Methodology of geographical science. Descriptive, expeditionary and cartographic methods are the first in the history of geography

Introduction

Modern geography is a complex branched system, or “family” of sciences - natural (physical-geographical) and social (economic-geographical), connected by a common origin and common goals. As long as undiscovered lands existed, geography did not face the urgent task of explaining the world. 

A superficial description of the various territories was enough for the study to be considered geographical. But the rapid growth of human economic activity required penetration into the secrets of nature.

The relevance of the topic is due to the need to use the latest research methods to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown.

Purpose of the work: to identify the main directions of development of the latest methods of geography.

The object of the study is the latest methods.

Subject of research: studying the application of the latest methods in solving problems posed by modern geography.

Main goals:

• Analyze the list of modern geographical research methods;
• Describe the method of mathematical modeling and forecasting;
• Reveal the essence of the aerospace and geoinformation method;
• Determine the role and main directions of use and development of the latest methods of geography.

When writing the work, the following methods were used: literature review, method of analysis and synthesis of scientific and methodological literature.

Chapter 1. Modern geographical research

1. Modern research V geography

For a long time, geographers were mainly concerned with describing the nature of the earth's surface, the population and economy of countries. Now there are no places on Earth about the nature and population of which people know absolutely nothing. Researchers have climbed the highest mountains, descended to the bottom of the deepest ocean trenches, seen the Earth from space and taken satellite photographs of its surface. Currently, a significant part of the earth's surface has been developed by humanity. Nature and man, his life and activity are closely connected and depend on each other.

But even now there are white spots on Earth waiting to be discovered. True, now the unknown belongs more to the sphere of explanation, rather than description of objects and phenomena. If in the past a geographical discovery meant the first visit to a particular object (continent, island, strait, mountain peak, etc.) by representatives of peoples who had writing and were able to characterize this object or put it on a map, now a geographical discovery is understood not only territorial, but also theoretical discovery in the field of geography, the establishment of new geographical patterns.

Modern geography plays a very important role in solving the problems of the development of our planet. A holistic system of geographical science provides constant monitoring of the current state of nature, takes part in the development of a system of measures to combat the negative consequences of human impact on nature, and also makes forecasts for changes and development of territorial production complexes. It is absolutely impossible to make a real forecast of changes in nature without taking into account data on human economic activity and its impact on nature. It is also impossible to determine the development policy of a region without taking into account the characteristics of its population and nature. Solving these problems necessarily requires the introduction of modern research methods.
Our human society has entered a period of dominance of microelectronics, biotechnology and computer science, which are radically transforming all agricultural and industrial production.

The economic activity of people has grown so much that it has become noticeable throughout the entire Earth. The use of natural resources has become very rapid and on a huge scale. Walking around the planet, people often leave unpleasant traces: cut down forests, depleted soils, poisoned rivers, polluted air. But human living conditions become unfavorable and sometimes harmful to health.

Therefore, now the primary task of geography is to predict changes in nature as a result of diverse human intervention in it.

In our time, geography is no longer the same as it used to be, a predominantly descriptive science, where the main object of research was then unknown lands and countries. “The times of so-called “romantic” geography are gone forever. Man came, traveled, sailed almost the entirety of our, as it turned out, not a very large planet and, moreover, now constantly inspects it from space. Therefore, modern geography seems to be experiencing its new birth. The place of the former descriptiveness in it has been firmly taken, so to speak, by constructiveness and predictability, because The development of production and profound socio-economic transformations in the world have forced scientists to radically reconsider their views on the very essence of this science, its goals, objectives, and research methods.”1

Our science now faces new tasks: to understand the interaction of nature and human activity. Nowadays, geography studies nature with the aim of preserving it in the process of economic use, which is especially important during the period of the scientific and technological revolution.

The efforts of many geographers in our time are aimed at studying environmental problems.

Modern geography is increasingly turning into a science of an experimental and transformative nature. She plays an important role in the development of the largest general scientific problem of the relationship between nature and society. The scientific and technological revolution, which has caused a sharp increase in human impact on natural and production processes, urgently requires taking this impact under strict scientific control, which means, first of all, the ability to foresee the behavior of geosystems, and ultimately, the ability to manage them at all levels, starting with the local (for example, the territories of large cities and their suburbs) and regional, ending with the planetary, i.e., the geographic envelope as a whole.

So, the tasks and goals of modern geography determine the need for further development of the theory of natural and industrial territorial complexes and their interaction using the latest achievements and research methods, among which such methods as mathematical modeling and forecasting, aerospace and geoinformation methods come to the fore.

1. The role of methods in modern geography

Research methods in geography today remain the same as before. However, this does not mean that they do not undergo changes. The latest methods of geographical research are appearing, allowing us to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown. But before considering these innovations, it is necessary to understand the usual classification.

For many centuries, geographers have carried out research that was carried out using certain methods and techniques.

Different classifications of geographical research methods can be considered, for example, according to V.P. Maksakovsky, V.S. Zhekulin. Classification of methods by V.P. Maksakovsky includes such methods as general geographic (description, cartographic, comparative geographic, quantitative, mathematical, modeling, aerospace (remote), geoinformation) and specific geographic (methods of physical and economic geography). Another author is V.S. Zhekulin considers not groups of methods, but particular methods of geographical research: explanation based on modeling, experiment, analysis and synthesis, and others.2

There are also other classifications of methods used in geographical research: classification of methods according to their essence, time of occurrence and principle of application. According to the time of occurrence, they are distinguished: traditional, new and newest.

It is the latest research methods - mathematical modeling and forecasting, aerospace and geoinformation methods that come to the fore. This is due to the fact that our science now faces new tasks: to understand the interaction of nature and human activity. Modern geography is increasingly turning into a science of an experimental and transformative nature. She plays an important role in the development of the largest general scientific problem of the relationship between nature and society.

It is hardly legitimate to begin developing recommendations for optimizing the natural environment for a more or less long term without imagining in advance how geosystems will behave in the future due to their inherent natural dynamic tendencies and under the influence of technogenic factors. In other words, it is necessary to draw up a geographical forecast, the purpose of which is to develop ideas about the natural geographical systems of the future. Perhaps the most powerful evidence of the constructive character of geography must lie in the ability of scientific foresight.

At the same time, geographical research uses, first of all, successive connections of a temporal, spatial and genetic nature, since it is precisely these connections that are characterized by causality - the most important element in predicting events and phenomena even of a high degree of randomness and probability. In turn, complexity and probabilistic nature are specific features of geoforecasting.

Currently, modeling, in particular mathematical modeling, is increasingly being used to develop forecasts. It is necessary to create adequate predictive models of the objects, phenomena and processes being studied.

Modeling allows us to identify the causality of system parameters and give a functional, point and interval assessment of them.
The use of modeling for forecasting purposes is an extremely complex process. It is based on a large amount of information and requires adaptation of the existing mathematical apparatus for specific forecasting purposes and the involvement of specialists in various fields (mathematicians, programmers, geographers, economists, sociologists, etc.).

“Mathematical-geographical modeling is an important tool in approaches to solving one of the most pressing problems of modern geography—the problem of studying and managing the environment.”3 This problem requires a formalized idea of ​​the environment, and such formalization is provided by modeling based on a systems approach. In this case, the environment is usually displayed in the form of models of geosystems, expressed in the language of mathematics. The most effective models are those created on the basis of information modeling, which involves a parametric representation of geoinformation for the purpose of its further automated processing in control systems.

The essence of the modeling and forecasting method is to study any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Consequently, when modeling, the studied object, phenomenon, process is replaced by another auxiliary or artificial system. The patterns and trends identified during the modeling process are then applied to reality. Modeling facilitates and simplifies research, makes it less labor-intensive and   more visual. In addition, it provides the key to the knowledge of objects that cannot be directly measured (for example, the Earth's core).

Aerial methods include visual observation methods carried out from aircraft. But aerial photography plays a much larger role. Its main type is aerial photography, which has been widely used since the 30s and today remains the main method of topographic survey. It is also used in landscape research. In addition to conventional photography, thermal, radar, and multispectral aerial photography are used.

Space methods include primarily visual observations - direct observations of the state of the atmosphere, the earth's surface, and ground objects, which were and are being carried out since the beginning of the space age.

Following visual observations, space photography and television photography began, and then more complex types of space photography - spectrometric, radiometric, radar, thermal, etc. - became widespread.

The main features and advantages of space photography include, first of all, the enormous visibility of space images, the high speed of receiving and transmitting information, the ability to repeat images of the same objects and territories many times, which allows you to analyze the dynamics of processes.

As for information processing, at first this was done using punched cards, then the first computers appeared, geographic information data banks based on the use of computer storage devices arose, completely new geoinformation technologies began to be introduced, and information was provided in text, graphic, and cartographic forms , including using electronic networks, e-mail, electronic maps and atlases.

The development of geoinformatics led to the creation of geographic information systems. A geographic information system (GIS) is a complex of interconnected means of obtaining, storing, processing, selecting data and issuing geographic information. Nowadays, hundreds and thousands of geographic information systems are already operating in the world, and yet this is only the initial period of their formation. On the basis of GIS, new types of texts and images are developed and introduced into scientific circulation.
Since all the methods that we will consider are used for the purposes of geographical research, they all study spatial or spatiotemporal relationships. Sometimes this is done implicitly, such as the use of mathematical methods to study the relationships between geographic phenomena.

So, we can say that the entire diverse set of new methods for studying the geographical shell significantly contributes to the advancement of our knowledge about the processes occurring in it, contributes to the development of the theory of geographical science, and the knowledge of the laws governing the structure and dynamics of the shell. This makes it possible for geographical science to rise to a new, higher level of development.

Chapter 2. Latest research methods

2.1. Essence forecasting and mathematical modeling

From a general scientific perspective, a forecast is most often defined as a hypothesis about the future development of an object. This means that the development of a wide variety of objects, phenomena and processes can be predicted: the development of science, a branch of the economy, a social or natural phenomenon. Particularly common in our time are demographic forecasts of population growth, socio-economic forecasts of the possibility of satisfying the growing population of the Earth with food, and environmental forecasts of the future human living environment. If a person cannot influence the object of forecasting, such a forecast is called passive.

The forecast may also consist of assessing the future economic and natural state of any territory for 15–20 years in advance. Anticipating, for example, an unfavorable situation, you can change it in a timely manner by planning an economically and environmentally optimal development option. It is precisely this kind of active forecast, implying feedback and the ability to control the object of forecasting, that is characteristic of geographical science. Despite all the differences in forecasting goals for modern geography and geographers, there is no more important common task than the development of a scientifically based forecast of the future state of the geographic environment based on assessments of its past and present. It is precisely in conditions of high rates of development of production, technology and science that humanity especially needs this kind of advanced information, since due to the lack of foresight of our actions, the problem of the relationship between man and the environment has arisen.

In its most general form, geographic forecasting is a special scientific study of specific prospects for the development of geographic phenomena. Its task is to determine the future states of integral geosystems, the nature of interactions between nature and society.

At the same time, geographical research uses, first of all, successive connections of a temporal, spatial and genetic nature, since it is precisely these connections that are characterized by causality - the most important element in predicting events and phenomena even of a high degree of randomness and probability. In turn, complexity and probabilistic nature are specific features of geoforecasting.

The main operational units of geographic forecasting - space and time - are considered in comparison with the purpose and object of the forecast, as well as with the local natural and economic characteristics of a particular region. The success and reliability of a geographic forecast are determined by many circumstances, including the correct choice of the main factors and methods that provide a solution to the problem. Geographic forecasting of the state of the natural environment is multifactorial, and these factors are physically different: nature, society, technology, etc. It is necessary to analyze these factors and select those that, to some extent, can control the state of the environment - stimulate, stabilize or limit unfavorable or factors favorable for human development. These factors can be external and internal.  Therefore, geographers are looking for integral expressions of the sum of components, that is, the natural environment as a whole. Such a whole is the natural landscape with its historically established structure. The latter expresses, as it were, the “memory” of landscape development, a long series of statistical data necessary to predict the state of the natural environment.

Currently, modeling, in particular mathematical modeling, is increasingly being used for development. It is necessary to create adequate predictive models of the objects, phenomena and processes being studied. Modeling allows us to identify the causality of system parameters and give a functional, point and interval assessment of them.

The use of modeling for forecasting purposes is an extremely complex process. It is based on a large amount of information and requires adaptation of the existing mathematical apparatus for specific forecasting purposes and the involvement of specialists in various fields (mathematicians, programmers, geographers, economists, sociologists, etc.).
Among the existing models for forecasting purposes, the following are used:

• Functional, describing the functions that are performed by individual components of the system and the system as a whole;
• Models of a physical process that determine mathematical relationships between the variables of this process. They can be continuous and discrete in time, deterministic and stochastic;
• Economic, determining the relationship between various parameters of the process and phenomenon being studied, as well as criteria that allow optimizing economic processes;

• Procedural, describing the operational characteristics of systems necessary for making management decisions;
• Predictive models can be conceptual (expressed in verbal description or flowcharts), graphic (presented in the form of curves, drawings, maps), matrix (as a link between verbal and formalized representation, mathematical (presented in the form of formulas and mathematical operations), computer (expressed in a description suitable for entering into a computer).

Simulation forecasting models occupy a special place. Simulation modeling is the formalization of empirical knowledge about the object under consideration using modern computers. A simulation model is understood as a model that reproduces the process of functioning of systems in space at a fixed point in time by displaying elementary phenomena and processes while maintaining their logical structure and sequence. This allows, using initial data on the structure and main properties of territorial systems, to obtain information about the relationships between their main components and to identify the mechanism for the formation of their sustainable development. The process of developing forecasts based on mathematical modeling includes the following steps:

1. Formulation of the purpose and objectives of the study. Qualitative analysis of the predicted object in accordance with the purpose of the study.
   Determination of the subject and level of modeling, depending on the forecasting tasks;

1. Selection of main features and parameters of the model. The model should include only parameters that are essential for solving a specific goal, since an increase in the number of variables increases the uncertainty of the results and complicates the calculations of the model;

1. Formalization of the main parameters of the model, i.e. mathematical formulation of the goals and objectives of the study;

1. A formalized representation of the relationships between the parameters and characteristics of the predicted object or process;

1. Checking the adequacy of the model, i.e., the accuracy of the mathematical model’s reflection of the features of the original;

1. Determining the informative capabilities of the model by establishing quantitative connections between patterns and synthesis.

So, geographic forecasting and mathematical modeling are of particular importance, since it is complex and involves assessing the dynamics of natural and natural-economic systems in the future using both component and integral indicators.

2. 2 . Aerospace and geoinformation method

Aerospace methods are generally understood as “a set of methods for studying the atmosphere, the earth’s surface, oceans, and the upper layer of the earth’s crust from air and space media through remote recording and subsequent analysis of electromagnetic radiation coming from the Earth.”4 Aerospace methods provide determination of the geographical location of the objects or phenomena being studied and obtaining their qualitative and quantitative biographical characteristics.

An aerospace image is, first of all, an information model of the object or phenomenon being studied. Analog and digital aerospace images have dozens of varieties and carry a variety of information about geographical objects and phenomena, their relationships and spatial distribution, condition, and changes over time. To effectively use these images, the researcher must know their information properties and master special methods and techniques for effectively extracting the required information from the images.

In aerospace research methods, information about a distant object is transmitted using electromagnetic radiation, which is characterized by such parameters as intensity, spectral composition, polarization and direction of propagation. The recorded radiation parameters, functionally dependent on the biogeophysical characteristics, properties, state and spatial position of the object of study, make it possible to study it indirectly. This is the essence of aerospace techniques.

The leading place in aerospace methods is occupied by the study of an object from images, so their main task is the targeted acquisition and processing of images. The principle of multiplicity, or complexity, of aerospace research involves the use of not one image, but a series of them, differing in scale, visibility and resolution, angle and time of shooting, spectral range and polarization of the recorded radiation.

Despite the differences in images, methods and techniques for processing them, aerospace methods make it possible to solve such general problems in physical and economic geography as inventory of various types of territorial systems, assessments of their condition and possibilities of use, study of dynamics, and geographic forecasting. The aerospace method is very useful for various types of territory zoning.

Aerospace methods make it possible, directly or indirectly, to obtain only that geographic information about the area that is inherent in the characteristics of the radiation coming from the object being photographed. It has long been proven that 80-90% of all data consists of geodata, i.e. not just abstract, impersonal data, but information that has its specific place on the map, diagram or plan.

Remote sensing is the source of data for GIS.

GIS appeared thanks to computer maps, which have many additional and useful properties. There are dozens of definitions of geographic information systems. But most experts are inclined to believe that the definition of GIS should be based on the concept of a DBMS. Therefore, we can say that GIS are database management systems designed to work with territorially oriented information. A critical feature of a GIS is the ability to associate cartographic features (that is, features that have a shape and location) with descriptive, attribute information that relates to those features and describes their properties.

As noted above, the basis for constructing a GIS is a DBMS. Spatial data is organized in a special way, and this organization is not based on a relational concept. On the contrary, attribute information of objects (semantic data) can quite successfully be represented by relational tables and processed accordingly. Combining the data models that underlie the representation of spatial and semantic information in a GIS forms a georelational model.

To be used in a GIS, data must be converted into a suitable digital format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitization. For joint processing and visualization, it is more convenient to present all data on a single scale and the same map projection. GIS technology provides different ways to manipulate spatial data and isolate the data needed for a specific task. In small projects, geographic information may be stored as regular . But with an increase in the volume of information and an increase in the number of users, it is more effective to use a DBMS, special computer tools for working with integrated data sets, for storing, structuring and managing data. If you have GIS and geographic information, you can get answers to both simple questions and more complex queries that require additional analysis. The process of overlay (spatial fusion) involves the integration of data located in different thematic layers. For many types of spatial operations, the end result is a representation of the data in the form of a map or graph. GIS provides amazing new tools that expand and advance the art and science of cartography. With its help, the visualization of the maps themselves can be easily supplemented with reporting documents, three-dimensional images, graphs, tables, diagrams, photographs and other means, for example, multimedia.

Remote sensing is one of the main methods for quickly obtaining information about the earth's surface. The exceptionally rich information and high accuracy of digital images, combined with versatility and cost-effectiveness, have ensured its widespread implementation in various branches of science. And the advent of computers, which are information processing tools, and the development of GIS have greatly helped geographers and many others who use spatial data in their work. These new tools are being widely introduced into geographical science and practice. The quality of questions asked and problems solved is improving, and the scope and scope of application of spatial analysis methods is expanding. This allows us to delve deeper into spatial variables, looking at factors and relationships that would not otherwise be explored.

Chapter 3. Main directions of using the latest methods of informationfollowing

3.1. Modern directions and problems use mathematical modeling and forecasting in geography

“The main goal of modeling in geographical research is to identify the conditions for the formation, functioning and development of territorial systems, their interaction with the natural environment in connection with forecasting further development.”5

Geographical objects and phenomena provide a vast springboard for the application of a wide variety of models. However, when modeling them, significant difficulties arise due to the fact that the model is a simplification of the real system. Therefore, it cannot completely describe the behavior of real objects, and at best explains only some small part of the actual functioning of systems as a whole. Another difficulty lies in choosing the right way to build a model, which, on the one hand, would be as simple as possible, and on the other hand, would allow for a better interpretation of the results obtained. Significant difficulties are associated with the large amount of initial information used in constructing mathematical models and its heterogeneity. As a result, many models have a number of disadvantages.

The main object of studying geography is territorial natural and socio-economic systems, which, in accordance with the cybernetic concept, belong to complex systems. The complexity of a system is determined by the number of elements included in it, the connections between these elements, as well as the relationship between the system and the environment. Territorial complexes have all the features of a very complex system. They unite a huge number of elements and are distinguished by a variety of internal connections and connections with other systems (natural environment, economy, population, etc.). Complex objects are of greatest interest for modeling; This is where modeling can provide results that cannot be obtained by other research methods. The potential possibility of mathematical modeling of any geographical objects and processes does not mean its successful feasibility, but also depends on the level of development of geographical and mathematical knowledge, available specific information and computer technology. In addition, there will always be problems that cannot be formalized, and in this case mathematical modeling is not effective enough. For a long time, the main difficulty in the practical application of mathematical modeling in geography was filling the developed models with specific and high-quality information. The accuracy and completeness of primary information, the real possibilities of its collection and processing largely determine the choice of types of applied models.

Another problem is generated by the dynamism of geographical processes, the variability of their parameters and structural relationships. As a result, they must be constantly monitored in order to have a steady flow of new data. Since observations of geographic processes and processing of empirical data usually take quite a lot of time, when constructing mathematical models of the economy it is necessary to adjust the initial information taking into account its delay.

Knowledge of the quantitative relationships of geographical processes and phenomena is based on appropriate measurements. The accuracy of measurements largely determines the accuracy of the final results of quantitative analysis through simulation. Therefore, a necessary condition for the effective use of mathematical modeling is the improvement of the system of geographical indicators. The use of mathematical modeling has sharpened the problem of measurements and quantitative comparisons of various aspects and phenomena of socio-economic development, the reliability and completeness of the data obtained, and their protection from intentional and technical distortions.
An important task of geographic forecasting is the search for stable connections (structural, functional, spatial, temporal, etc.) between the components of geosystems. 

This is due to the multidimensionality of the forecast object – the territorial system of a certain region.

The problems of geographic forecasting are quite complex and diverse due to the complexity and diversity of the forecasting objects themselves - geosystems of various levels and categories. The hierarchy of forecasts and their territorial scales is in strict accordance with the hierarchy of the geosystems themselves. It can be argued that the complexity of forecasting problems increases as one moves from the lower levels of the geosystem hierarchy to the higher ones.

As is known, any geosystem of a relatively lower hierarchical level functions and develops as an integral part of systems of higher ranks. In practice, this means that the development of a forecast of the “behavior” in the future of individual tracts should be carried out only against the backdrop of the enclosing landscape, taking into account its structure, dynamics, and evolution. And the forecast for any landscape should be developed against an even broader regional background. Ultimately, a geographic forecast of any territorial scale requires taking into account global trends.

The use of mathematical modeling and forecasting has sharpened the problem of measurements and quantitative comparisons of various aspects and phenomena, the reliability and completeness of the data obtained, and their protection from intentional and technical distortions. 

3 . 2 These methods are necessary because the future is unusual and the effects of many decisions made today will not be felt for some time. Therefore, accurately predicting the future increases the efficiency of the decision-making process.

. Prospects for GIS technologies and aerospace methods

GIS technologies are combined with another powerful system for obtaining and presenting geographic information - Earth remote sensing data from space, from airplanes and any other aircraft. Space information in today's world is becoming more diverse and accurate. The ability to obtain and update it is increasingly easier and more accessible. Dozens of orbital systems transmit high-precision space images of any territory on our planet. Abroad and in Russia, archives and data banks of very high-resolution digital images covering a vast territory of the globe have been formed. Their relative accessibility for the consumer (quick search, order and receipt via the Internet), surveying of any territory at the consumer’s request, the possibility of subsequent processing and analysis of space images using various software tools, integration with GIS packages and GIS systems, make the GIS tandem -DZ into a new powerful geographic analysis tool. This is the first and most realistic direction of modern GIS development.

The third direction of GIS development is associated with the development of the telecommunications system, primarily the international Internet network and the massive use of global international information resources. There are several promising paths in this direction.

The first path will be determined by the development of corporate networks of the largest enterprises and management structures with remote access using Internet technology. This path is supported by the serious financial resources of these structures and the problems and tasks that they have to solve in their activities using spatial analysis. This path will most likely determine the development of GIS technological problems when working in corporate networks. The dissemination of proven technologies to solve problems of small and medium-sized enterprises and firms will give a powerful impetus to their mass use.

The second way depends on the development of the Internet itself, which is spreading around the world at a tremendous pace, attracting tens of thousands of new users to its audience every day. This path leads to a new and as yet unexplored road along which traditional GIS from usually closed and expensive systems existing for individual teams and solving individual problems will, over time, acquire new qualities, unite and turn into powerful integrated and interactive systems for shared global use.

At the same time, such GIS themselves will become: geographically distributed; modularly expandable; shared; constantly and easily accessible.

Therefore, we can assume the emergence, on the basis of modern GIS, of new types, classes and even generations of geographic information systems based on the capabilities of the Internet, television and telecommunications.

The summation of the capabilities of GIS - remote sensing - GPS - Internet will form a powerful quartet of spatial information.

All the trends, prospects, directions and paths of development described above will ultimately lead to the fact that geography and geoinformatics will represent a single complex of sciences, based on spatial ideology and using the most modern technologies for processing a huge amount of any spatial information.

Page break

Conclusion

In the course of the work, a number of geographical literature were reviewed and a list of modern geographical research methods was analyzed. The characteristics of the method of mathematical modeling and forecasting are given, the essence of the aerospace and geoinformation research method is revealed. The features of their application in modern geography, directions and prospects for development are revealed.

The role of methods in geographical research is significant, since methods constitute the methodology of geographical science. Geographical research centers around significant issues.

New tasks set for science required improvement of the principles and methods of obtaining and processing information about geographical phenomena, methods of theoretical generalizations and forecasting.

In recent decades, research methods such as forecasting and modeling have been purposefully applied, i.e. active methods of research. These methods make it possible to study the behavior of objects in a wide range of external factors. As a result of informatization, GIS technologies and remote sensing are actively used, making it possible to process and analyze a large amount of information.

The newest methods of geographical research that have emerged make it possible to significantly expand the capabilities of humanity and the boundaries of the unknown, to understand the interaction of nature and human activity, to study nature in order to preserve it in the process of economic use, which is especially important during the period of the scientific and technological revolution. This makes it possible for geographical science to rise to a new, higher level of development.

Literature

1. Armand   HELL. Geography of the information age // Izv. AN. 2002. - No. 1. - P.10-14.

1. Dyakonov K.N., Kasimov N.S., Tikunov V.S. Modern methods of geographical research. M.: Education, 2000. – 117 p.

1. Garbuk S.V. Gershenzon V.E. Space systems for remote sensing of the Earth. M.: Publishing house “A and B”, 2003. – 296 p.

1. Golubchik M.M., Evdokimov S.P., Maksimov G.N., Nosonov A.N. Theory and methodology of geographical science: Textbook for universities. M.: VLADOS, 2005 – 464 p.

1. Guk A.P. Automatic selection and identification of characteristic points on multi-time, multi-scale aerospace images. / Guk A.P., Yehia Hassan Miki Hassan // News of universities “Geodesy and aerial photography”. 2010. - No. 2. – pp. 63-68.

1. Ekeeva E.V. Methods of geographical research: Textbook.

Gorno-Altaisk: RIO GAGU, 2010. – 48 p.

1. Zhekulin V.S. Introduction to geography: Textbook. allowance. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1989. – 272 p.

1. Zvonkova T.V. 

1. Geographic forecasting. M.: Education, 2003. – 216 p.

1. Isachenko A.G. Geography today: A manual for teachers. M.: Education, 2000. – 92 p.

1. Knizhnikov Yu.F. Fundamentals of aerospace research methods. M.: MSU, 2003. – 137 p.

1. Knizhnikov Yu.F. Aerospace methods of geographical research. / Knizhnikov Yu.F., Kravtsova V.I., Tutubalina O.V. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2004. - 333 p.

1. Kreider O.A. Information environment for using GIS technologies. // Geoinformatics. 2005. - No. 4. – P.49-52.

1. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical culture: A textbook for university students. M.: VLADOS, 1998. – 416 p.

1. Website "GeoMan.ru: Library of Geography". URL: http://geoman.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000056/st026.shtml (access date 12/06/2013).

1. Website “Gistechnik: all about GIS” URL: http://gistechnik.ru/publik/git.html (access date 12/8/2013).

1. Saushkin Yu.G. Geographical science in the past, present, future: A manual for teachers. M.: Education, 1999. – 269 p.

1. Tikunov V.S. Modeling in geography. M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1999. – 137 p.

1. Trofimov A.M. Modeling of geosystems. Kazan: Ecocenter, 2000. 321 p.

1. Trofimov A.M., Igonin E.I. Conceptual foundations of modeling in geography. Development of basic ideas and ways of mathematization and formalization in geography. Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001. – 241 p.

Trofimov A.M., Panasyuk M.V. Geographic information systems and problems of environmental management. Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2005. – 450 p.

Methods of geographical research

Interdisciplinary methods in geography Geochemical method

Spatial conjugacy in the geochemical method is combined with vertical intercomponent (analysis of the chemical composition of groundwater, soils, vegetation, surface air, etc.). If such analyzes are repeated at certain intervals, then it is possible to trace trends in changes in the geochemistry of the landscape - accumulation or depletion of certain elements. This places the geochemical method among the most important methods for determining the level of landscape pollution as a result of anthropogenic impact - industrial and automobile emissions, mineral fertilizers applied to fields, etc.

Geophysical method involves the study of landscape complexes using physical methods. The focus of this method is the study of energy and mass exchange that connects the landscape complex into a single whole. Using complex instruments, radiation and thermal conditions of the earth's surface, moisture conditions, thermal and water regimes of soils, and the productivity of biocenoses are determined.

Specific research methods in geography.

Specific research methods in physical geography are: 1) comparative-descriptive; 2) expeditionary; 3) literary and cartographic; 4) aerospace; 5) paleogeographical; 6) balance method; 7) geographic information method

Comparative-descriptive method - the oldest in geography, and also the most consistent with the decoding of the very name of this science. But, of course, over the centuries it has not remained unchanged.

During the periods of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages, the early modern period, and even at the beginning of the modern period itself, the empirical description that corresponded to the principle: “What I see is what I write about” prevailed in geography.

The comparative-descriptive method is expressed in various types of isolines - isotherms, isohypses, isobars, isohyets (the amount of precipitation over a certain period of time).

The comparative-descriptive method finds its most complete and versatile application in regional studies. And if previously researchers were limited to answering the questions “what?” and “where?”, there are currently at least five such questions: what, where, when, in what state, in what relationships.

“When” means time, a historical approach to the object being studied; “in what state” - current dynamics, development trends of the object; “in what relationships” - the impact of the object on the immediate environment and the reverse influence of the latter on the object.

The transition from empirical to scientific description actually began only in the 18th century, when natural scientists began to participate in round-the-world and other large expeditions. Currently, interest in the comparative descriptive method is increasing, which is explained by an increase in interest in regional studies, incl. and comprehensive, development of domestic and international tourism, general increase in “wanderlust”.

Expeditionary method Research is called field research. Field material (samples of soil, rocks, plants, water samples, etc.) collected during expeditions constitutes the bread of geography, its foundation, on the basis of which only theory can develop.

Expeditions, as a method of collecting field material, date back to ancient times.

As geographical science differentiated, expeditions became more specialized, with a limited range of tasks. Nevertheless, many interdisciplinary expeditions are carried out, which include geologists, climatologists, hydrologists, botanists, zoologists and other specialists.

The expedition method refers to empirical methods, i.e. to observation methods.

Literary-cartographic The method is desk based. This method has two aspects.

1st – preparatory, desk stage in preparing the expedition. At the same time, a preliminary study of the nature of the study area is carried out using literary and cartographic sources. This is a necessary condition for any field research, but in landscape research its importance is especially great. A desk literary and cartographic study of the nature of the expedition area will not only help identify landscape complexes in the field, but will also identify possible gaps in the study of landscape components that need to be filled.

The 2nd aspect is the literary cartographic method as the main one, the beginning and end of knowledge of a geographical object. This is how most works on regional studies are created. Even if the researcher is well acquainted with the country under study from personal experience, his work is still based on an analysis of existing literary and cartographic material.

Simulation method . Modeling is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge. Its essence lies in the study of any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models. Consequently, when modeling, the studied object, phenomenon, process is replaced by another auxiliary or artificial system. The patterns and trends identified during the modeling process are then applied to reality. Modeling facilitates and simplifies research, making it less labor-intensive and more visual. In addition, it provides the key to the knowledge of objects that cannot be directly measured (for example, the Earth's core). All the variety of models used in science and practice can be reduced to two main types, or classes.

Firstly, these are material models, which include spatially similar models (models, dummies, etc.), physically similar models that have various types of similarity with the original (models of airplanes, ships, turbines, etc.), and mathematically similar models (analog and digital machines, etc.).

Secondly, these are mental (ideal) models, which in turn are divided into figurative models (sketches, photographs, so-called hypothetical models - various reflections of real reality in the mind of the researcher), iconic or symbolic models (mathematical, cybernetic ) and mixed, figurative and symbolic models (maps, drawings, diagrams, graphs, block diagrams, etc.).

In modern physical geography, block (graphical) and mathematical models are most used. Geomorphological processes, sea currents, climate changes, but especially natural-territorial complexes are subject to modeling.

The emphasis is on more complex global models of physiographic processes. Thus, we are talking about improving the global climate model and, based on the general circulation of the atmosphere, restoring the global hydroclimatic regime for several time slices over the last 18 thousand years, as well as a global model of the geographic envelope.

Aerospace (remote) methods. These methods are called remote because the Earth (or other cosmic bodies) are studied with their help at significant distances. And aerospace - because aircraft or spacecraft are used for these purposes. Accordingly, a distinction is made between aerial methods and space methods.

To the number aerial methods These include, first of all, visual observation methods carried out from aircraft. But aerial photography plays a much larger role. Its main type is aerial photography, which has been widely used since the 1930s. and still remains the main method of topographic survey. It is also used in landscape research. Each aerial photograph, having stereoscopic properties, is like a ready-made three-dimensional model of the landscape, allowing you to trace its boundaries and structure. In addition to conventional imaging, thermal, radar, and multispectral imaging are used.

To the number aerospace methods include, first of all, visual observations - direct observations of the state of the atmosphere, the earth's surface, ground objects, which since the beginning of the space age have been and are being carried out by virtually all astronauts. Also, following visual observations, space photography and television filming began, then more complex types of space photography became widespread - spectrometric, radiometric, radar, thermal, etc.

The main features and advantages of space photography include, first of all, the enormous visibility of space images (at an altitude of 250-500 km, an image from the Salyut spacecraft can cover an area of ​​450x450 km or more), high speed of receiving and transmitting information, the ability to repeat images of the same images multiple times. and the same objects and territories, which allows you to analyze the dynamics of processes.

Paleogeographical method. Physical geography is a spatiotemporal science. All its objects, from the geographical envelope to the smallest natural complex, have their own history of development. The modern appearance of landscapes is formed as a result of not only current, but also past, sometimes very distant conditions.

Traces of this past can be traced in the existence, for example, of relict plants and animals.

To establish the age of rocks in paleogeography, spore-pollen analysis is carried out. Through this analysis, it is possible to determine not only the age of the rocks, but also the climatic conditions under which their accumulation occurred.

Using the paleogeographic method, it is possible to predict the future. For example, research has revealed the alternation of cold and warm climatic eras. . The purpose of the balance method is to quantitatively characterize dynamic phenomena in the movement of matter and energy in landscapes. Using this method, they study what (i.e., what substances or what types of energy) and in what quantity enters and leaves the landscape in a certain unit of time.

When using the balance method in physical-geographical research, first of all, a list of income and expense items is compiled, then a quantitative measurement of each factor is carried out, and at the last stage of this work, income and expense are calculated. In this way, trends in changes in the natural complex are established.

Radiation, heat and water balances are most widely used in physical geography.

For the first time, the balance method in the study of geographical phenomena was used in the second half of the 19th century by A.I. Voeikov (climatologist). Later, its introduction into complex physical geography is associated with the name of A.A. Grigoriev.

Geoinformation method . The role of computer science in the modern world is well known.

Computer science is a branch of science that studies the structure and general properties of scientific information, as well as issues of its collection, storage, search, processing, transformation, distribution and use in various fields of activity.

In recent decades, there has been a transition from traditional paper to machine information, caused, on the one hand, by the information explosion, and on the other, by the use of computers. With the Informatization of society, fundamentally new forms and means of accumulating and using a wide variety of information in the form of magnetic, laser, and optical media have entered its life.

It is against this background that the emergence of geoinformatics should be considered. Geoinformatics in its modern understanding did not arise out of nowhere, but was the result of a long evolution of such traditional methods of presenting geographical information as descriptions, reference books, bibliographic indexes, abstract journals, atlases, etc. At first, information processing was carried out using punched cards, then the first computers appeared , geographic data banks based on the use of computer storage devices emerged, geographic information technologies began to be introduced, and information is now provided not only in text, graphic, cartographic, but also in digital forms, including using electronic networks, e-mail, electronic maps and atlases.

The development of the concept of electronic cards and technologies for their production was carried out in Russia in the first half of the 1990s. Now the task is to unite disparate electronic maps into a single system that would make it possible to create a single computer model of the Earth that has unified symbols, content and a mathematical basis. And the first Russian-American comprehensive electronic atlas was the “Our Earth” atlas, which is replicated and distributed in the form of a CD.

As a science, geoinformatics develops principles, methods and technologies for obtaining, accumulating, transmitting, processing and presenting geographic information. As an area of ​​practical activity, it includes the creation, maintenance of ongoing functioning, updating and development of information methods. From the point of view of the interests of geography, geoinformatics can be considered on a par with mathematical, cartographic, and remote sensing methods.

The development of geoinformatics led to the creation of geographic information systems. Geographic Information System (GIS) is a complex of interconnected means of learning, storing, processing, selecting data and issuing geographic information. To date, hundreds and thousands of GIS have already been developed and are in operation, however, this is only the initial period of their formation.

The massive introduction of GIS into geography has covered many of its branches, but especially cartography, which, thanks to GIS, has undergone a restructuring comparable only to the transition from handwritten map production to map printing. This restructuring is expressed in geoinformation mapping. Its essence is information and cartographic modeling of natural and socio-economic geosystems based on digital databases, GIS technologies and geographical knowledge.

Geoinformation mapping is emerging as a key discipline at the intersection of automated mapping, aerospace methods and geographic information systems. Within its framework, there is a crossing of two branches of scientific cartography - the creation and use of maps. GIS technologies allow you to freely transform map projections, vary the scale and layout of maps, and introduce new geographic variables and visual aids. Geoinformation mapping can be sectoral and complex, analytical and synthetic, varying in spatial coverage, scale, purpose, and degree of synthesis. But in all cases, it is based on a systematic approach, and its main goal is to create applied assessment and forecast materials.

To study our Earth and obtain information about all geographical objects and processes, several geographical research methods are used. There are quite a few of them, but still the main methods are considered:
1 - Historical method. Nothing comes out of nowhere; everything develops historically. To understand geography, it is necessary to know history: the history of the development of mankind, the history of the development of the Earth.
2 - Economic-mathematical method. In geography, the following indicators are calculated: balance of migration, resource availability, calculations of fertility, mortality and population density, calculation of natural population growth.
3 - Cartographic method . As the founder of Russian geography N.N. said. Baransky: “The map is the second language of geography.” Indeed, the map provides information that no other method can provide. The location and size of objects, the distribution of various phenomena, a visual representation of mineral deposits - all this is shown by the map.
4 - Comparative geographical. Slower - faster, more - less, higher - lower, profitable - unprofitable: absolutely everything is compared. Comparison helps to more accurately and completely describe the differences and similarities of various geographical objects.
5 - Static method. Static data: area of ​​the country, height or depth, reserves of natural resources, demographic indicators, population - all this gives a figurative idea of ​​the country or object.
6 -
Field research and observation method . Observing phenomena with one's own eyes, collecting materials and samples, describing geographical objects - all this is the subject of study.
7 - Geographical forecast . The goals of geography as a science are not only to describe various phenomena and objects, but also to predict the consequences of human development. To use natural resources rationally, solve global problems, reduce the negative impact of humans on nature, and avoid undesirable phenomena - these are the goals of geographic forecasting.
8 - Geographical zoning . With this method of geographical research, natural (physical-geographical) and economic regions are distinguished.
9 - Geographic Modeling . An important method used in the study of geography is the creation of geographical models. A simple example is the globe.
10 - Remote sensing method . The remote sensing method is aerial and space photography.

Research methods in a generalized view are ways of understanding phenomena and processes.

Methods of geographical research - methods of analyzing geographic information in order to identify regional features and spatiotemporal patterns of development of processes and phenomena in nature and society.

Methods of geographical research can be divided into general scientific and subject-geographical, traditional and modern (Fig. 1.1).

The main methods of geographical research are listed below.

• 1. Comparative geographical. This is a traditional and currently widespread method in geography. The well-known expression “Everything is known by comparison” directly relates to comparative geographical research. Geographers often have to identify similarities and differences between certain objects, conduct a comparative assessment of objects and phenomena in different territories, and explain the reasons for similarities and differences. Of course, such a comparison is carried out at the level of descriptions and is not strictly proven, which is why this method is often called comparative and descriptive. But with its help you can notice many of the most clearly expressed properties of geographical objects. For example, a change in natural zones, a change in the agricultural development of territories, etc.
• 2. Cartographic method- study of spatial objects and phenomena using geographic maps. This method is as widespread and traditional as the comparative geographical one. The cartographic method consists of using a variety of maps to describe, analyze and understand phenomena, to obtain new knowledge and characteristics, to study development processes, to establish relationships and

Rice. 1.1.

gnosis of phenomena. The cartographic method has two components: 1) analysis of published maps; 2) drawing up your own maps (maps) with their subsequent analysis. In all cases, the map is a unique source of information. Classic of Russian economic geography N.N. Baransky figuratively called maps the second language of geography. With the help of geographic maps presented in various atlases, educational and scientific publications on the Internet, you can get an idea of ​​the relative position of objects, their sizes, qualitative characteristics, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

In modern geography it is actively used geographic information research method- use of geographic information systems for spatial analysis. Using the geographic information method, you can quickly obtain new information and new knowledge about geographic phenomena.

• 3. Regionalization method- one of the key ones in geography. The geographical study of a country or any territory involves identifying internal differences, for example, in population density, the proportion of urban residents, economic specialization, etc. The result of this, as a rule, is the zoning of the territory - its mental division into component parts according to one or more characteristics (indicators). This makes it possible not only to understand and evaluate regional differences in indicators and the degree of distribution of objects, but also to identify the reasons for these differences. For this, along with the zoning method, historical, statistical, cartographic and other methods of geographical research are used.
• 4. Historical (historical-geographical) research method -

is the study of changes in geographical objects and phenomena over time. How and why did the political map of the world, the size and structure of the population change, how was the transport network formed, how did the structure of the economy change? The answers to these and other questions are provided by historical and geographical research. It allows us to understand and explain many modern features of the geographical picture of the world, and to identify many of the causes of modern geographical problems. In the course of historical research, each geographical object (phenomenon) is considered in connection with the political and socio-economic processes and events that took place in a given period. That is why, to study modern geography, knowledge of world and national history is necessary.

5. Statistical method- this is not only the search and use of quantitative (numerical) information to illustrate regional differences: for example, data on population, area of ​​territories, production volumes, etc. Statistics as a science has numerous methods that make it possible to summarize and systematize quantitative information so that characteristic features become easily noticeable. In relation to geography, statistical methods make it possible to classify (group) objects according to the size of indicators (countries by territory size, by GDP volume, etc.); calculate the average value of indicators (for example, the average age of the population) and the size of deviations from the average; obtain relative values ​​(in particular, population density - the number of people per sq. km of territory, the share of the urban population - the percentage of citizens of the total population); compare some indicators with others and identify the relationship between them (correlation and factor analyses), etc.

Previously, the use of statistical methods in geography was very labor-intensive; it was necessary to carry out complex calculations of large amounts of information manually or using special tables. With the spread of computer technology, the use of these methods has become very easy, in particular, the functions of the widely used programs MS Excel and SPSS make it possible to easily perform many statistical operations.

• 6. Field research and observation method is traditional and has not lost its significance not only in physical, but also in socio-economic geography. Empirical information is not only the most valuable geographical information, but also an opportunity to correct and bring closer to reality the conclusions obtained as a result of cartographic, statistical and other studies. Field research and observations make it possible to understand and more clearly present many of the features of the regions being studied, to identify many of the unique features of the territory, and to form unique images of the regions. Impressions obtained as a result of field research and observations, documentary evidence in the form of photographs, sketches, films, recordings of conversations, travel notes are invaluable materials for geographers.
• 7. Remote observation method. Modern aerial and especially space photography are significant aids in the study of geography. Currently, continuous space sensing of the territory of our planet from satellites is being carried out, and this information is effectively used in various fields of science and areas of economic activity. Space images are used in the creation and prompt updating of geographic maps, monitoring the natural environment (climate, geological processes, natural disasters), studying the characteristics of economic activities (agricultural development, crop yields, forest supply and reforestation), environmental studies (environmental pollution and its sources) . One of the difficult problems of using space images is the enormous flow of information that requires processing and comprehension. For geographers, this is truly a treasure trove of information and an effective method for updating geographic knowledge.
• 8. Geographic modeling method- creation of simplified, reduced, abstract models of geographical objects, processes, phenomena. The most famous geographical model is the globe.

In terms of their most important characteristics, models replicate real objects. Among the main advantages of models is the ability to represent a geographical object, usually significant in size, in its most characteristic features and from different sides, often inaccessible in reality; carry out measurements and calculations using a model (taking into account the scale of the object); conduct experiments to identify the consequences of certain phenomena for a geographical object.

Examples of geographical models: maps, three-dimensional relief models, mathematical formulas and graphs expressing certain geographical patterns (population dynamics, relationship between indicators of socio-economic development, etc.).

9. Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science must not only describe the objects and phenomena being studied, but also predict the consequences that humanity may come to in the course of its development. It is geography, which is a complex science, possessing a holistic vision of the surrounding world, that is capable of reasonably foreseeing many changes occurring on Earth.

Geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve global problems in the “nature-population-economy” system.