by Heinrich Schütz (1585-1672), composer, bandmaster, organist, teacher. The founder of the national school of composition, the largest of I.S.’s predecessors. Bach. The first one was written by Schutz German opera“Daphne” (1627), opera-ballet “Orpheus and Eurydice” (1638); madrigals, spiritual cantata-oratorio works (“passions”, concertos, motets, psalms, etc.).

The founder of the Reformation movement, Martin Luther (1483-1546), believed that a reform of church music was necessary. Music, firstly, should promote a more active participation of parishioners in worship (this was impossible when performing polyphonic compositions), and secondly, generate empathy for biblical events (which was hampered by conducting services in Latin). Thus, the following requirements were imposed on church singing: simplicity and clarity of melody, even rhythm, clear form of chant. On this basis, the Protestant chorale arose - the main genre of church music of the German Renaissance. In 1522, Luther translated the New Testament into German, making it now possible to perform worship in one’s native language.

Luther himself, as well as his friend, the German music theorist Johann Walter (1490-1570), took an active part in the selection of melodies for chorales. The main sources of such melodies were folk spiritual and secular songs - widely known and easy to understand. Luther composed the melodies for some of the chorales himself. One of them, “The Lord is our support,” became a symbol of the Reformation during the religious wars of the 16th century.

1.6 Spain

For a long time, the music of Spain, in which feudal-Catholic reaction was rampant, was influenced by the church. No matter how aggressive the onslaught of the Counter-Reformation on music was, the papacy was still unable to completely return to its previous positions. The established bourgeois relations dictated new orders.

In Spain, signs of the Renaissance appeared quite clearly in the 16th century, and the prerequisites for this, apparently, arose even earlier. It is known that already in the 15th century there were long-standing and strong musical ties between Spain and Italy, between the Spanish chapels and their singer-composers - and the papal chapel in Rome, as well as the chapels of the Duke of Burgundy and the Duke of Sforza in Milan, not to mention others European music centers. Since the end of the 15th century, Spain, as is known, thanks to a combination of historical conditions (the end of the reconquista, the discovery of America, new dynastic ties within Europe), gained very great strength in Western Europe, while remaining at the same time a conservative Catholic state and showing considerable aggressiveness in the seizure of foreign territories (which Italy then fully experienced). The largest Spanish musicians of the 16th century, as before, were in the service of the church. They could not then fail to experience the influence of the Dutch polyphonic school with its established traditions. It has already been said that outstanding representatives of this school visited Spain more than once. On the other hand, the Spanish masters, with few exceptions, constantly met with Italian and Dutch composers when they left Spain and worked in Rome.

Almost all the major Spanish musicians sooner or later ended up in the papal chapel and participated in its activities, thereby further mastering the indigenous tradition of polyphony in the strict style in its orthodox expression. The largest Spanish composer Cristobal de Morales (1500 or 1512-1553), famous outside his country, was part of the papal chapel in Rome in 1535-1545, after which he headed the metriz in Toledo, and then the cathedral chapel in Malaga.

Morales was a major polyphonist, the author of masses, motets, hymns and other vocal, mostly choral, works. The direction of his work was formed on the basis of a synthesis of indigenous Spanish traditions and the polyphonic skill of the Netherlands and Italians of that time. For many years (1565-1594), the best representative of the next generation of Spanish masters, Thomas Luis de Victoria (c. 1548-1611), lived and worked in Rome, who, according to tradition, but not too accurately, belongs to the Palestrine school. Composer, singer, organist, bandmaster, Victoria created masses, motets, psalms and other spiritual compositions in the strict style of a cappella polyphony, closer to Palestrina than to the Netherlands, but still not coinciding with Palestrina - the Spanish master had less strict restraint and more expression. In addition, in Victoria’s later works there also appears a desire to break the “Palestrine tradition” in favor of polychoric, concerto, timbre contrasts and other innovations that originate more likely from the Venetian school.

Other Spanish composers, working mainly in the field of sacred music, also had the opportunity to temporarily serve as singers of the papal chapel in Rome. In 1513-1523, the chapel included A. de Ribera, from 1536 the singer was B. Escobedo, in 1507-1539 - X. Escribano, and somewhat later - M. Robledo. They all wrote polyphonic sacred music in a strict style. Only Francisco Guerrero (1528-1599) always lived and worked in Spain. Nevertheless, his masses, motets, and songs enjoyed success outside the country, often attracting the attention of lutenists and vihuelists as material for instrumental arrangements.

Of the secular vocal genres, the most widespread in Spain at that time was Villancico, a type of polyphonic song, sometimes somewhat more polyphonic, sometimes tending towards homophony, its origins connected with everyday life, but undergoing professional development. However, the essence of this genre should be discussed without separating it from instrumental music. The 16th-century Villancico is most often a song with a vihuela or a lute, the creation of a major performer and composer for his chosen instrument.

And in countless villancicos, and in everyday music in Spain in general, national melodicism is unusually rich and characteristic - unique, retaining its differences from Italian, French and especially German melodicism. Spanish melodic music carried this characteristic through the centuries, attracting the attention of not only national, but also foreign composers up to our time. Not only is its intonation structure unique, but its rhythm is deeply unique, its ornamentation and improvisational manner are original, and its connections with dance movements are very strong. In the above-mentioned extensive work of Francisco de Salinas, “Seven Books of Music” (1577), there are many Castilian melodies that attracted the attention of the learned musician primarily from their rhythmic side. These short melodic fragments, sometimes covering only the range of a third, are surprisingly interesting in their rhythms: frequent syncopations in different contexts, acute interruptions in rhythm, a complete absence of elementary motor ability, generally constant activity of the rhythmic sense, no inertia! These same qualities were adopted from the folk tradition by secular vocal genres, most of all villancico and other varieties of vihuela song.

Instrumental genres in Spain are widely and independently represented by the work of composers-organists, led by the largest of them, Antonio de Cabezon (1510-1566), as well as by a whole galaxy of brilliant vihuelists with a myriad of their works, partly related to vocal melodies of various origins (from folk songs and dances to spiritual compositions). We will specifically return to them in the chapter on instrumental music of the Renaissance in order to determine their place in its overall development.

The early stages in the history of Spanish also date back to the 16th century. musical theater, which originated at the end of the previous century on the initiative of the poet and composer Juan del Encina and existed for a long time as a dramatic theater with a large participation of music in specially designated places for it.

Finally, the scientific activity of Spanish musicians deserves attention, of whom Ramis di Pareja has already been appreciated for the progressiveness of his theoretical views and Francisco Salinas for his consideration of Spanish folklore, unique at that time. Let us also mention several Spanish theorists who devoted their works to the issues of performance on various instruments. Composer, performer (on violone - bass viola da gamba), bandmaster Diego Ortiz published in Rome his “Treatise on Glosses” 1553), in which he substantiated in detail the rules of improvised variation in the ensemble (violone and harpsichord). Organist and composer Thomas de Sancta Maria published in Valladolid the treatise “The Art of Playing Fantasia” (1565) - an attempt to methodically generalize the experience of improvisation on the organ: Juan Bermudo, who published his “Declaration of Musical Instruments” (1555) in Grenada, covered in it, in addition to information about instruments and playing the organ them, some issues of musical writing (he objected, in particular, to the overload of polyphony).

Thus, Spanish musical art as a whole (together with its theory) undoubtedly experienced its Renaissance in the 16th century, revealing both certain artistic connections with other countries at this stage, and significant differences due to the historical traditions and social modernity of Spain itself.

2. Musical aesthetics

2.1 Development of genres and forms of instrumental music

renaissance music opera Meistersinger

We owe the formation of instrumental music as an independent art form to the Renaissance. At this time, a number of instrumental pieces, variations, preludes, fantasies, rondos, and toccatas appeared. The violin, harpsichord, and organ gradually turned into solo instruments. The music written for them provided an opportunity to demonstrate the talent of not only the composer, but also the performer. What was valued above all was virtuosity (the ability to cope with technical difficulties), which gradually became an end in itself and an artistic value for many musicians. Composers of the 17th-18th centuries usually not only composed music, but also played instruments masterfully and were engaged in teaching activities. The artist’s well-being largely depended on the specific customer. As a rule, every serious musician sought to obtain a place either at the court of a monarch or a wealthy aristocrat (many members of the nobility had their own orchestras or opera houses) or in a temple. Moreover, most composers easily combined church music with service for a secular patron.

The character of many vocal works of the 14th-15th centuries by Italian and French composers is more instrumental than vocal (in terms of range, nature of vocal performance, relationship with the verbal text, or the absence of signed words). This applies entirely to the Italian caccia Ars nova, to a number of works of the “transitional” period in France (early 15th century). There are no direct indications of the use of certain instruments in musical notation. Apparently, this was left to the will of the performers, depending on their capabilities, especially since usually the author himself was among them.

In principle, each vocal work - part of a mass, motet, chanson, frottola, madrigal (with the exception of masses intended for the Sistine Chapel, where the participation of instruments was not allowed) - in practice could be performed either with doubling the vocal parts with instruments, or partially (one or two voices) with instruments only, or entirely on an organ or a group of instruments. This was essentially not a stable type of performance, but rather the process of introducing instruments into polyphony that was vocal in origin. This is how, for example, “organ masses” arose - an intermediate, transitional phenomenon. In those works where the upper voice stood out in its significance (as was often the case with Dufay or Benchois), the use of instruments was most likely associated with the voices “accompanying” the melody or with the harmonic bass. But with the “leveling” of the parts in the particularly developed polyphony of the Dutch school, one can assume (for example, in chanson) any correlation of vocal and instrumental forces, up to the performance of the entire work by a group of instruments. At the same time, one should keep in mind some other particular possibilities that are not recorded in musical notation. It is known that on the organ, for example, already in the 15th century, experienced performers, when processing a song, “colored” (added decorations) to its melody. Perhaps the instrumentalist, with one or another participation in the performance of vocal music, could also introduce improvised decorations into his part, which was especially natural if the author himself sat down at the organ. After all this, it is not surprising that in the 16th century, when instrumental genres were already taking shape, polyphonic works with the designation “per cantare o sonare” (“for singing or playing”) often appeared. This was finally full recognition of existing practice!

In everyday music, especially in dances, if they did not go to a song (in Spain, combinations of song and dance are common), the instruments remained, so to speak, free from vocal patterns, but connected by the genre basis of each dance, rhythm, and type of movement. The syncretism of this kind of art was still in force.

From this total mass of indivisible phenomena, from practice not reflected in musical notation, from the long-standing process of assimilation of vocal and instrumental principles, the development of instrumental genres began over time. It only barely emerged in the 15th century and became noticeable throughout the 16th century; the path to independence was still long, and only in some forms (improvisation) did the actual instrumentalism of musical writing appear. At the very first stages of the path of instrumental music to self-determination, two genre areas with their own characteristic tendencies emerged. One of them is associated primarily with the polyphonic, “academic” tradition, with large forms. The other is based on the tradition of everyday music, song and dance. The first is represented mainly by compositions for the organ, the second - primarily by the lute repertoire. There is no impassable line between them. We can only talk about the predominance of certain traditions, but with obvious points of contact. Thus, in works for lute, polyphonic techniques are not excluded, and in organ music, variations on songs soon appear. On both instruments, the development of improvisational forms begins, in which the specificity of this instrument appears most clearly - with almost complete freedom from vocal samples. These seemingly modest successes of instrumentalism were achieved after long preparation, which took place precisely during the Renaissance and was rooted in the very musical practice of that time.

2.2 Musical instruments of the Renaissance

During the Renaissance, the composition of musical instruments expanded significantly; new varieties were added to the already existing strings and winds. Among them, a special place is occupied by viols - a family of bowed strings that amaze with the beauty and nobility of their sound. In shape they resemble instruments of the modern violin family (violin, viola, cello) and are even considered their immediate predecessors (they coexisted in musical practice until the mid-18th century). However, there is still a difference, and a significant one. Viols have a system of resonating strings; as a rule, there are as many of them as the main ones (six to seven). The vibrations of the resonating strings make the sound of the viola soft and velvety, but the instrument is difficult to use in an orchestra, since due to the large number of strings it quickly goes out of tune. For a long time, the sound of the viol was considered a model of sophistication in music. There are three main types in the viola family. The viola da gamba is a large instrument that the performer placed vertically and pressed from the sides with his feet (the Italian word gamba means “knee”). Two other varieties - viola da braccio (from Italian braccio - “forearm”) and viol d’amour (French viole d’amour - “viola of love”) were oriented horizontally, and when played they were pressed to the shoulder. The viola da gamba is close in sound range to the cello, the viola da braccio to the violin, and the viol d'amour to the viola. Among the plucked instruments of the Renaissance, the main place is occupied by the lute (Polish lutnia, from Arabic "alud" - "wood") It came to Europe from the Middle East at the end of the 14th century, and by the beginning of the 16th century there was a huge repertoire for this instrument, primarily songs were performed to the accompaniment of the lute. The lute has a short upper part, and the lower part resembles a hemisphere. a neck is attached to the wide neck, divided by frets, and the head of the instrument is bent back almost at a right angle. If desired, you can see in the shape of the lute the resemblance to a bowl. Twelve strings are grouped in pairs, and the sound is produced both with the fingers and with a special plate - a mediator. XVI centuries arose different kinds keyboards. The main types of such instruments - harpsichord, clavichord, cymbal, virginel - were actively used in the music of the Renaissance, but their real flourishing came later.

2.3 Birth of opera (Florentine camerata)

The end of the Renaissance was marked by the most important event in musical history - the birth of opera.

A group of humanists, musicians, and poets gathered in Florence under the patronage of their leader Count Giovanni De Bardi (1534 - 1612). The group was called the "camerata", its main members were Giulio Caccini, Pietro Strozzi, Vincenzo Galilei (father of the astronomer Galileo Galilei), Giloramo Mei, Emilio de Cavalieri and Ottavio Rinuccini in his younger years.

The first documented meeting of the group took place in 1573, and the most active years of the Florentine Camerata were 1577 - 1582.

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The era of the High Renaissance.

(From the history of Italian music since 1500)

The Renaissance is a period of change in all areas of art - painting, architecture, sculpture, music. This period marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity. The period between 1500 and 1600, called the High Renaissance, is the most revolutionary period in the history of European music, the century in which harmony was developed and opera was born.

In the 16th century, music printing first spread; in 1501, the Venetian printer Ottaviano Petrucci published Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, the first major collection of secular music. This was a revolution in the spread of music, and also contributed to the Franco-Flemish style becoming the dominant musical language of Europe in the next century, since, being an Italian, Petrucci mainly included the music of Franco-Flemish composers in his collection. He subsequently published many works by Italian composers, both secular and sacred.

Italy becomes the center for the creation of harpsichords and violins. Many violin-making workshops are opening. One of the first masters was the famous Andrea Amati from Cremona, who laid the foundation for a dynasty of violin makers. He made significant changes to the design of existing violins, which improved the sound and brought it closer to its modern appearance.
Francesco Canova da Milano (1497 - 1543) - an outstanding Italian lutenist and composer of the Renaissance, created Italy's reputation as a country of virtuoso musicians. He is still considered the best lutenist of all time. After the decline of the late Middle Ages, music became an important element of culture.
During the Renaissance, the madrigal reached the pinnacle of its development and became the most popular musical genre of the era. Madrigalists sought to create high art, often using reworked poetry of the great Italian poets of the late Middle Ages: Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio and others. The most characteristic feature of the madrigal was the absence of strict structural canons; the main principle was the free expression of thoughts and feelings.
Composers such as the Venetian school, Cipriano de Rore, and the French-Flemish school, Roland de Lassus, experimented with increasing chromaticism, harmony, rhythm, texture and other means of musical expression. Their experience will continue and culminate in the Mannerist times of Carlo Gesualdo.
In 1558, Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590), the greatest music theorist from the time of Aristotle to the Baroque era, created the “Fundamentals of Harmonics”, in this largest creation of musical science of the 16th century, he revived the ancient concept of sounding number, substantiated the theoretical and aesthetic justification of large and small triads. His teaching about music had a significant influence on Western European musical science and formed the basis for numerous later characteristics of major and minor.

The Birth of Opera (Florentine Camerata)

The end of the Renaissance was marked by the most important event in musical history - the birth of opera.
A group of humanists, musicians, and poets gathered in Florence under the patronage of their leader Count Giovanni De Bardi (1534 - 1612). The group was called the "camerata", its main members were Giulio Caccini, Pietro Strozzi, Vincenzo Galilei (father of the astronomer Galileo Galilei), Giloramo Mei, Emilio de Cavalieri and Ottavio Rinuccini in his younger years.
The first documented meeting of the group took place in 1573, and the most active years of the Florentine Camerata were 1577 - 1582.
They believed that music had "gotten bad" and sought to return to the form and style of ancient Greece, believing that the art of music could be improved and that society would improve accordingly. Camerata criticized existing music for its excessive use of polyphony at the expense of text intelligibility and the loss of the poetic component of the work, and proposed the creation of a new musical style in which text in a monodic style was accompanied by instrumental music. Their experiments led to the creation of a new vocal and musical form - recitative, first used by Emilio de Cavalieri, who was subsequently directly related to the development of opera.
At the end of the 16th century, composers began to push the boundaries of Renaissance styles, giving way to the Baroque era with its own characteristics and new discoveries in music. One of them was Claudio Monteverdi.

Monteverdi. Presso in Fiume Tranquillo.

Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi (05/15/1567 - 11/29/1643) - Italian composer, musician, singer. The most important composer of the Baroque, his works are often seen as revolutionary, marking the transition in music from the Renaissance to the Baroque. He lived in an era of great changes in music and was himself a man who changed it.

Monteverdi.Venite, Venite.

Monteverdi. From the opera "Orpheus"

The first officially recognized opera that meets modern standards was Daphne, first performed in 1598. The authors of Daphne were Jacopo Peri and Jacopo Corsi, libretto by Ottavio Rinuccini. This opera has not survived. The first surviving opera is “Euridice” (1600) by the same authors - Jacopo Peri and Ottavio Rinuccini. This creative union He also created many works, most of which are lost.

Jacopo Peri. Tu dormi, e I dolce sonno.

Jacopo Peri. Hor che gli augelli.

Church music of the 16th century.

The 16th century is characterized by a very strong influence of the Catholic Church and its Inquisition on the development of art and science in Europe. In 1545, the Council of Trent met, one of the most important councils in the history of the Catholic Church, the purpose of which was to respond to the Reformation movement. Among other things, church music was discussed at this council.
Some delegates sought to return to single-voice Gregorian chant and exclude counterpoint from the chants; behind the scenes there was already a ban on the use of polyphonic style in sacred music, including almost all sequences. The reason for this position was the belief that polyphonic music, due to contrapuntal interweaving, pushes the text into the background, and the musical euphony of the work is also disturbed.
A special commission was created to resolve the dispute. This commission commissioned Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1514-1594), one of the greatest composers of church music, to create trial masses, taking into account all the requirements of the parties. Palestrina created three six-voice masses, including his most famous "Mass of Pope Marcellus", dedicated to Pope Marcellus II, his patron in teenage years. These works had a strong influence on the clergy and put an end to the dispute; protests against the use of counterpoint in church music ceased.
The work of Giovanni Pierluigi Palestrina is the pinnacle of the development of contrapuntal sacred music a capella, combining all possible combinations of polyphony and clarity of texts.

Palestrina. Sicut Cervus.

Palestrina. Gloria

Music of the Renaissance

Musical instruments

Popular tools

In the 16th century new musical instruments appeared. The most popular were those that were easy and simple to play for music lovers, without requiring any special skills.
The most common were violas and related plucked flowers. The viola was the forerunner of the violin, and it was easy to play thanks to the frets (wooden strips across the neck) that helped you hit the right notes. The sound of the viola was quiet, but it sounded good in small halls. To the accompaniment of another fretted plucked instrument - the lute - they sang, as they do now with a guitar.
At that time, many people loved to play the recorder, flutes and horns. The most complex music was written for the newly created harpsichord, virginel (an English harpsichord, distinguished by its small size) and organ. At the same time, the musicians did not forget to compose simpler music that did not require high performing skills. At the same time, changes occurred in musical writing: heavy wooden printing blocks were replaced by movable metal types invented by the Italian Ottaviano Petrucci. Published musical works quickly sold out, and more and more people began to get involved in music.

Brief description of the era by country

1. General trends in the development of musical art during the Renaissance
2. Music education during the Renaissance
3. Musical theory of the Renaissance. Treatises on music.

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1. General trends in the development of musical artduring the Renaissance

XIV-XVII centuries in Western Europe became a time of major social change. This time went down in cultural history under the name of the Renaissance. This period received its name in connection with the revival of interest in ancient art, which became an ideal for cultural figures of modern times. Composers and music theorists (J. Tinctoris, G. Tzarlino, Glarean and others) studied ancient Greek musical treatises; in the works of Josquin Despres, according to contemporaries, “the lost perfection of the music of the ancient Greeks was revived”; appeared at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. the opera was guided by the laws of ancient drama.

The development of Renaissance culture is associated with the rise of all aspects of society. A new worldview was born - humanism (from the Latin humanus - “humane”). The emancipation of creative forces led to the rapid development of science, trade, crafts, and new, capitalist relations took shape in the economy. The invention of printing contributed to the spread of education. The great geographical discoveries and the heliocentric system of the world of N. Copernicus changed ideas about the Earth and the Universe.

During the Renaissance, art, including music, enjoyed enormous public authority and became extremely widespread. During the Renaissance, almost all types of art reached extraordinary prosperity. The Renaissance has uneven chronological boundaries in different countries Europe. In Italy it begins in the 14th century, in the Netherlands it begins in the 15th century, and in France, Germany and England its signs are most clearly manifested in the 16th century. At the same time, the development of connections between various creative schools, the exchange of experience between musicians who moved from country to country, working in different chapels, becomes a sign of the times and allows us to talk about trends common to the entire era.

The ideas of the revival of ancient ideals of humanism and the loss of the church’s position spread throughout cultural life, significantly affecting musical education. The growing interest in science has led to the spread of education in a variety of fields. If in the Middle Ages a religious tradition prevailed, almost completely suppressing the secular one (which existed mainly in the form of minstrel culture), and keeping folk culture banned, then in the Renaissance, church music and the religious branch of music education, while continuing to function, lost their position. The secular branch of music-making and music education took on an ever-increasing character. The secular culture of music-making, in turn, had close ties with the folk one. So, for example, minstrels, who combined folk and secular traditions in their work, often began to remain in the courts of the highest nobility during the Renaissance; their work became the basis for the development of secular music-making. During the Renaissance, music served not only a hedonistic function, although it was also important in secular music-making. The goal of music education, like any knowledge of art, was put forward, as in the era of Antiquity, the moral improvement of man. The beginning of music printing and the flourishing of amateur music-making date back to this time. Also at this time, the process of rethinking the social status of music began. Styles and genres of music began to differ depending on their social purpose. “Folk” music and “scientific” music appeared, for “inexperienced amateurs” and for “refined ears”, for “seniors and princes.” The trend toward elitism in music education was clearly visible. In 1528, the famous treatise “The Courtier” by B. Castiglione was written - a kind of code of high society behavior. It pointed out that mastery of singing and a musical instrument serves as a sign of spiritual sophistication and truly secular upbringing. The increasing role of the secular tradition of music education has led to a change in its types. If church tradition relied primarily on choral singing, secularism was characterized by an interest in musical instruments. Singing was not supplanted, but took various forms, including secular vocal solo and ensemble music-making. During the Renaissance, single-voice singing gives way to polyphonic singing, double and triple choirs appear, polyphonic writing of a strict style reaches its heights, and the division of the choir into four main choral parts is firmly established: sopranos, altos, tenors, basses. Along with music intended for choral singing in the church, choral secular music (motets, ballads, madrigals, chansons) asserts its rights.

The process of learning to play musical instruments, which separated from vocal music, took place rapidly and rapidly. Instrumental music-making has acquired independence as an original area of ​​human activity. The main musical instruments include the lute, harp, flute, oboe, trumpet, organs of various types (positives, portables), and varieties of harpsichord. The violin was a folk instrument, but with the development of new string instruments such as the viol, the violin became one of the leading musical instruments. Another type of viol, the viola da gamba, became the cello. Learning to play musical instruments, which began in Western Europe in the 14th century and continued not only throughout the Renaissance, but also in subsequent periods, was an expression of the spiritual need of people, which church music no longer satisfied. (website) In general, we can identify the following characteristic features of the musical culture of the Renaissance: the rapid development of secular music (the wide spread of secular genres: madrigals, frottoles, villanelles, French “chansons”, English and German polyphonic songs), its onslaught on the old church musical culture , which existed parallel to the secular one;

Realistic trends in music: new plots, images corresponding to humanistic views and, as a result, new means of musical expression;

Folk melody as the leading beginning of a musical work. Folk songs are used as cantus firmus (the main, unchanging melody in tenor in polyphonic works) and in polyphonic music (including church music). The melody becomes smoother, more flexible, melodious, and is a direct expression of human experiences;

Powerful development of polyphonic music and “strict style” (otherwise “classical vocal polyphony”, as it is focused on vocal and choral performance). Strict style presupposes mandatory adherence to established rules. The masters of the strict style mastered the techniques of counterpoint, imitation and canon. Strict writing was based on a system of diatonic church modes. Consonances dominate in harmony; the use of dissonances was strictly limited by special rules. The major and minor modes and the clock system are added up. The thematic basis was Gregorian chant, but secular melodies were also used. It is focused mainly on the polyphony of D. Palestrina and O. Lasso;

Formation of a new type of musician - a professional who received a comprehensive special musical education. The concept of “composer” appears for the first time;

Formation of national music schools (English, Dutch, Italian, German, etc.);

The appearance of the first performers on the lute, viol, violin, harpsichord, organ; the flourishing of amateur music-making;

The emergence of music printing.

2.Music education during the Renaissance

Renaissance marked the transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age, and above all, to the culture of early bourgeois society, which originated in Italian cities and then developed in the cities of other European countries. The culture of the Renaissance was humanistic in nature and affirmed the ideal of a harmoniously developed human personality. The Renaissance put an end to the asceticism of the Middle Ages, adopting the cultural achievements of Antiquity, filling them with new meaning.

In Antiquity, art was used primarily for educational purposes. Music, due to its moral orientation, was considered an important means and goal of public education, and a person’s musicality was considered as a socially valuable and defining quality of the individual. Artistic education at that time was considered the basis of education in general. A synonym for the term “musical” was the term “educated”. Music, literature, grammar, drawing and gymnastics formed the main content of education, designed to develop the receptivity of the soul, the morality of aspirations and feelings, as well as the strength and beauty of the body. Social education among the Greeks was inseparable from aesthetic education, the basis of which was music. They understood music as a universal and priority means of public education and its goal (Spartans, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle). Thus, Pythagoras considered the cosmos to be “musical,” just as the state was “musically” (that is, harmoniously) arranged and subordinated to the “correct” mode. And since music reflects harmony, the highest goal of a person is the task of making his body and soul musical. The cult of harmony, physical and spiritual beauty, strength, health, sensory perception of life becomes the canon of art during the Renaissance. This was of decisive importance for the development of forms of aesthetic education. The ideal of the era was a well-rounded artist - a liberated creative personality, richly gifted, striving to establish beauty and harmony in the world around him. For example, at the Mantuan school of Vittorino de Feltre, young people learned to feel musical harmony; In education, great importance was attached to the ability to sing. The founder of the school believed that music develops a sense of time, and believed that education consists, first of all, in the development of sensitivity and perception, and therefore the aesthetic element played a huge role in his method of education.

New ideas were reflected in a number of treatises on education, each of which certainly stipulated the meaning and role of art in education. Among them are “On Noble Morals and Free Sciences” by Paulo Vergerio, “On the Education of Children and Their Good Morals” by Mateo Veggio, “On the Order of Teaching and Learning” by Battisto Guarino, “Treatise on Free Education” by Eneo Silvio Piccolomini and others. In high society circles, along with reading and writing, secular etiquette required the ability to play several musical instruments and speak 5 - 6 languages. From the treatise already mentioned above by Baldasare Castiglione “On the Courtier” (XVI century) you can find out what requirements were placed on nobles in the field of musical education: “... I am not satisfied with a courtier if he is not a musician, does not know how to read music from a sheet and knows nothing about various instruments, for, if you think carefully, you cannot find a more honorable and commendable rest from work and a medicine for sick souls than music. Music is especially necessary at courts, since, in addition to providing entertainment from boredom, it provides a lot for the pleasure of ladies, whose souls, gentle and soft, are easily imbued with harmony and filled with tenderness.” Then we talk about what kind of music is beautiful: that which is sung from sight confidently and in a good manner, singing solo with a viol, playing the keyboard or playing four bowed instruments. Nowhere, however, does Castiglione praise choral polyphonic music, considering, obviously, that it primarily has only a special purpose - in church, at official celebrations.

The secular orientation of education was manifested in the expansion of the scope and content of music education in parochial schools, orphanages, as well as the “conservatories” that appeared at that time - specialized shelters where musically gifted children could study. The first "conservatories" appeared in Venice. They took care of raising orphans and gave them primary education. Boys were taught various crafts, and girls were taught singing: numerous temples in Italy required many singers for church choirs. In 1537, the first music conservatory “Santa Maria di Loreto” was built in Naples by the Spanish priest Giovanni Tapia, which served as a model for subsequent ones. (website) The influx of students was so great that there was a need to open three more “conservatories” in the same city. During the 16th and 17th centuries, many such shelters were opened in Italy. Gradually, teaching music began to occupy the main place in them; not only the pupils of the orphanage could study, but, for a fee, also outside students. The name “conservatory”, having lost its original meaning, began to mean a musical educational institution.

One of the important forms of education of that time were singing schools at Catholic churches - metriz. Metriza (French maitre - teacher) is a music boarding school in France and the Netherlands, which trained church choristers. The first metrizs were known back in the 8th century. The education system in such schools developed back in the Middle Ages: education was carried out from early childhood and, along with general education subjects, included singing, playing the organ, and studying music theory. Since the 16th century, learning to play other musical instruments has been added. Each metriz trained about 20-30 singers under the direction of a choirmaster (maôtre de chapelle). Metriz played a significant role in the spread of professional music education. Many outstanding French and Dutch polyphonist composers G. Dufay, J. Obrecht, J. Ockeghem and others studied in metriz.

The main feature of humanistic pedagogy was the focus on the formation of an educated, morally perfect and physically developed individual with a clearly defined social orientation, which manifested itself in the practical nature of musical education. The main forms of music playing were: church, salon, school and home. Naturally, the level and possibilities of musical education in different strata of society were different. Comprehensive education and harmonious development were available mainly to the social minority. In the highest social strata of society, the practical nature of musical education gradually degenerates into practicality, causing a pragmatic attitude towards music, determined by considerations of fashion, prestige, benefit, etc. Church singing, folk festivals, and carnivals remained the forms of mass introduction to music. In general, the pedagogy of the Renaissance brought to the fore the awakening of students' keen interest in knowledge and the development of their practical skills. Schools appeared where such an atmosphere of learning was created that turned the process of learning into a joyful and interesting activity for the student himself. During this period, visual arts of all kinds, games, and lessons in the wild were widely used. A huge contribution to general pedagogy was made by the early utopian socialists T. More (1478-1535) and T. Campanella (1568-1639), E. Rotterdam (1466-1536), Fr. Rabelais (1494-1553). The invention of music printing and the production of music editions from the very first years of the 16th century was of great importance for the musical development, education and dissemination of musical works in different countries. Ottaviano Petrucci in Italy begins to publish the masses of Josquin Despres, Obrecht, and then the works of other contemporaries. His first exemplary musical publication was a collection of chansons entitled “Harmoniae musices Odhecaton”. It included various author’s adaptations of the same songs (for example, “Fors settlement”), including works by Bunois, Obrecht, Pierre de La Rue, Agricola, Ghiselin. Subsequently, Petrucci released a number of collections of Italian polyphonic songs - frottola, which became widespread in society. Ottaviano Scotto and Antonio Gardane in Venice, Pierre Attennan in Paris, and Tilman Suzato in Antwerp also became major music publishers of their time.

• Musical theory of the Renaissance. Treatises on music

During the Renaissance, music theory made great strides forward, putting forward a number of remarkable theorists, including Johannes Tinctoris (author of 12 treatises on music), Ramos di Pareja, Heinrich Loriti of Glarus ( Glarean)(founder of the doctrine of melody), Josephfo Zarlino(one of the creators of the science of harmony). Teaching about modes, popularization musical knowledge, judgments about the largest composers of the time and about the course of musical development in the 15th-16th centuries, an awakening interest in the features of folk art, a discussion of the problems of musical performance - these areas were covered by music science from the end of the 15th and throughout the 16th centuries. All major theorists were active in teaching.

Johannes (John) Tinctoris(c. 1435 - 1511) - French-Flemish music theorist and composer. He studied the "liberal arts" and law, and was the mentor of the boys' choir of Chartres Cathedral. From 1472 he served at the court of the Neapolitan king Ferdinand I, and was the musical teacher of his daughter Beatrice, who became queen of Hungary in 1476. Tinctoris dedicated three musical theoretical treatises to his student Beatrice, including the famous treatise “Definition of Music”. It is known that in 1487 Ferdinand I sent Tinctoris to France to King Charles VIII with an order to recruit singers for the Royal Chapel. Even during his lifetime, Tinctoris enjoyed great fame; he was mentioned among the most famous musicians. 12 treatises by Tinctoris have survived, the most famous of which was the treatise “Terminorum musicae diffinitorum”, c. 1472-73.

The first systematic musical terminological dictionary in the history of music, containing about 300 terms. Let us list the remaining works of Tinctoris:

The treatise “Complexus effectuum musices”, ca. 1473-74) was a classification and colorful description of the purpose of music;

The treatise “Musical Proportions” (“Proportionale musices”, ca. 1473-74) developed the ancient Pythagorean doctrine of the numerical basis of musical art. Taking the complexity of the relationships between mensural rhythms to the limit, Tinctoris came up with rhythms in the proportions 7:4, 8:5, 17:8, 13:5, 14:5 (coinciding with the serial rhythms of the 20th century).

- “The Book of Imperfection of Musical Notes” (“Liber imperfectionum notarum musicalium”, ca. 1474-75); (website)

“Treatise on the Rules of Note Durations” (“Tractatus de regulari valore notarum”, ca. 1474-75) and “Treatise on Notes and Pauses” (“Tractatus de notis et pausis”, ca. 1474-75) are devoted to the metrhythmic organization of music.

- “Book on the nature and properties of modes” (“Liber de natura et proprietate tonorum”, 1476)

On the structure of the modal system;

- “Book on the art of counterpoint” (“Liber de arte contrapuncti”, 1477)

The fundamental doctrine of contrapuntal composition, which sets out the “8 general rules of counterpoint”, distinguishes between “simple” and “florid” counterpoint, the difference between a work with a stable text and an improvised one, etc.);

- “Treatise on Alterations” (“Tractatus alterationum”, after 1477);

- “Article on musical points” (“Scriptum super punctis musicalibus”, after 1477) - on rhythm;

- “Description of the hand” (“Guidonova”) (“Expositio manus”, after 1477) - about the sounds of the musical system;

- “On the invention and use of music” (“De inventione et usu musicae”, 1487) - about singing and singers, instruments and performers.
Tinctoris was one of the first to introduce the concept of “composer,” that is, the author of a work “who wrote some new cantus.”

One of the greatest musical scientists of the Renaissance - Glarean(1488 - 1563), he owns the treatise “The Twelve-Stringed Man” (1547). Glarean was born in Switzerland, studied at the University of Cologne at the Faculty of Arts. Having become a Master of Liberal Arts, he taught poetry, music, mathematics, Greek and Latin in Basel. It was here in Basel that he met Erasmus of Rotterdam. Glarean argued that music, like painting, should be outside of religious didactics, give, first of all, pleasure, be the “mother of pleasure.” Glarean substantiates the advantages of monodic music over polyphony, while he talks about two types of musicians: phonos and symphonists. The former have a natural tendency to compose a melody, the latter - to develop a melody for two, three or more voices. He substantiates the idea of ​​the unity of music and poetry, instrumental performance and text. In music theory, Glarean substantiated the concepts of major and minor, and discussed the twelve-tone system. Also, in addition to the problems of music theory, the theorist also considered the history of music, its development, but exclusively within the framework of the Renaissance, ignoring the music of the Middle Ages. Glarean studied the works of contemporary composers Josquin Despres, Obrecht, Pierre de la Rue.

Ramos di Pareja(1440-1490) - Spanish theorist, composer and teacher. Worked mainly in Italy. In the 1470s he was known as an authoritative music theorist and teacher. He is the author of the treatise “Practical Music” (“Musica practica”). This treatise gave rise to long-term controversy and criticism from conservative Italian theorists. Ramos di Pareja expressed his views on the doctrine of modes and consonances. He contrasted the medieval system of six-step scales (hexachords) with an eight-step major scale, classified thirds and sixths as consonances (in accordance with old ideas, only octaves and fifths were considered consonances). In the field of the doctrine of rhythm and notation, Ramos di Pareja argued with his contemporaries Tinctoris and Ghafuri, who were supporters of mensural notation.

Outstanding Italian theorist and composer Josephfo Zarlino(1517-1590) was a member of the Franciscan Order, studied philology, history, and mathematics. Zarlino studied music with the famous composer Adrian Villaert (Villart). Zarlino was associated with outstanding artists of his time, in particular Titian and Tintoretto. Zarlino himself was widely known and was a member of the Venetian Academy of Fame. In 1565, Zarlino became the musical director of the chapel of St. Brand. This important post allowed Zarlino to engage not only in composition, but also in writing theoretical works, including “Establishments of Harmony” (1588), “Proof of Harmony” (1571), “Musical Additions” (1588). The most significant of Zarlino’s works is the treatise “Establishments of Harmony,” in which he expressed the basic principles of Renaissance musical aesthetics. Like most thinkers of this era, Zarlino was an ardent admirer of ancient aesthetics. His works contain numerous references to Plato, Aristotle, Aristoxenus, Quintilian, and Boethius. Zarlino makes extensive use of Aristotle's doctrine of form and matter, both when treating a number of problems in music and when constructing the structure of his treatises.

The central place in Zarlino’s aesthetics is occupied by the doctrine of the nature of musical harmony. He claims that the whole world is filled with harmony and that the very soul of the world is harmony. In this regard, he pantheistically interprets the idea of ​​​​the unity of the micro- and macrocosmos. In Tsarlino’s treatise, the idea of ​​proportionality between the objective harmony of the world and the subjective harmony inherent in the human soul, characteristic of Renaissance aesthetics, receives a systematic development. In substantiating this idea, Zarlino relies on the doctrine of temperaments, popular in his time. He uses the idea, coming from Cardano and Telesio, that a person’s temperament is created by a certain ratio of material elements, such as cold and hot, wet and dry, etc. The proportional ratio of these elements underlies both human passions and musical passions. harmony. Human passions are therefore a reflection of the “physique” of harmony, they are its likeness. On this basis, Zarlino tries to explain the nature of the influence of music on human psyche. Much importance in Tsarlino's treatise is given to the personality of the composer. It requires from him not only knowledge of musical theory, grammar, arithmetic, rhetoric, but also practical skills in the field of music. His ideal was a musician who was equally proficient in both the theory and practice of music.

In his treatise, Zarlino puts forward a new classification of art, which diverged from the traditional concepts of Renaissance aesthetics. As a rule, the leading role in this era was assigned to painting, while music was recognized as a subordinate art. Zarlino, breaking established systems of art classification, put music in first place. Developing the traditional teaching about modes, Zarlino gave an aesthetic description of major and minor, defining the major triad as joyful and bright, and the minor triad as sad and melancholic. Thus, the recognition of major and minor as the main emotional poles of musical harmony was finally established in the European musical consciousness. Zarlino’s aesthetics is the highest point in the development of the musical theory of the Renaissance and at the same time its result and completion. It is no coincidence that already during his lifetime Tsarlino received wide recognition among his contemporaries.

Bibliography:

1. Alekseev A.D. History of piano art. Parts 1 and 2. - M., 1988.
2. Bakhtin M. M. The work of Francois Rabelais and the folk culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - 2nd ed. - M., 1990.
3. Hertsman E. Ancient musical thinking. - L., 1986.
4. Gruber R.I. Musical culture ancient world. - L., 1937.
5. Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Music of the Renaissance. - M., 1985.
6. Krasnova O. B. Encyclopedia of art of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - Olma-Press, 2002.
7. Losev A.F. Renaissance aesthetics. - M.: Mysl, 1978.
8. Musical aesthetics of the Western European Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 1966.
9. Fedorovich E.N. History of music education. - Ekaterinburg, 2003.

In 1501, the Venetian printer Ottaviano Petrucci published Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, the first major collection of secular music. This was a revolution in the spread of music, and also contributed to the Franco-Flemish style becoming the dominant musical language of Europe in the next century, since, being an Italian, Petrucci mainly included the music of Franco-Flemish composers in his collection. He subsequently published many works by Italian composers, both secular and sacred. In 1516, Andrea Antico, a Roman-Venetian printer, published a collection of frottolas for keyboard instruments.

By the 18th century there were more than 400 metrises in France. During the bourgeois revolution in 1791 they were abolished.

Essay in the academic discipline "Culturology"

on the topic: "Music of the Renaissance."

Plan

1. Introduction.

2. Renaissance instruments.

3. Schools and composers of the Renaissance.

5. Conclusion.

6. List of references.

1. Introduction.

The musical art of the Renaissance is, first of all, an innovative art. First of all, this innovative character is determined by the breakthrough of secular song and dance culture. In each country, song and dance genres were based on folk origins. Be it the Spanish villancica, the English ballad, the Italian frottola, the French chanson or the German lead - they were all aimed at conveying the complex inner world of the human personality and telling people about the joys of life. In these songs you can feel all the specifics of the feeling of a Renaissance man.

The madrigal, a song sung in Italian, became a triumph of secular musical culture. It was the language that emphasized the departure of this genre from church music, which was performed in Latin. The evolution of the madrigal is an interesting process, which from the semblance of a simple shepherd's song turned into a full-fledged musical work, it included both vocal and instrumental lines. Special attention deserves the text to the madrigals, the authors of which were outstanding poets of the Renaissance, including F. Petrarch. There was no musically developed country in Europe where madrigals were not written.

The second feature of the specific musical culture of this period can be called the flourishing of polyphony. Composers who wrote polyphonic works contributed to the evolution of the largest Renaissance genre - the mass. The result of this progress was a mass that had a strictly thought-out cyclical form. The change of parts in the mass was influenced by the church calendar: the mass had an obligatory spiritual meaning associated with one or another event. But whatever the church calendar, the Mass consisted of obligatory parts.

The third feature is the significantly increased importance of instrumental music, despite the fact that the dominant role belonged to vocal genres. Now instrumental music has become professional and has a certain focus on one or another instrument (group of instruments). Composers wrote works for the lute, keyboard instruments, viol and its varieties.

The fourth feature is the emergence and approval of national composition schools. Each of them had its own specifics, put forward a number of outstanding representatives, and had unique features associated with the folk musical art of the country.

The fifth feature is the rapid evolution of music theory. Scientists sought to develop concepts and laws of the most important musical elements - melody, harmony, polyphony. So, the Renaissance, being a turning point in the development of European culture, also turned out to be a time of radical change for music.

2. Renaissance Instruments.

The development of genres during the Renaissance also contributed to the expansion of instruments. In large European countries - Italy, Holland, England, Spain, France - workshops for the production of musical instruments were hastily opened, and business was going very well for them.

The king of musical instruments has long been the organ, which dominated both the concert and spiritual spheres. But over time, the situation began to change, and strings and strings came to the forefront plucked instruments. These are the viol (the ancestor of the modern violin and viola) and the lute, an instrument borrowed from Muslim culture. A record number of works were written for these instruments. The lute was an excellent accompanying instrument for vocal performance.

Other instruments were also popular. Woodwind instruments included the bombarda and the shalmay. The bombarda is a bass instrument that foreshadowed the modern bassoon. It is characterized by a rough timbre that is not conducive to artistic expression (unlike the bassoon).

Shalmay was distinguished by an extremely loud sound and a very wide range, which the bombard could not boast of. It was impossible to imagine ceremonial events or dances without a shawl. In the subsequent Baroque era, shawl was forgotten for a long time.

The group of string instruments, in addition to the above-mentioned viol, included: viola da gamba, viola da braccio and other varieties of this instrument.

Playing the viola da gamba implied support with the legs, hence its name (Italian gamba - leg). Many Renaissance composers wrote their works with it in mind as a solo instrument. Accordingly, the viola da braccio is an instrument that is held in the hands. Both viols were widely used both as solo instruments and as instruments participating in ensembles and orchestras.

Keyboard instruments were widespread: harpsichord (also classified as string instruments), clavichord, spinet (also belongs to the group of string keyboards), and virginel.

The harpsichord has a very pleasant and specific timbre, but its significant drawback is the inability to dynamically change the sound. This instrument turned out to be more realized in the Baroque era than in the Renaissance era.

The spinet is a type of harpsichord. Its homeland, like many other musical instruments, is Italy. This instrument was more of a home instrument than a concert instrument. Many rich ladies had a spinet at home and sang to its accompaniment or played music on it.

Refers to a variety of harpsichord and virginel. The name of this instrument contains the key to its sound features. Derived from Lat. Virginia (Virgin), the name hinted at its pure and angelic sound.

The clavichord, being one of the oldest musical instruments in the history of music, also functioned during the Renaissance. The main feature of the clavichord is the ability to produce vibrato on it. The clavichord was held in high esteem by both professional musicians and amateurs. Music performed on keyboard instruments was called keyboard music, and the British made a great contribution to its development.

Thus, the range of instruments was quite rich and varied, which indicated the full-fledged genre development of music and the art of composition. It should also be noted that each instrument had its own virtuoso performers.

3. Schools and composers of the Renaissance.

There were several major schools of composition during the Renaissance, which were formed in the most developed countries. There are six main schools: Italian, Dutch, English, French, German and Spanish. The leader among them was the Netherlands School. It is notable for the fact that it has developed a system of professional music training. Future composers were trained in metrizs - schools at Catholic churches. Dutch music owes a lot to metriz, because... graduates of these institutions became outstanding composers.

Composers of this school gravitated towards a number of genres. First of all, this is a mass (multi-part polyphonic), songs and motets. Preference was given to polyphonic songs. Motets were composed for ensembles. They also turned to such genres as chanson and madrigal - a kind of symbol of the victory of secular music over spiritual music.

The merit of the Dutch school is the generalization of the musical heritage concerning polyphonic choral singing. In addition, the classical genres mentioned above were developed and established here, and the laws of polyphony were established.

The Dutch school can be proud of many composers. Among them are J. Okeghem, G. Dufay, J. Depres, J. Obrecht, J.P. Swelling and others. Each of them not only wrote magnificent music, but also contributed to the development of the theory of musical art. G. Dufay laid the foundation for national polyphony; J. Obrecht enriched the music with folk melodies; Ya.P. Swelling created a school of organ playing.

The Italian school was also rightly considered very strong and at the same time multifaceted, because consisted of a number of national schools, among which two stand out: Roman and Venetian.

The head of the Roman school was J. P. Palestrina, who held a position in the Sistine Chapel. His activities determined the spiritual orientation of the music he wrote. The Mass turns out to be the main genre to which he turns. However, he also composed works in other common genres of that time. J.P. Palestrina managed to defend polyphony in church music, which they wanted to abandon, wanting to replace it with unison singing (Gregorian chant). Other prominent composers of this school were F. Anerio, G. Iannacconi and others. The Roman school was focused on instrumental church music.

The Venetian school was formed thanks to the activities of A. Willaert, a Dutch composer. It also included such composers as C. Monteverdi, C. Merulo, G. Bassano. These and other representatives willingly studied not only instrumental, but also vocal music. Prone to experiments, they created a new musical style - concertato. The Venice school of composition prepared the way for the most important stage in music - the Baroque.

The English school of composition was based on vocal polyphony, which was favored by the country's musical traditions. England became the first country to introduce Bachelors of Arts. During the Renaissance, a number of composers began to contrast secular musical art with church vocal art. One of the composer's most favorite genres was the madrigal. Let us note that the art of music developed in England during the Renaissance was not as diverse and vibrant as in other European countries.

The French school is one of the most unique. Here the art of song developed according to its own laws and was called “chanson”. Of course, it cannot be interpreted in a modern sense. Then it was a polyphonic work, not related to the church and biblical themes. But even then the connection with folk music and dance rhythms was noticeable in chanson.

The composer K. Janequin, who wrote a large number of works in this genre, showed himself especially clearly in this genre. He also turned to other genres - masses, motets, etc.

Professional personnel in Germany during the Renaissance forged in chapels, which usually existed at cathedrals and courts; and also from creative associations, which took shape among the burghers. German composers proved themselves to be talented polyphonists and among them there were many major masters However, they could not catch up with either the Netherlands or Italy in this regard. The glory of the German school was yet to come.

A remarkable phenomenon of German musical art was the Meistersang, which replaced the Minnesang. This was the name given to the activities of professional poets-singers who grew up from the burgher environment. However, despite the fact that they were professionals, their aesthetic reference point was the work of their predecessors, the Minnesingers.

In Spain, the art of music, even during the Renaissance, could not free itself from the dictatorship of the Catholic Church. All the prominent composers of Spain were in church services, and their works, even polyphonic ones, were constrained by established traditions. At the same time, they could not help but embrace the innovations introduced by the Netherlands and Italy, so attempts to go beyond the boundaries in the work of major composers are still felt.

In Renaissance Spain, such genres as spiritual polyphony, the song genre (villancicos), and motets were developed. Spanish music was distinguished by its unique melodic quality, and Villancicos is a prime example of this. In general, each of the schools, despite approximately general trends in development, had its own national coloring.

4. Musicians and their works during the Renaissance.

The motet, madrigal and mass were the three most important genres during the Renaissance. Therefore, the names of the most important musicians are associated with them. The name of Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina resounds loudly in Italian musical art. Having worked all his life in the field of church music, with his creativity he contributed to the establishment of a style such as a capella, which is still widespread today. Among the most famous works of G. Palestrino is “The Mass of Pope Marcello.” Despite its complexity, this work is filled with clarity, purity, harmony, which, in fact, are the main features of the composer’s style.

Another Italian, Gesualdo di Venosa, is also an extremely prolific composer. The number of madrigals he wrote amounted to six books. The author sought to use music to explore the complex inner world of a person and reflect his feelings. Many of G. di Venosa's madrigals are tragic in nature. Expressiveness and sophistication are the main features of this composer's music.

Orlando di Lasso (Netherlands) is another great representative of the Renaissance. He wrote many works, but one of his most striking successes is the madrigal “Echo,” in which acoustic effects are imitated. In his music, O. di Lasso managed to convey the dance, song and even everyday features of his era.

The brightest representative of English music was John Dunstable, who made a huge contribution to the development of national polyphony. He is the author of a number of masses, motets and songs that have become popular. Not all of the works he wrote have survived, but those that do bear witness to him as an inventive and prolific composer.

English vocal music can be proud of the names of Thomas Morley and John Dowland. The work of the latter delighted William Shakespeare himself. It is assumed that J. Dowland is the author of the music for the plays of the great playwright. The composer composed music for lute and voice; preferred a tragic direction in his work, but, nevertheless, one of his humorous songs, “Beautiful Tricks of a Lady,” became very popular.

T. Morley (his student was the famous William Byrd) with all his creativity contributed to the promotion and popularization of madrigals by Italian composers. It was quite natural that he himself would compose music in this genre. One of the most famous songs- “The lover and his girlfriend captivate the viewer with their simplicity and sincerity.

Cristobal de Morales brought fame to Spanish music. His work fully combines national Spanish traditions and the achievements of the best composers of Italy and the Netherlands. Based on this synthesis, he created many masses and motets.

One of the prominent Spanish composers is Tomas Luis de Victoria, who not only composed music, but also mastered the art of singing and playing the organ. He wrote polyphonic works of spiritual orientation.

Among the many French masters, the name of Clement Janequin stands out, who raised chanson to the proper level. His songs are a wide variety of themes, melodies, musical thoughts, as well as sound imitations. He tried to convey the title of each song through music.

If we talk about German music, the organist and composer Heinrich Schütz stands out here first of all. He was the first among German composers to write an opera. It was an essay on a mythological subject; The opera was called Daphne. G. Schutz also wrote an opera-ballet, which was also based on an ancient Greek plot - “Orpheus and Eurydice”. He is the author of many other works in smaller genres.

The Christian theologian Martin Luther played a great role in the development of German music, promoting reform in this area. Due to his desire to attract as many parishioners as possible to the service, he formed new requirements for vocal sacred music. This is how the Protestant chorale was born, which became the leading genre in the musical art of Germany during the Renaissance (here, of course, we do not mean secular genres).

Thus, musical heritage The Renaissance is extremely rich in events, genres, instruments, works, and names.

5. Conclusion.

So, all of the above allows us to draw a number of conclusions. The strongest countries musically were the Netherlands (at the beginning) and Italy (at the end). It was there that traditions were born that influenced the musical process in other countries.

Musical boundaries have expanded. This concerned both the musicians themselves, who moved around Europe and could live and work in different countries, in different, sometimes contrasting genres, and the music itself. It has ceased to be exclusively church-based (we are talking about professional art), since folk art is alive at all times.

Having gone beyond the spiritual sphere, music penetrated everyday life and became accessible to wide sections of society. Her language became accessible to people. At the same time, music became an art in which the individuality of its creators was felt.

As in ancient times, music became an integral part of holidays and special events, which again won their place in the leisure time of Europeans after the dark times of the Middle Ages.

The society of the Renaissance filled its life with a series of various holidays, where they had fun, sang and danced, and performed theatrical performances. And everywhere music was an indispensable and irreplaceable attribute.

Of course, it cannot be said that music has become exclusively secular. This would be completely wrong. As before, the closest attention was paid to church music. Composers wrote grandiose polyphonic vocal-instrumental works in which human voices were supported by parts of wind instruments. And although in some countries (for example, in Germany) there was a tendency to simplify church music, for the most part sacred music remained majestic and complex.

During the Renaissance, musical culture underwent a significant renewal. This concerned both instruments, new achievements in theoretical disciplines, and the development of music printing.

But the most important achievement of the Renaissance in all spheres of activity is the affirmation of the human personality, interest in him, the revelation of his rich inner world using all available artistic means.

6. List of references.

1. Alekseev A.D. History of piano art. In two parts/A.D. Alekseev. - M.: Music, 1988. - 415 p.

2. Evdokimova Yu.K., Simakova N.A. Music of the Renaissance. Cantus prius factus and working with it/Yu.K. Evdokimova, N.A. Simakova. - M.: Music, 1982. - 240 p.

3. Livanova T.N. History of Western European music until 1789: In 2 books. Ed. 2nd, revised Book 1: From antiquity to the 18th century/T.N. Livanova. - M.: Music, 1986. - 378 p.

4. Rosenshield K.K. History of foreign music/K.K. Rosenschild. - M.: Music, 1978. - 445 p.