Introduction.
Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period spans more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.
Within a millennium, it is customary to distinguish at least three periods:
· Early Middle Ages, from the beginning of the era to 900 or 1000 (until the X - XI centuries);
· High (Classical) Middle Ages - from the X-XI centuries to approximately the XIV century;
· Late Middle Ages, XIV-XV centuries.
Some authors, in the context of the Middle Ages, also consider the so-called transition period from the Middle Ages to the New Time (XVI-XVII centuries), however, it seems more reasonable to consider the period of the Reformation and Con-Reformation as a separate period of history and culture, which had a great influence on the further formation of the cultural consciousness of the masses .
The folk culture of this era is a new and almost unexplored topic in science. The ideologists of feudal society managed not only to push the people away from the means of recording their thoughts and moods, but also to deprive researchers of subsequent times of the opportunity to restore the main features of their spiritual life. “The great dumb”, “the great absentee”, “people without archives and without faces” - this is what modern historians call the people in an era when direct access to the means of written recording was closed to them cultural values.
The folk culture of the Middle Ages was unlucky in science. Usually, when they talk about it, they mention at most the remnants of the ancient world and epic, the remnants of paganism. In those relatively rare cases when a modern specialist turns to the folk religiosity of the Middle Ages, he does not find any other characteristics for it such as “naive”, “primitive”, “uncouth”, “rude”, “superficial”, “pre-logical”, “childish” ”; This is the religion of the “child people”, overflowing with superstitions and focused on the fabulous and fabulous.
The criteria for such value judgments are taken from the “high” religion of the enlightened and it is from their position that the consciousness and emotional life of common people are judged, without setting themselves the task of considering it “from the inside,” guided by its own logic.
1. Early Middle Ages.
The Early Middle Ages was a time when turbulent and very important processes took place in Europe, such as the barbarian invasion, which ended with the fall of the Roman Empire. Barbarians settled on the lands of the former empire, assimilated with its population, creating a new community of Western Europe.
At the same time, the new Western Europeans, as a rule, accepted Christianity, which by the end of Rome’s existence became its state religion. Christianity in its various forms replaced pagan beliefs and this process only accelerated after the fall of the empire. This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.
The third significant process was the formation of new state formations on the territory of the former Roman Empire, created by the same “barbarians”. Tribal leaders proclaimed themselves kings, dukes, counts, constantly fighting with each other and subjugating their weaker neighbors. Characteristic feature Life in the early Middle Ages was constant wars, robberies and raids, which significantly slowed down economic and cultural development.
During the early Middle Ages ideological positions feudal lords and peasants had not yet taken shape and the peasantry, which was just being born as a special class of society, in ideological terms was dissolved in broader and more uncertain layers.
The bulk of the population of Europe at that time were rural residents, whose lifestyle was completely subordinated to routine, and whose horizons were extremely limited. Conservatism is an integral feature of this environment.
The peasantry and its life are almost not reflected at all in the social picture of the world, as it was thought at that time, and this fact in itself is very symptomatic. The society, agrarian in nature, built on the exploitation and subjugation of broad sections of the rural population, seemed to allow itself to ideologically ignore its own majority.
Paradox: ordinary people, first of all the peasantry, despised and ignored by the ruling class, at the same time, in a certain sense, dominated the spiritual life of the early Middle Ages. Country life with its leisurely regularity and periodic change of production seasons, was the main regulator of the social rhythm of society ([1], p. 63)
2. High (classical) Middle Ages.
During the classical, or high, Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and be reborn. Since the 10th century, state structures have been consolidated, which made it possible to assemble larger armies and, to some extent, stop raids and robberies. Missionaries brought Christianity to the countries of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, so that these states also entered the orbit of Western culture.
The relative stability that ensued provided the opportunity for rapid growth of cities and economies. Life began to change for the better; cities began to have their own culture and spiritual life. A big role in this was played by the same church, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization.
On the base artistic traditions Romanesque and later brilliant Gothic art arose from ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, and not only architecture and literature developed, but also other types of art - painting, theater, music, sculpture... It was during this era that masterpieces of literature were created “Song of Roland”, “The Romance of Rose”.
The so-called knightly literature emerges and develops. One of the most famous works is the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic - “The Song of Roland”. In the 12th century, romances of chivalry appeared. Among the most popular was a poetic novel about the British King Arthur.
An important monument of German folk literature of the 12th-13th centuries is “The Song of the Nibelungs,” which tells about the invasion of the Huns on the Kingdom of Burgundy at the beginning of the 5th century. The “Song of the Nibelungs” is based on ancient Germanic legends.
Vagantes and their poetry were a significant phenomenon in the literature of France in the 12th-13th centuries. Vagants (from the Latin vagantes - wandering) were called wandering poets. A feature of their work was the constant criticism of the Catholic Church and the clergy for greed, hypocrisy and ignorance. The Church, in turn, persecuted the vagants.
The most important monument English literature XIII century - the famous “Ballads of Robin Hood”, who to this day remains one of the most famous heroes of world literature.
2.1 The emergence of “urban culture”.
During this period, the so-called “urban literature” rapidly developed, which was characterized by a realistic depiction of the urban everyday life of various segments of the urban population, as well as the appearance satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Cecco Angiolieri and Guido Orlandi (late 13th century).
The development of urban literature testified to a new phenomenon in the cultural life of Western European society - urban culture, which played a very important role in the formation of Western civilization as a whole. The essence of urban culture boiled down to the constant strengthening of secular elements in all spheres of human existence.
Urban culture originated in France in the 11th-12th centuries. During this period, it was represented, in particular, by the work of “jugglers” who performed in city squares as actors, acrobats, trainers, musicians and singers. They performed at fairs, folk festivals, weddings, christenings, etc. and enjoyed great popularity among the people.
A new and extremely important phenomenon, testifying to the deepening process of development of urban culture, was the creation of non-church schools in cities - these were private schools, financially independent of the church. The teachers of these schools lived off the fees collected from the students, and anyone who could afford to pay the fees could teach their children in them. Since that time, there has been a rapid spread of literacy among the urban population.
2.2 Sermons as a layer of folk culture.
European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The clergy was the only educated class, and it was the church for a long period that determined educational policy. The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.
An important layer in the formation of folk culture during the classical Middle Ages was sermons.
The bulk of society remained illiterate. In order for the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite to become the dominant thoughts of all parishioners, they had to be “translated” into a language understandable to all people. This is what preachers did. Parish priests, monks, and missionaries had to explain to the people the basic principles of theology, instill in them the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking.
The sermon assumed any person as its listener - literate and illiterate, noble and commoner, city dweller and peasant, rich and poor.
The most famous preachers structured their sermons in such a way as to hold the attention of the public for a long time and convey to them the ideas of church teaching in the form of simple examples.
Some used for this purpose so-called “examples” (exempla) - short stories written in the form of parables on everyday topics.
These “examples” are one of the earliest literary genres and are of particular interest for a more complete understanding of the worldview of ordinary believers. “Example” was one of the most effective means of didactic influence on parishioners.
In these “cases from life” the original world of medieval man is visible, with his ideas about saints and evil spirits as real participants in everyday human life.
However, the most famous preachers, such as Bertold of Regenburg (XIII century), did not use “Examples” in their sermons, building them mainly on biblical texts. This preacher structured his sermons in the form of dialogues, addressing calls and statements to a certain part of the audience or professional categories. He widely used the method of enumeration, riddles and other techniques that made his sermons into small performances. (, page 265)
Church ministers, as a rule, did not introduce any original ideas and statements into their sermons; this was not expected of them and parishioners would be unable to appreciate it. The audience received satisfaction from listening to things that were familiar and familiar.
3. Late Middle Ages.
The later Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture that began during the classical period. However, their progress was far from smooth. In the XIV-XV centuries, Western Europe repeatedly experienced great famines. Numerous epidemics, especially the plague, caused innumerable human casualties. The Hundred Years' War greatly slowed down the development of culture.
During these periods, uncertainty and fear ruled the masses. Economic growth is followed by long periods of recession and stagnation. The fear of death and fear complexes intensified among the masses. afterlife, fears of evil spirits intensify.
At the end of the Middle Ages, in the minds of the common people, Satan was transformed from, in general, not a terrible and sometimes funny devil into an omnipotent ruler of dark forces, who in the end earthly history will act as the Antichrist.
Another cause of fear is hunger, as a consequence of low yields and several years of drought.
The sources of fears are best highlighted in the prayer of a peasant of that time: “Deliver us, Lord, from plague, famine and war.” (, page 330)
The dominance of oral culture powerfully contributed to the proliferation of superstitions, fears and collective panics.
However, in the end, the cities were revived, people who survived the pestilence and war were able to organize their lives better than in previous eras. Conditions arose for a new upsurge in spiritual life, science, philosophy, and art. This rise necessarily led to the so-called Renaissance or Renaissance.
Conclusion.
So. Now we can draw a conclusion from my essay, which is called “Culture of the Middle Ages.” It is clear from the work that since the Middle Ages, a complex of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental attitudes and systems of behavior, which could conditionally be called “folk culture” or “folk religiosity,” was in one way or another the property of all members of society (p. 356 ).
The thinking of the Middle Ages was predominantly theological.
The medieval church, wary and suspicious of the customs, faith and religious practices of the common people, was influenced by them. As an example, we can cite the sanctioning by the church of the cult of saints in its popular interpretation.
The magical approach to nature extended to Christian rituals, and belief in miracles was widespread.
The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.
European medieval society was very religious and the power of the clergy over the minds was extremely great. The teaching of the church was the starting point of all thinking, all sciences - jurisprudence, natural science, philosophy, logic - everything was brought into line with Christianity. The higher clergy was the only educated class, but the medieval European, including the upper strata of society, was illiterate. The level of literacy even for priests in parishes was appallingly low. Only towards the end of the 15th century the church realized the need to have educated personnel and began to open theological seminaries.
Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths and magic spells.
Sermons, which represent a significant layer of medieval culture, became the “translation” of the thoughts of the social and spiritual elite into a language accessible to all people. Parish priests, monks, and missionaries had to explain to the people the basic principles of theology, instill in them the principles of Christian behavior and eradicate the wrong way of thinking. Special literature was created that popularly presented the fundamentals of Christian teaching, giving the flock models to follow. This literature was mainly intended for priests to use in their daily activities.
Bibliography.
1. Gurevich A.Ya. “The Medieval World: The Culture of the Silent Majority.” M., 1990
2. Gurevich A.Ya. “Problems of medieval folk culture.” M., 1981
Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation
Government agency higher professional education
"South Ural State University»
Culture medieval Europe
TEST
In the discipline (specialization) “Culturology”
Chelyabinsk 2014
Introduction
Periodization of the culture of the Middle Ages
Christianity as the basis of the worldview of the Middle Ages
The attitude of a medieval man
Medieval art. Romantic and Gothic style
Conclusion
Bibliography
Application
Introduction
The medieval culture of Western Europe is an era of great spiritual and sociocultural conquests in the history of all mankind. The Middle Ages spans from the 5th to the 17th centuries. The term “Middle Ages” was assigned to this period due to the fact that it occupies an intermediate place between Antiquity and Modern times.
The formation of medieval culture occurred as a result of a dramatic and contradictory process of collision between two cultures - ancient and barbarian, accompanied, on the one hand, by violence, the destruction of ancient cities, and the loss of outstanding achievements ancient culture, on the other hand, by the interaction and gradual merging of Roman and barbarian cultures.
Medieval culture differs from many previous and subsequent eras in the special tension of spiritual life, both in the sphere of the ideal, the proper, and in the field of the real, practical. Despite the strong discrepancy between the ideal and the real, the very social and everyday life of people in the Middle Ages was an attempt, a desire to embody Christian ideals in practical activities.
The spiritual life of the Middle Ages is usually described through the dominant religion of that time - Christianity. The picture of the world of Medieval culture is defined as God-centric. This is due to the fact that God is the absolute value.
The culture of the Middle Ages in Western Europe marked the beginning of a new direction in the history of civilization - the establishment of Christianity not only as a religious teaching, but also as a new worldview and attitude, which significantly influenced all subsequent cultural eras.
Thanks to the spiritual and absolutely positive understanding of God, man acquires special significance in the religious picture of the world. Man, the image of God, the greatest value after God, occupies a dominant place on Earth. The main thing in a person is the soul. One of the outstanding achievements of the Christian religion is the gift of free will to man, that is, the right to choose between good and evil, God and the devil.
The culture of medieval Europe is the creation of new peoples who established their national existence again on the ruins of ancient civilization, but mainly in its specifically Roman aspect. Art, which arose in the Middle Ages and reached its greatest flowering during the Renaissance, marks huge contribution into the culture of all mankind.
Medieval culture, despite its apparent ease and “recognizability,” is quite complex. An extremely simplified and erroneous assessment of the Middle Ages as a dark millennium of general savagery, the decline of culture, the triumph of ignorance and all kinds of prejudices prevails. Less often - the idealization of this culture as a time of genuine triumph of nobility. It is clear that the reason for such categoricalness is both the complexity of the problems of medieval culture itself, and superficial familiarity with this important stage in the development of European culture, which determines the relevance of the topic.
Purpose of the work: to show the features of medieval culture in Europe.
Reveal the specifics and uniqueness of medieval culture.
Explore characteristic feature medieval culture - differentiation into socially opposite types. 3. Describe Christianity as the core of medieval culture.
1. Periodization of the culture of the Middle Ages
Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period covers more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries. The thousand-year period of the Middle Ages is usually divided into at least three stages.
Early Middle Ages, (from X - XI centuries);
High (Classical) Middle Ages. From XI - XIV centuries;
Late Middle Ages, XIV - XV centuries.
The Early Middle Ages was a time when turbulent and very important processes took place in Europe. First of all, these are the invasions of the so-called barbarians (from the Latin barba - beard), who, already from the 2nd century AD, constantly attacked the Roman Empire and settled on the lands of its provinces. These invasions ended with the fall of Rome.
At the same time, the new Western Europeans, as a rule, accepted Christianity, which in Rome by the end of its existence was the state religion. Christianity in its various forms gradually replaced pagan beliefs throughout the Roman Empire, and this process did not stop after the fall of the empire. This is the second most important historical process that determined the face of the early Middle Ages in Western Europe.
The third significant process was the formation in the territory
of the former Roman Empire, new state formations created by the same “barbarians”. Numerous Frankish, Germanic, Gothic and other tribes were in fact not so wild. Most of them already had the rudiments of statehood, mastered crafts, including agriculture and metallurgy, and were organized on the principles of military democracy. Tribal leaders began to proclaim themselves kings, dukes, etc., constantly fighting with each other and subjugating
themselves weaker neighbors. At Christmas 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned Catholic in Rome and as Emperor of the entire European west. Later (900) the Holy Roman Empire broke up into countless duchies, counties, margraviates, bishoprics, abbeys and other fiefs. Their rulers behaved like completely sovereign masters, not considering it necessary to obey any emperors or kings. However, the processes of formation of state entities continued in subsequent periods. A characteristic feature of life in the early Middle Ages was the constant looting and devastation to which the inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire were subjected. And these robberies and raids significantly slowed down economic and cultural development.
During the classical, or high, Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome these difficulties and revive. Since the 10th century, cooperation under the laws of feudalism made it possible to create larger state structures and gather fairly strong armies. Thanks to this, it was possible to stop the invasions, significantly limit robberies, and then gradually go on the offensive. In 1024, the Crusaders took the Eastern Roman Empire from the Byzantines, and in 1099 they captured the Holy Land from the Muslims. True, in 1291 both were lost again. However, the Moors were expelled from Spain forever. Eventually, Western Christians gained dominance over the Mediterranean Sea and its islands. Numerous missionaries brought Christianity to the kingdoms of Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary, so that these states entered the orbit of Western culture.
The relative stability that ensued provided the opportunity for rapid growth of cities and the pan-European economy. Life in Western Europe changed greatly, society quickly lost its barbaric features, and spiritual life flourished in the cities. In general, European society has become much richer and more civilized than during the ancient Roman Empire. An outstanding role in this was played by the Christian Church, which also developed, improved its teaching and organization. On the basis of the artistic traditions of Ancient Rome and the former barbarian tribes, Romanesque and then brilliant Gothic art arose, and along with architecture and literature, all other types of it developed - theater, music, sculpture, painting, literature. It was during this era that, for example, such literary masterpieces as “The Song of Roland” and “The Romance of the Rose” were created. Of particular importance was the fact that during this period Western European scientists had the opportunity to read the works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, primarily Aristotle. On this basis, the great philosophical system of the Middle Ages - scholasticism - arose and grew.
The later Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture that began during the classical period. However, their progress was far from smooth. In the XIV-XV centuries, Western Europe repeatedly experienced great famines. Numerous epidemics, especially the bubonic plague (“Black Death”), also brought inexhaustible human casualties. The Hundred Years' War greatly slowed down the development of culture. However, eventually the cities were revived, crafts, agriculture and trade were established. People who survived pestilence and war were given the opportunity to organize their lives better than in previous eras. The feudal nobility, the aristocrats, began to build magnificent palaces for themselves instead of castles, both on their estates and in cities. The new rich from the “low” classes imitated them in this, creating everyday comfort and an appropriate lifestyle. Conditions arose for a new upsurge in spiritual life, science, philosophy, and art, especially in Northern Italy. This rise necessarily led to the so-called Renaissance or Renaissance.
2. Christianity as the basis of the worldview of the Middle Ages
The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the conditions of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population. In conditions of difficult and meager life, against the backdrop of extremely limited and most often unreliable knowledge about the world, Christianity offered people a coherent system of knowledge about the world, about its structure, about the forces and laws operating in it. The emotional appeal of Christianity with its warmth, universally significant preaching of love and understandable norms of social coexistence, with the romantic elation and ecstasy of the plot about the redemptive sacrifice, and finally, with the statement of the equality of all people without exception in the highest authority, in order to at least approximately evaluate the contribution of Christianity into the worldview, into the picture of the world of medieval Europeans.
This picture of the world, which completely determined the mentality of believing villagers and townspeople, was based mainly on images and interpretations of the Bible. Researchers note that in the Middle Ages, the starting point for explaining the world was the complete, unconditional opposition of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body.
The medieval European was, of course, a deeply religious person. In his mind, the world was seen as a kind of arena of confrontation between the forces of heaven and hell, good and evil. At the same time, the consciousness of people was deeply magical, everyone was absolutely confident in the possibility of miracles and perceived everything that the Bible reported literally.
As S. Averintsev aptly put it, the Bible was read and listened to in the Middle Ages in much the same way as we read the latest newspapers today.
In the most general terms, the world was then seen in accordance with some hierarchical logic, as a symmetrical diagram, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at the base. The top of one of them, the top one, is God. Below are the tiers or levels of sacred characters: first the Apostles, those closest to God, then the figures who gradually move away from God and approach the earthly level - archangels, angels and similar heavenly beings. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the pope and cardinals, then clerics at lower levels, and below them ordinary laypeople. Then animals are placed even further from God and closer to the earth, then plants and then the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then there is a kind of mirror reflection of the upper, earthly and heavenly hierarchy, but again in a different dimension and with a “minus” sign, in a seemingly underground world, with increasing evil and proximity to Satan. He is placed at the top of this second, tonic pyramid, acting as a being symmetrical to God, as if repeating him with the opposite sign (reflecting like a mirror). If God is the personification of Good and Love, then Satan is his opposite, the embodiment of Evil and Hatred.
Medieval Europeans, including the highest strata of society, right up to kings and emperors, were illiterate. The level of literacy and education even of the clergy in the parishes was terribly low. Only towards the end of the 15th century did the church realize the need to have educated personnel, began to open theological seminaries, etc. The level of education of parishioners was generally minimal. The masses of the laity listened to semi-literate priests. At the same time, the Bible itself was forbidden for ordinary lay people; its texts were considered too complex and inaccessible for the direct perception of ordinary parishioners. It was allowed to interpret it
only for clergy. However, both their education and literacy were, as has been said, very low. Mass medieval culture is a bookless, “Do-Gutenberg” culture. She relied not on the printed word, but on oral sermons and exhortations. It existed through the consciousness of an illiterate person. It was a culture of prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells.
At the same time, the meaning of the word, written and especially sounded, in medieval culture was unusually great. Prayers that were perceived functionally as incantations, sermons, biblical stories, magic formulas - all this also shaped the medieval mentality. People are accustomed to intensely peering into the surrounding reality, perceiving it as a kind of text, as a system of symbols containing a certain higher meaning. These symbols - words had to be able to recognize and extract divine meaning from them. This, in particular, explains many of the features of medieval artistic culture, designed for the perception in space of precisely such a deeply religious and symbolic, verbally armed mentality. Even painting there was, first of all, a revealed word, like the Bible itself. The word was universal, approached everything, explained everything, was hidden behind all phenomena as their hidden meaning.
Thus, for the medieval consciousness, the medieval mentality, culture, first of all, expressed the meanings, the soul of a person, brought a person closer to God, as if transported to another world, to a space different from earthly existence. And this space looked the way it was described in the Bible, the lives of saints, the writings of the church fathers and the sermons of priests. Accordingly, the behavior of the medieval European and all his activities were determined.
3. Attitude of a medieval person
Attitude is formed on the basis of attitude and understanding of the world. Attitude is a set of human values on certain life issues. Attitude has such characteristics as subjectivity and discreteness. The worldview of a human being is conceptually difficult to define, since, like any other relationship, it is “neither a thing nor a property, but that through which the properties of a thing receive their visibility.” World relations arise and are realized as a process and result of identifying various individual properties of an integral human being, his essential powers and their implementation in accordance with the specifics of the fragments of the World available to him. The peculiarity of the world relationship lies in its primary connection with the spheres of human existence. Therefore, it makes sense to highlight the somacentric worldview that is formed in a person who clearly gives priority to the realities of the natural sphere of his existence. Accordingly, if the social sphere plays a dominant role, then a person’s worldview will be person-centric, but if the spiritual sphere comes to the fore, then his worldview will certainly reveal a spiritual-centric character.
The attitude and vision of the world of a person in an agrarian society by nature changed much more slowly than the culture of educated people. It was changing, but the rhythms of change were completely different. It seems that the dynamics of the “apex” elite forms spiritual life was far ahead of changes “in depth.” The picture of the world of medieval man was not monolithic; it was differentiated depending on the position of one or another layer of society.
Christian religion determined the way of world relations in the West and in the East. Religious attitudes were organized by works of art. The concept of “world” for the Middle Ages was revealed exclusively as “God”. And the concept of “man” was revealed as “a believer in God,” namely, a “Christian.” The Middle Ages are the “golden age” of Christian self-awareness, an era when Christianity fully realized the necessary reunification of the human and absolute principles. In the Middle Ages, Christianity was not only a cult, but also a system of law, a political doctrine, a moral teaching, and a philosophy. Christ acted as the standard for medieval man; Every Christian was busy building Christ within himself.
The era of the early Middle Ages was marked by the process of active Christianization of the population. The entire space of human life was built as elements of cult, and cult in the broadest sense of the word: life was understood as constant service, constant contact with one’s master - the Lord God.
The medieval worldview was organized extremely harmoniously; Each type of activity was subject to a hierarchical order. The Church, as a mediator, played a dominant role in the relationship between the human and the divine. It was a system of standard intermediaries, organized in a hierarchy represented by a ladder. “Staircase” in the culture of the Middle Ages appears as a philosophical category. The staircase is a symbol of the descent of the Divine into the earthly world of human forms and the reverse, reciprocal ascent of man in his spirit. The difference in the religious models of Catholicism and Orthodoxy lies in the different dominant movement along this ladder.
The Renaissance era (the term was introduced in the 16th century by Giorgio Vasari) is a period in the cultural and ideological development of the countries of Western and Central Europe, transitional from medieval culture to the culture of modern times. The emergence of machine production, the improvement of tools and the continuing division of manufacturing labor, the spread of printing, and geographical discoveries - all this changed man's ideas about the world and about himself. Cheerful free-thinking is affirmed in the humanistic worldview of people. In the sciences, interest in the fate and capabilities of man will prevail, and in ethical concepts, his right to happiness is substantiated. The founder of Lutheranism M.L. King proclaims that all people are equally endowed with reason. Man begins to realize that he was not created for God, that in his actions he is free and great, that there are no barriers to his mind.
Scientists of this period considered their main task to be the restoration of ancient values. However, only that and in a way that was consonant with the new way of life and the intellectual atmosphere determined by it were “reborn”. In this regard, the ideal of the “universal man” was affirmed, which was believed not only by thinkers, but also by many rulers of Europe, who gathered outstanding minds of the era under their banners (for example, in Florence, at the Medici court, the sculptor and painter Michelangelo and the architect Alberti worked).
The new attitude was reflected in the desire to take a fresh look at the soul - the central link of any scientific system about a human. At universities, at the first lectures, students asked teachers: “Tell me about the soul,” which was a kind of “litmus test”, a characteristic of the teacher’s ideological, scientific and pedagogical potential.
The problems of psychological research were also unique: man’s dependence on the constellation of stars; connection between the abundance of bile and mood; reflection of spiritual qualities in facial expression, etc. Drawing a conclusion from his observations, João Huart wrote in 1575 that body composition and appearance correspond with natural accuracy to the spiritual characteristics of each person. Such problems and conclusions reflected the need to liberate the science of the soul from previous medieval stereotypes.
Thus, the new era brought to life new ideas about the nature of man and his mental world, giving birth to titans in the power of thought, passion and character.
Differentiation of culture: culture of the clergy, aristocracy and the “silent majority”
culture medieval clergy
With education centralized states, with the formation of a new worldview, a new social culture takes shape, the estates that make up the structure of medieval society are formed - the clergy, the nobility and the rest of the inhabitants, later called the “third estate”, “the people”.
The clergy was considered the highest class, it was divided into the white priesthood - and the black monasticism. He was in charge of “heavenly matters”, caring for faith and spiritual life. It was precisely this, especially monasticism, that most fully embodied Christian ideals and values. However, it was also far from unity, as evidenced by the differences in the understanding of Christianity between the orders that existed in monasticism. Benedict of Nursia - the founder of the Benedictine Order - opposed the extremes of hermitage, abstinence and asceticism, was quite tolerant of property and wealth, highly valued physical wealth, especially agriculture and gardening, believing that the monastic community should not only fully provide itself with everything necessary, but also help in this entire district, showing an example of active Christian charity. Some communities of this order highly valued education and encouraged not only physical, but also mental work, in particular the development of agronomic and medical knowledge.
On the contrary, Francis of Assisi - the founder of the Franciscan Order, the order of mendicant monks - called for extreme asceticism, preached complete, holy poverty, because the ownership of any property requires its protection, i.e. the use of force, and this contradicts the moral principles of Christianity. He saw the ideal of complete poverty and carelessness in the life of birds.
The second most important layer was the aristocracy, which acted mainly in the form of knighthood. The aristocracy was in charge of “earthly affairs”, and above all state tasks of preserving and strengthening peace, protecting the people from oppression, maintaining the faith and the Church, etc. Although the culture of this layer is closely related to Christianity, it differs significantly from the culture of the clergy.
Like monastic orders, there were knightly orders in the Middle Ages. One of the main tasks facing them was the struggle for faith, which more than once took the form of crusades. Knights also carried out other duties, to one degree or another related to faith.
However, a significant part of knightly ideals, norms and values were secular in nature. For a knight, such virtues as strength, courage, generosity and nobility were considered mandatory. He had to strive for glory, performing feats of arms or achieving success in knightly tournaments for the sake of this. He was also required to have external physical beauty, which was at odds with the Christian disdain for the body. The main knightly virtues were honor, fidelity to duty and noble love for To the beautiful lady. Love for a Lady presupposed refined aesthetic forms, but it was not at all platonic, which was also condemned by the Church and the clergy.
The lowest stratum of medieval society, the “silent majority,” was the third estate, which included peasants, artisans, and the merchant and usurious bourgeoisie. The culture of this class also had a unique originality that sharply distinguished it from the culture of the upper classes. It was in it that the elements of barbaric paganism and idolatry were preserved for the longest time.
Ordinary people were not too scrupulous in observing strict Christian frameworks; they quite often mixed the “divine” with the “human.” They knew how to sincerely and carefreely rejoice and have fun, giving themselves to this with all their soul and body. The common people created a special laughter culture, the originality of which was especially clearly manifested during folk holidays and carnivals, when the seething streams of general fun, jokes and games, bursts of laughter leave no room for anything official, serious and lofty.
Thus, the dominance of religion did not make the culture completely homogeneous. On the contrary, one of the important features of medieval culture is precisely the emergence of very specific subcultures in it, caused by the strict division of society into three classes: the clergy, the feudal aristocracy and the third class of the “silent majority”.
Medieval art. Romantic and Gothic style
Along with religion, other areas of spiritual culture existed and developed in the Middle Ages, including philosophy and science. The highest medieval science was theology, or theology. It was theology that possessed the truth, which rested on Divine Revelation.
The beginning of the mature period of the Middle Ages, the 10th century, turned out to be extremely complex and difficult, which was caused by the invasions of the Hungarians, Saracens and especially the Normans. Therefore, the emerging new states experienced a deep crisis and decline. Art was in the same situation. However, by the end of the 10th century. the situation is gradually normalizing, feudal relations are finally winning, and revival and growth are observed in all spheres of life, including art.
In the XI-XII centuries. The role of monasteries, which become the main centers of culture, increases significantly. It is under them that schools, libraries and book workshops are created. Monasteries are the main customers of works of art. Therefore, all the culture and art of these centuries is sometimes called monastic. In general, the stage of the new rise of art received the conventional name “Romanesque period”. It occurs in the 11th-12th centuries, although in Italy and Germany it also extends to the 13th century, and in France in the second half of the 12th century. Gothic already reigns supreme. During this period, architecture finally became the leading form of art - with a clear predominance of religious, church and temple buildings. It develops on the basis of the achievements of the Carolingians, being influenced by ancient and Byzantine architecture. The main type of building is the increasingly complex basilica.
The essence of the Romanesque style is geometricism, the dominance of vertical and horizontal lines, the simplest geometric figures in the presence of large planes. Arches are widely used in buildings, and windows and doors are made narrow. Appearance the buildings are distinguished by clarity and simplicity, majesty and severity, which are complemented by severity and sometimes gloom. Columns without stable orders are often used, which also serve as decorative rather than constructive function.
Most widespread Roman style found in France. Here, the most outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Church of Cluny from the 11th century, as well as the Church of Notre Dame du Port in Clermont-Ferrand from the 12th century. (Appendix 1). Both buildings successfully combine simplicity and grace, severity and splendor.
Secular architecture of the Romanesque style is clearly inferior to church architecture. Its shape is too simple and there are almost no decorative ornaments. Here the main type of building is a castle-fortress, which serves both as a home and a defensive shelter for the feudal knight. Most often this is a courtyard with a tower in the center. The appearance of such a structure looks warlike and wary, gloomy and threatening. An example of such a building is the castle of Chateau Gaillard on the Seine (XII century), which has reached us in ruins.
In Italy, a wonderful monument of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XII-XIV centuries). It includes a grandiose five-nave basilica with a flat roof, the famous “Leaning Tower”, as well as a baptistery intended for baptism. All buildings of the ensemble are distinguished by their severity and harmony of forms. Another magnificent monument is the Church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which has a simple yet impressive façade.
In Germany, Romanesque architecture develops under the influence of French and Italian. Its peak flourished in the 12th century. The most remarkable cathedrals were concentrated in the cities of the Middle Rhine: Worms. Mainz and Speyer. Despite all the differences, in their appearance a lot of common features, and above all, the upward thrust created by the high towers located on the western and eastern sides. The cathedral in Worms stands out in particular; it looks like a ship: in the center there is the largest tower, in the east it has a protruding semicircle of the apse, and in the western and eastern parts there are four more tall towers.
By the beginning of the 13th century. The Romanesque period of medieval culture ends and gives way to the Gothic period. The term “Gothic” is also conventional. It arose during the Renaissance and expressed a rather contemptuous attitude towards Gothic as the culture and art of the Goths, i.e. barbarians.
Scientific and creative activity moves from monasteries to secular workshops and universities, which already exist in almost all European countries. By this time, religion begins to gradually lose its dominant position. In all areas of social life, the role of the secular, rational principle is increasing. This process did not pass by art, in which two important features emerged - the increasing role of rationalistic elements and the strengthening of realistic tendencies. These features were most clearly manifested in the architecture of the Gothic style.
Gothic architecture represents the organic unity of two components - construction and decoration. The essence of the Gothic design is to create a special frame, or skeleton, that ensures the strength and stability of the building. If in Romanesque architecture the stability of a building depends on the massiveness of the walls, then in Gothic architecture it depends on the correct distribution of gravity forces. The Gothic design includes three main elements: 1) a vault on ribs (arches) of a lancet shape;
) a system of so-called flying buttresses (half-arches); 3) powerful buttresses.
The originality of the external forms of the Gothic structure lies in the use of towers with pointed spiers. As for the decor, it took the most various shapes. Since the walls in Gothic style ceased to be load-bearing, this made it possible to widely use windows and doors with stained glass windows, which allowed free access of light into the room. This circumstance was extremely important for Christianity, because it gives light a divine and mystical meaning. Colored stained glass windows evoke an exciting play of colored light in the interior of Gothic cathedrals. Along with stained glass windows, Gothic buildings were decorated with sculptures, reliefs, abstract geometric patterns, and floral patterns. To this should be added the skillful church utensils of the cathedral, beautiful products applied arts, donated by wealthy citizens. All this turned the Gothic cathedral into a place of genuine synthesis of all types and genres of art.
France became the cradle of Gothic. Here she was born in the second half of the 12th century. and then for three centuries it developed along the path of increasing lightness and decorativeness. In the 13th century. she has reached her true peak.
In the XIV century. the increase in decorativeness comes mainly due to the clarity and clarity of the constructive principle, which leads to the appearance of a “radiant” Gothic style. The 15th century gives birth to “flaming” Gothic, so named because some decorative motifs resemble flames.
Notre Dame Cathedral of Paris XII-XIII centuries. became a true masterpiece of early Gothic (Appendix 2). It is a five-nave basilica, which is distinguished by a rare proportionality of structural forms. The cathedral has two towers in the western part, decorated with stained glass windows, sculptures on the facades, and columns in the arcades. It also has amazing acoustics. What was achieved in the Cathedral of Notre Dame is developed by the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), as well as the Upper Church of Sainte-Chapelle (XIII century), which served as a church for the French kings and is distinguished by rare perfection of forms.
In Germany, Gothic style became widespread under the influence of France. One of the most famous monuments here is the Cologne Cathedral of the 13th - 15th centuries. (adj.2) . In general, he develops the concept of Amiens Cathedral. At the same time, thanks to the pointed towers, it most clearly and fully expresses the verticalism and skyward thrust of Gothic structures.
English Gothic also largely continues French models. The recognized masterpieces here are Westminster Abbey (XIII-XVI centuries), where the tomb of the English kings and outstanding people England: as well as the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (XV-XVI centuries), representing late Gothic.
Late Gothic, like the entire culture of the late Middle Ages, contains an ever-increasing number of features of the next era - the Renaissance. There is debate about the work of such artists as Jan van Eyck, K. Sluter and others: some authors attribute them to the Middle Ages, others to the Renaissance.
Conclusion
The Middle Ages in Western Europe were a time of intense spiritual life, a complex and difficult search for ideological constructs that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of the previous millennia. In this era, people were able to take a new path of cultural development, different from what they knew in previous times. Trying to reconcile faith and reason, building a picture of the world on the basis of the knowledge available to them and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban way of life, a new economy, and prepared people's consciousness for the use of mechanical devices and technology. The Middle Ages left us with the most important achievements of spiritual culture, including institutions of scientific knowledge and education. Among them we should mention, first of all, the university as a principle. In addition, a new paradigm of thinking arose, a disciplinary structure of knowledge without which modern science would have been impossible, people were able to think and understand the world much more effectively than before.
The culture of the Middle Ages, despite all the ambiguity of its content, occupies a worthy place in the history of world culture. The Renaissance gave the Middle Ages a very critical and harsh assessment. However, subsequent eras made significant amendments to this assessment. Romanticism of the 18th-19th centuries. drew his inspiration from medieval chivalry, seeing in it truly human ideals and values. Women of all subsequent eras, including ours, experience an inescapable nostalgia for real male knights, for knightly nobility, generosity and courtesy. The modern crisis of spirituality encourages us to turn to the experience of the Middle Ages, again and again to solve the eternal problem of the relationship between spirit and flesh.
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Annex 1
Basilica of Our Lady of Clermont-Ferrand, 12th century. Cluny Abbey Cathedral of the 11th century.
Appendix 2
Early Gothic
Notre Dame Cathedral
(Nort-Dame de Paris) XIII century. Cologne Cathedral of the 13th century.
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The Middle Ages in the history of Western Europe span more than a millennium - from the 5th to the 16th centuries. In this period, the stages of the early (V-IX centuries), mature, or classical (X-XIII centuries) and late (XIV-XVI centuries) Middle Ages are usually distinguished. From the point of view of socio-economic relations, this period corresponds to feudalism.
Until recently, the Middle Ages was often perceived as something dark and gloomy, filled with violence and cruelty. bloody wars and passions. It was associated with a certain savagery and backwardness, stagnation or failure in history, with a complete absence of anything bright and joyful.
Creating an image "Dark Middle Ages" The representatives of this era themselves contributed in many ways, and above all writers, poets, historians, religious thinkers and statesmen. In their works, writings and testimonies, they often painted a rather gloomy picture of their contemporary life. In their descriptions there is no optimism and joy of being, no satisfaction from life, no desire to improve the existing world, no hope for the possibility of achieving happiness, peace and well-being in it.
On the contrary, there is deep pessimism, complaints are constantly heard about life, which brings only disasters and suffering, the motive of fear of it and fatigue prevails, a feeling of defenselessness and deprivation is expressed, a feeling of the approaching end of the world, etc. Hence special attention to the theme of death, which acts as a way to get rid of the unbearable hardships of life. Medieval authors write about a sincere desire to quickly leave this mortal earthly world and go to the other world, where only it is possible to achieve happiness, bliss and peace.
To an even greater extent, poets, writers, philosophers and thinkers contributed to the creation of the image of the “dark Middle Ages” . It was they who declared the Middle Ages a “dark night” in the history of mankind, and the Renaissance that followed it as a “dawn”, a “bright day”, an awakening to life after a thousand years of hibernation.
The Middle Ages for them appeared as completely fruitless, wasted centuries. They also accused the Middle Ages of only destroying and not preserving anything of the great achievements of ancient culture. From here followed the logical conclusion about the complete rejection of the Middle Ages and the revival of Antiquity, about the restoration of the interrupted connection of times.
In fact, everything was much more complicated, not so simple, unambiguous and monochromatic. Recently, views and assessments of the Middle Ages have become more and more adequate and objective, although some authors go to the other extreme, idealizing the Middle Ages.
In the Middle Ages, as in other eras, complex and contradictory processes took place on the European continent, one of the main results of which was the emergence of European states and the entire West in its modern form. Of course, the leader of world history and culture in this era was not western world, and semi-eastern Byzantium and eastern China, however, important events also took place in the Western world. As for the relationship between ancient and medieval cultures, in certain areas (science, philosophy, art) the Middle Ages were inferior to Antiquity, but overall it meant undoubted progress.
It turned out to be the most difficult and stormy stage of the early Middle Ages, when the new, Western world was born. Its emergence was due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (5th century), which in turn was caused by its deep internal crisis, as well as the Great Migration of Peoples, or the invasion of barbarian tribes - the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, etc. From IV to IX centuries. there was a transition from the “Roman world” to the “Christian world”, with which Western Europe arose.
The Western, “Christian world” was born not as a result of the destruction of the “Roman world”, but in the process of merging the Roman and barbarian worlds, although it was accompanied by serious costs - destruction, violence and cruelty, the loss of many important achievements of ancient culture and civilization. In particular, the previously achieved level of statehood was seriously damaged, since those that arose in the 6th century. barbarian states - the kingdoms of the Visigoths (Spain), the Ostrogoths (northern Italy), the Franks (France), the Anglo-Saxon kingdom (England) - were fragile and therefore short-lived.
The most powerful of them was the Frankish state, founded at the end of the 5th century. King Clovis and transformed under Charlemagne (800) into a huge empire, which, however, by the middle of the 9th century. also broke up. However, at the stage of the mature Middle Ages (X-XI centuries) all the main European states took shape - England, Germany, France, Spain, Italy - in their modern form.
Many ancient cities were also seriously damaged: some of them were destroyed, while others faded away due to the decline of trade or due to changes in the directions of trade routes. At the early stage of the Middle Ages, the level of development of many crafts dropped noticeably, and the entire economy became agrarian, in which the subsistence type of economy predominated. A certain stagnation was observed in the development of science and philosophy.
At the same time, in some areas of life, already at the early stage of the Middle Ages, there were progressive changes. IN social development The main positive change was the abolition of slavery, which eliminated the unnatural situation in which a huge part of people were legally and actually excluded from the category of people.
If theoretical knowledge successfully developed in Antiquity, the Middle Ages opened up more scope for applications of machines and technical inventions. This was a direct consequence of the abolition of slavery. In Antiquity, the main source of energy was the muscular power of slaves. When this source disappeared, the question arose about searching for other sources. Therefore, already in the 6th century. Water energy begins to be used thanks to the use of a water wheel, and in the 12th century. A windmill using wind energy appears.
Water and windmills made it possible to carry out the most different types works: grinding grain, sifting flour, raising water for irrigation, felting and beating cloth in water, sawing logs, using a mechanical hammer in a forge, drawing wire, etc. The invention of the steering wheel accelerated the progress of water transport, which in turn led to a revolution in trade. The development of trade was also facilitated by the construction of canals and the use of sluices with gates.
Positive changes occurred in other areas of culture. Most of them were somehow related to , which formed the foundation of the entire way of medieval life and permeated all its aspects. It proclaimed the equality of all people before God, which greatly contributed to the elimination of slavery.
Antiquity strove for the ideal of a person in which soul and body would be in harmony. However, the body was much more fortunate in realizing this ideal, especially if we keep in mind Roman culture. Taking into account the bitter lessons of Roman society, in which a peculiar cult of physical pleasures and pleasures had developed, Christianity gave clear preference to the soul, the spiritual principle in man. It calls a person to self-restraint in everything, to voluntary asceticism, to suppress the sensual, physical attractions of the body.
Proclaiming the unconditional primacy of the spiritual over the physical, placing emphasis on the inner world of man, Christianity did a lot to form a person’s deep spirituality and his moral elevation.
Main moral values Christianity are faith, hope and love. They are closely related to each other and transform into one another. However, the main one among them is Love, which means, first of all, a spiritual connection and love for God and which is opposed to physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and base. At the same time, Christian love extends to all “neighbors,” including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: “Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you.”
Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, not requiring any effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally turns into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of salvation, which is central to many religions.
In Christianity, this idea has several meanings: salvation from evil in earthly life in this world, deliverance from the fate of going to hell in the future Last Judgment, stay in paradise in the other world as a fair reward for faith and love. Not everyone will be worthy of salvation, but only the righteous. who strictly follows the commandments of Christ. Among commandments - suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil by violence, demands not to kill, not to take what belongs to others, not to commit adultery, to honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torment of hell.
The dominance of religion did not make the culture completely homogeneous. On the contrary, one of the important features of medieval culture is precisely the emergence in it of very specific subcultures, caused by the strict division of society into three classes: the clergy, the feudal aristocracy and the third estate.
Clergy was considered the highest class, it was divided into white - the priesthood - and black - monasticism. He was in charge of “heavenly matters”, caring for faith and spiritual life. It was precisely this, especially monasticism, that most fully embodied Christian ideals and values. However, it was also far from unity, as evidenced by the differences in the understanding of Christianity between the orders that existed in monasticism.
Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order, opposed the extremes of hermitage, abstinence and asceticism, was quite tolerant of property and wealth, highly valued physical wealth, especially agriculture and gardening, believing that the monastic community should not only fully provide itself with everything necessary, but also help in this entire district, showing an example of active Christian charity. Some communities of this order highly valued education and encouraged not only physical, but also mental work, in particular the development of agronomic and medical knowledge.
On the contrary, Francis of Assisi - the founder of the Franciscan Order, the order of mendicant monks - called for extreme asceticism, preached complete, holy poverty, because the ownership of any property requires its protection, i.e. the use of force, and this contradicts the moral principles of Christianity. He saw the ideal of complete poverty and carelessness in the life of birds.
The second most important layer was aristocracy, which acted mainly in the form of chivalry. The aristocracy was in charge of “earthly matters,” and, above all, state tasks to preserve and strengthen peace, protect the people from oppression, maintain the faith and the Church, etc. Although the culture of this layer is closely related to Christianity, it differs significantly from the culture of the clergy.
Like monastics, in the Middle Ages there were knightly orders. One of the main tasks facing them was the struggle for faith, which more than once took the form of crusades. Knights also carried out other duties, to one degree or another related to faith.
However, a significant part of knightly ideals, norms and values were secular in nature. For a knight, such virtues as strength, courage, generosity and nobility were considered mandatory. He had to strive for glory, performing feats of arms or achieving success in knightly tournaments for the sake of this. He was also required to have external physical beauty, which was at odds with the Christian disdain for the body. The main knightly virtues were honor, fidelity to duty and noble love for the Beautiful Lady. Love for a Lady presupposed refined aesthetic forms, but it was not at all platonic, which was also condemned by the Church and the clergy.
The lowest stratum of medieval society was third estate, which included peasants, artisans, and the trading and usurious bourgeoisie. The culture of this class also had a unique originality that sharply distinguished it from the culture of the upper classes. It was in it that the elements of barbaric paganism and idolatry were preserved for the longest time.
Ordinary people were not too scrupulous in observing strict Christian frameworks; they quite often mixed the “divine” with the “human.” They knew how to sincerely and carefreely rejoice and have fun, giving themselves to this with all their soul and body. The common people created a special laughter culture, the originality of which was especially clearly manifested during folk holidays and carnivals, when the seething streams of general fun, jokes and games, bursts of laughter leave no room for anything official, serious and lofty.
Along with religion, other areas of spiritual culture existed and developed in the Middle Ages, including philosophy and science. The highest medieval science was theology, or theology. It was theology that possessed the truth, which rested on Divine Revelation.
Philosophy was declared the handmaiden of theology. But even under these conditions, philosophical thought moved forward. Two trends can be distinguished in its development.
The first sought to bring together as much as possible and even dissolve philosophy in theology. This philosophy is called scholastics, since its main task was not the search and increment of new knowledge, but the “school” development of what had already been accumulated. However, this approach brought tangible benefits, thanks to it, the heritage of ancient thinkers was preserved, it contributed to the improvement and deepening logical thinking. At the same time, theology itself became more and more rational: it was not content with simple faith in the dogmas of religion, but sought to logically substantiate and prove them. One of the main representatives of this trend was the Dominican Thomas Aquinas (13th century). who developed the Christian concept of Aristotle's philosophy, formulated five proofs of the existence of God.
The second tendency, on the contrary, sought to take philosophy beyond the scope of theology, to assert the independence and intrinsic value of science in general and natural science in particular. A prominent representative of this trend was the Franciscan Roger Bacon (13th century). who made significant contributions to the development of philosophy, mathematics and natural science. We can say that he did the same thing three centuries earlier than his more famous namesake Francis Bacon, who became the founder modern science and philosophy.
Fine achieved more significant successes in the Middle Ages art culture, where architecture was the leading and synthesizing art.
The evolution of medieval art marked by profound changes. IN early Middle Ages The leading position is occupied by the art of the Franks, since the Frankish state occupied almost the entire territory of Europe during this period. Art of the V-VIII centuries. often called Merovingian art, since the Merovingian dynasty was in power at that time.
By its nature, this art was still barbaric, pre-Christian, for elements of paganism and idolatry clearly predominated in it. The greatest development during this period was naturalart, associated with the manufacture of clothing, weapons, horse harness and other products decorated with buckles, pendants, patterns and ornaments. The style of such jewelry is called animalistic, since its peculiarity is that images of strange animals are woven into intricate patterns.
Also becoming widespread miniature - book illustrations. The monasteries had special workshops - “scriptoria”, where books - liturgical books and Gospels - were written and decorated. Books of secular content were rare. The miniatures were primarily ornamental rather than pictorial in nature.
As for architecture, little has survived from the Frankish architects of this time: several small churches on the territory of modern France. In general, among the earliest surviving monuments of barbarian architecture, the tomb of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric (520-530), built in Ravenna, stands out. It is a small two-story round building in which laconicism and simplicity of appearance are combined with severity and majesty.
The art of the early Middle Ages reached its greatest flowering under the Carolingians (8th-9th centuries), who replaced the Merovingian dynasty, and especially under Charlemagne, the legendary hero of the epic poem “The Song of Roland.”
During this period, medieval art actively turned to the ancient heritage, consistently overcoming the barbaric character. That's why this time is sometimes called "Carolingian Revival". Charlemagne played a special role in this process. He created a real cultural and educational center at his court, calling it Academy, surrounded himself with outstanding scientists, philosophers, poets and artists, with whom he mastered and developed science and art. Karl contributed in every possible way to the restoration of strong ties with ancient culture.
A significant number of architectural monuments have been preserved from the Carolingian era. One of them is the wonderful Charlemagne Cathedral in Aachen (800), which is an octagonal structure covered with an octagonal dome.
In this era, book miniatures continue to develop successfully. which is distinguished by decorative pomp and bright colors, generous use of gold and purple. The content of the miniatures remains mainly religious, although at the end of the early Middle Ages narrative subjects are increasingly encountered: hunting, plowing, etc. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the formation of England and France. In Germany and Italy, as independent states, medieval art entered a new era.
Start mature period of the Middle Ages- The 10th century turned out to be extremely difficult and difficult, which was caused by the invasions of the Hungarians, Saracens and especially the Normans. Therefore, the emerging new states experienced a deep crisis and decline. Art was in the same situation. However, by the end of the 10th century. the situation is gradually normalizing, feudal relations are finally winning, and revival and growth are observed in all spheres of life, including art.
In the XI-XII centuries. The role of monasteries, which become the main centers of culture, increases significantly. It is under them that schools, libraries and book workshops are created. Monasteries are the main customers of works of art. Therefore, all the culture and art of these centuries is sometimes called monastic.
In general, the stage of the new rise of art received the conventional name "Romanesque period". It occurs in the 11th-12th centuries, although in Italy and Germany it also extends to the 13th century, and in France in the second half of the 12th century. Gothic already reigns supreme. In this period architecture finally becoming the leading form of art - with a clear predominance of religious, church and temple buildings. It develops on the basis of the achievements of the Carolingians, being influenced by ancient and Byzantine architecture. The main type of building is the increasingly complex basilica.
The essence of the Romanesque style is geometricism, the dominance of vertical and horizontal lines, the simplest figures of geometry in the presence of large planes. Arches are widely used in buildings, and windows and doors are made narrow. The appearance of the building is distinguished by clarity and simplicity, majesty and severity, which are complemented by severity and sometimes gloom. Columns without stable orders are often used, which also perform a decorative rather than constructive function.
The Romanesque style was most widespread in France. Here, the most outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Church of Cluny (11th century), as well as the Church of Notre-Dame du Port in Clermont-Ferrand (12th century). Both buildings successfully combine simplicity and grace, severity and splendor.
Secular architecture of the Romanesque style is clearly inferior to church architecture. Its shape is too simple and there are almost no decorative ornaments. Here the main type of building is a castle-fortress, which serves both as a home and a defensive shelter for the feudal knight. Most often this is a courtyard with a tower in the center. The appearance of such a structure looks warlike and wary, gloomy and threatening. An example of such a building is the castle of Chateau Gaillard on the Seine (XII century), which has reached us in ruins.
In Italy, a wonderful monument of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XII-XIV centuries). It includes a grandiose five-nave basilica with a flat roof, the famous "Falling tower", as well as a baptistery intended for baptisms. All buildings of the ensemble are distinguished by their severity and harmony of forms. Another magnificent monument is the Church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which has a simple yet impressive façade.
IN Germany Romanesque architecture develops under the influence of French and Italian. Its peak flourished in the 12th century. The most remarkable cathedrals were concentrated in the cities of the Middle Rhine: Worms. Mainz and Speyer. Despite all the differences, their appearance has many common features, and above all, the upward direction created by the high towers located on the western and eastern sides. The cathedral in Worms stands out in particular; it looks like a ship: in the center there is the largest tower, in the east it has a protruding semicircle of the apse, and in the western and eastern parts there are four more tall towers.
By the beginning of the 13th century. the Romanesque period of medieval culture ends and gives way Gothic period. The term “Gothic” is also conventional. It arose during the Renaissance and expressed a rather contemptuous attitude towards Gothic as the culture and art of the Goths, i.e. barbarians.
In the 13th century. the city, and with it the entire culture of the urban burghers, began to play a decisive role in the life of medieval society. Scientific and creative activity is moving from monasteries to secular workshops and universities, which already exist in almost all European countries. By this time, religion begins to gradually lose its dominant position. In all areas of social life, the role of the secular, rational principle is increasing. This process did not pass by art, in which two important features emerged - the increasing role of rationalistic elements and the strengthening of realistic tendencies. These features were most clearly manifested in the architecture of the Gothic style.
Gothic architecture represents an organic unity of two components - design and decor. The essence of the Gothic design is to create a special frame, or skeleton, that ensures the strength and stability of the building. If in Romanesque architecture the stability of a building depends on the massiveness of the walls, then in Gothic architecture it depends on the correct distribution of gravity forces. The Gothic design includes three main elements: 1) a vault on ribs (arches) of a lancet shape; 2) a system of so-called flying buttresses (half-arches); 3) powerful buttresses.
The originality of the external forms of the Gothic structure lies in the use of towers with pointed spiers. As for decoration, it took a variety of forms. Since the walls in Gothic style ceased to be load-bearing, this made it possible to widely use windows and doors with stained glass windows, which allowed free access of light into the room. This circumstance was extremely important for Christianity, because it gives light a divine and mystical meaning. Colored stained glass windows evoke an exciting play of colored light in the interior of Gothic cathedrals.
Along with stained glass windows, Gothic buildings were decorated with sculptures, reliefs, abstract geometric patterns, and floral patterns. To this should be added the skillful church utensils of the cathedral, beautiful items of applied art donated by wealthy townspeople. All this turned the Gothic cathedral into a place of genuine synthesis of all types and genres of art.
Became the cradle of Gothic France. Here she was born in the second half of the 12th century. and then for three centuries it developed along the path of increasing lightness and decorativeness. In the 13th century. she has reached her true peak. In the XIV century. the increase in decorativeness comes mainly due to the clarity and clarity of the constructive principle, which leads to the appearance of a “radiant” Gothic style. The 15th century gives birth to “flaming” Gothic, so named because some decorative motifs resemble flames.
Notre Dame Cathedral(XII-XIII centuries) became a true masterpiece of early Gothic. It is a five-nave basilica, which is distinguished by a rare proportionality of structural forms. The cathedral has two towers in the western part, decorated with stained glass windows, sculptures on the facades, and columns in the arcades. It also has amazing acoustics. What was achieved in the Cathedral of Notre Dame is developed by the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), as well as the Upper Church of Sainte-Chapelle (XIII century), which served as a church for the French kings and is distinguished by rare perfection of forms.
IN Germany Gothic style became widespread under the influence of France. One of the most famous monuments here is Cathedral in Cologne(XI11-XV. XIX centuries). In general, he develops the concept of Amiens Cathedral. At the same time, thanks to the pointed towers, it most clearly and fully expresses the verticalism and skyward thrust of Gothic structures.
English Gothic also largely continues French models. The recognized masterpieces here are Westminster Abbey(XIII-XVI centuries), where the tomb of English kings and prominent people of England is located: as well as the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (XV-XVI centuries), representing late Gothic.
Late Gothic, like the entire culture of the late Middle Ages, contains an ever-increasing number of features of the next era - the Renaissance. There are disputes about the work of such artists as Jan van Eyck, K. Sluter and others: some authors attribute them to the Middle Ages, others to the Renaissance.
The culture of the Middle Ages - with all the ambiguity of its content - occupies a worthy place in the history of world culture. The Renaissance gave the Middle Ages a very critical and harsh assessment. However, subsequent eras made significant amendments to this assessment. Romanticism of the 18th-19th centuries. drew his inspiration from medieval chivalry, seeing in it truly human ideals and values. Women of all subsequent eras, including ours, experience an inescapable nostalgia for real male knights, for knightly nobility, generosity and courtesy. The modern crisis of spirituality encourages us to turn to the experience of the Middle Ages, again and again to solve the eternal problem of the relationship between spirit and flesh.
Culturologists call the Middle Ages a long period in the history of Western Europe between Antiquity and Modern Times. This period spans more than a millennium from the 5th to the 15th centuries.
Folk culture this era is a new and almost unexplored topic in science. The ideologists of feudal society managed not only to push the people away from the means of recording their thoughts and moods, but also to deprive researchers of subsequent times of the opportunity to restore the main features of their spiritual life. “The great dumb”, “the great absentee”, “people without archives and without faces” - this is what modern historians call the people in an era when direct access to the means of recording cultural values in writing was denied. The folk culture of the Middle Ages was unlucky in science. Usually, when they talk about it, they mention at most the remnants of the ancient world and epic, the remnants of paganism.
Early Middle Ages - from the end of the 4th century. The “great migration of peoples” began. Wherever the rule of Rome took deeper roots, “Romanization” captured all areas of culture: the dominant language was Latin, the dominant law was Roman law, the dominant religion was Christianity. The barbarian peoples who created their states in the ruins of the Roman Empire found themselves either in a Roman or Romanized environment. However, it should be noted the crisis of the culture of the ancient world during the period of the barbarian invasion.
High (classical) Middle Ages- at the first stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), crafts, trade, and city life were poorly developed. Feudal landowners reigned supreme. During the classical period, or high Middle Ages, Western Europe began to overcome difficulties and revive. The so-called knightly literature emerges and develops. One of the most famous works- the greatest monument of the French folk heroic epic - “The Song of Roland”. During this period, the so-called “urban literature” rapidly developed, which was characterized by a realistic depiction of the urban everyday life of various segments of the urban population, as well as the appearance of satirical works. Representatives of urban literature in Italy were Cecco Angiolieri and Guido Orlandi (late 13th century).
Late Middle Ages continued the processes of formation of European culture that began during the classical period. During these periods, uncertainty and fear ruled the masses. Economic growth is followed by long periods of recession and stagnation.
In the Middle Ages, a complex of ideas about the world, beliefs, mental attitudes and systems of behavior, which could conventionally be called “folk culture” or “folk religiosity,” was in one way or another the property of all members of society. The medieval church, wary and suspicious of the customs, faith and religious practices of the common people, was influenced by them. The entire cultural life of European society of this period was largely determined by Christianity.
General characteristics of the culture of the Middle Ages Some consider the beginning of the era of medieval culture to be the division of the Roman Empire in 395 into two states - eastern and western. Others believe that this is the year 476 - the fall of the Roman Empire. There is also an art history term “medieval culture” - from the adoption of Christianity by the Emperor of Rome Constantine as the official religion in 313 and through the 17th century.
When studying the topic, it is necessary to pay attention to the following questions: 1. The Middle Ages includes 3 periods - 3 stages of the development of feudalism (formation, prosperity and decline) The Early Middle Ages dates back to the V - X centuries Mature feudalism - X - the end of the XV century Late Middle Ages - XV - XVII century 2. The spirit of the era: the movement of peoples, the creation of new states, the expansion of trade and cultural ties between Europe and North Africa, the Middle East, the emergence of the first parliaments and constitutions, inventions, European languages. 3. Contradiction in the worldview of the Middle Ages: man is the crown of nature, man is God’s servant. Historical point of view Historical point of view
4. A special place in culture is occupied by such genres of art as architecture and painting. The language of science and the church is Latin. The art of “language in stone” is destiny common people. 5. The role of the church and its influence on the culture of the Middle Ages is very great. The church is the main customer of works of art and serves a religious cult. The plots of the works are of a religious nature: they are images of the other world, the language of symbols and allegories. There is no portrait genre, since it is believed that an ordinary person is not worthy of being depicted. The main genre of painting is the icon. Subjects - lives of saints, images of the Mother of God, Jesus Christ. When studying the topic, you need to pay attention to the following questions:
Comparative characteristics worldviews of man of antiquity and the Middle Ages: Antiquity Middle Ages 1. General harmony of the world 1. Imperfection of the world 2. The special role of the cosmos 2. Denial of eternity, the main role of the creator - the original being 3. Human reason and knowledge of the world are welcomed 3. The original sinfulness of man. Atonement for the sins of mankind by Jesus Christ 4. The search for justice 4. Faith and loyalty are the main qualities of man 5. The opportunity to become like gods 5. Fear of Judgment and God's punishment Cultural point of view Cultural point of view
7 Romanesque architecture is accessible to a wide range of feelings. It can be harsh and formidable, pressing on a person with its stone weight. And at the same time, slender, full of air and light, tender and cold. It is characterized by a desire for complete integrity, rigor and simplicity, the absence of decoration and ornament. Its characteristic element is the arched shape of door and window openings.
Features of architecture Romanesque style The term "Romanesque style" appeared in the 19th century from the concept - "Romanesque languages." They are based on Latin - the language of the ancient Romans. The period that covers the Romanesque style is X - XII centuries. This is the first great style in art. Stages of development of Romanesque art: - Pre-Romanesque centuries - Romanesque centuries Main types of buildings: - feudal castle - monastery ensemble - temple
The main features of the construction of castles: - the castle is a product of the feudal era, the period of fragmentation, wars, raids. For self-defense purposes, the castle was built as a fortress. - heavy, gloomy grandeur - jagged top - three-story towers - moat - huge gates on chains - bridge - Donjons - high rectangular towers, under which there were underground storerooms, quarters for servants and guards. Choice of construction site: hill or elevated place, river slope.
Gothic style "Gothic" - the term was introduced by Renaissance humanists, who considered everything that was not antique to be negative and barbaric. The Goths, who disappeared as a people among the Italians, Germans, and Spaniards, have nothing to do with the name. Gothic style is the second great style of the Middle Ages. It originated in France and dominated from the 12th to the 16th centuries.
A Gothic church (cathedral) can be immediately recognized by its pointed arches (pointed upward), window arches, and doorways. Churches no longer look like fortresses; they easily rise to the sky, as if they were not made of stone at all. The windows are lined with colored glass - stained glass and take up so much space that there are almost no walls left. The vaults are supported by pillars covered with semi-columns, resembling bundles of stems.
In late Gothic, drawings of stained glass windows, sculptures, “stone” ornaments, and ceiling carvings became increasingly more complex. They often remind the most complex patterns lace. I can't even believe that all this is made of stone.
Features of the applied art of the Middle Ages The artistic craft was the most developed. They richly decorated even household items. Wicker patterns were used especially generously. It consisted of an endless strip, the interlacing of which filled the entire surface of the object. Between the weavings were images of animals and people, distorted and simplified, or stylized.
At that time, painting occupied a special place in the book. In monasteries, monks copied the Bible and other sacred books. They were written on parchment - specially treated skin of lambs and kids. Copying one book could take a lifetime. These books were considered of great value and were kept in the monastery treasuries. The pictures in the books are called miniatures due to the use of “minimal” red paint and their small size.
The main forms of painting are monumental temple painting - mosaic and fresco, icon painting, book miniatures Mosaic - complex technology folding a picture from multi-colored pieces of smalt (an alloy of glass with mineral paints). Here the angle of incidence of light was precisely calculated, the surface of the mosaic was made slightly rough. Mosaic is a complex technique of folding a picture from multi-colored pieces of smalt (an alloy of glass with mineral paints). Here the angle of incidence of light was precisely calculated, the surface of the mosaic was made slightly rough. Stained glass is a painting made from pieces of multi-colored glass, special role played by the angle of incidence of light. The color gave a unique color to the entire room of the temple. We used blue, red, yellow colors. The image was flat, without shadows, themes on religious subjects, which were instructive in nature. Stained glass is a picturesque canvas made of pieces of multi-colored glass; the angle of incidence of light played a special role. The color gave a unique color to the entire room of the temple. Blue, red, yellow colors were used. The image was flat, without shadows, themes on religious subjects, which were instructive in nature.
Features of medieval sculpture Medieval sculpture has its own characteristics - images of saints are devoid of canon, simple faces, images of real people, fantastic creatures, forces of evil (asps) decorated temples. The reliefs depicted biblical events and legendary scenes from the lives of saints. In addition to decorating churches, the reliefs had another purpose. Ordinary people in those days were illiterate, and for their enlightenment they created a “bible of the poor” from stone.
From the history of medieval theater, the theatrical action was called a mystery. The action began with a prologue. The priest read the prologue. Climbing onto the wooden stage, he addressed the noisy audience that filled the city square, asking them to shut up and listen to the pious story. The priest solemnly told the biblical legend, then praised God and promised to pray for those who would listen carefully and not interfere with the actors doing their job. The theatrical action was called a mystery. The action began with a prologue. The priest read the prologue. Climbing onto the wooden stage, he addressed the noisy audience that filled the city square, asking them to shut up and listen to the pious story. The priest solemnly told the biblical legend, then praised God and promised to pray for those who would listen carefully and not interfere with the actors doing their job.
On the stage of a medieval theater: God came onto the stage and performed his miracles one after another, Adam and Eve appeared in paradise, the Serpent crawled out, seduced the ancestors with a forbidden apple, then a formidable angel came out with a sword, expelled Adam and Eve from Paradise, the devils dragged them in hell. Writer GodAdam EveSnake Devil
The spirit of knowledge lived, hidden in a secret elixir, Singing healingly the muddy darkness of centuries. Let life be a continuous struggle of enemies, Let the sword ring in battle and in the tournament, - Let the sword ring in battle and in the tournament, - The alchemist was looking for the stone of the sages, The alchemist was looking for the stone of the sages, The mind became refined in discussions about the vampire, The mind became refined in discussions about the vampire , The theologian tried to know the Creator, The theologian tried to know the Creator, And thought shook the world’s weights... And thought shook the world’s weights... V. Bryusov V. Bryusov Raphael Santi spoke about the Middle Ages like this: “... when Rome was destroyed and burned by the barbarians, it seemed that this fire and this sad devastation, along with the buildings, burned out and destroyed the art of construction itself. ... This cruel and merciless storm of war and devastation has given rise to a manner of painting, sculpture and architecture that is beyond all measure bad and has no value.” “...when Rome was destroyed and burned by the barbarians, it seemed that this fire and this woeful devastation, together with the buildings, burned out and destroyed the art of construction itself. ... This cruel and merciless storm of war and devastation has given rise to a manner of painting, sculpture and architecture that is beyond all measure bad and has no value.”
“There was an extraordinary architecture, Christian, national for Europe - and we left it, forgot it, as if it was alien, neglected it as clumsy. “There was an extraordinary architecture, Christian, national for Europe - and we left it, forgot it, as if it was alien, neglected as clumsy and barbaric. and barbaric. N.V. Gogol N.V. Gogol
Drawbridges, deep ditches, Steep stairs and vaulted halls, Where the wind rustles and groans in the heights, Tells me about battles and feasts... And immersed in a dream of the past, I see again The greatness of chivalry and the splendor of the Middle Ages. Théophile Gautier Théophile Gautier
