Conflict resolution factors

Adequacy of conflict reflection;

Openness and efficiency of communication between conflicting parties;

Creating a climate of mutual trust and cooperation;

Determining the essence of the conflict.

Adequate perception of conflict

1. “Illusions of one’s own nobility.” In a conflict situation, we often believe that we are the victim of attacks from an evil enemy whose moral principles are very questionable. It seems to us that truth and justice are entirely on our side and testify in our favor. In most conflicts, each of the opponents is confident in his rightness and desire for a fair resolution of the conflict, convinced that only the enemy does not want this. As a result, suspicion is often naturally stems from existing bias.

2. “Looking for the straw in another’s eye.” Each of the opponents sees the shortcomings and errors of the other, but is not aware of the same shortcomings in himself. As a rule, each of the conflicting parties tends not to notice the meaning of their own actions in relation to the opponent, but reacts with indignation to his actions.

3. “Double ethics.” Even when opponents realize what they are doing same actions in relation to each other, each of them still perceives their own actions as acceptable and legal, and the opponent’s actions as dishonest and impermissible.

4. “Everything is clear.” Very often, each of the partners oversimplifies the conflict situation, and in such a way that it confirms general idea that his virtues are good and correct, and his partner’s actions, on the contrary, are bad and inadequate.

These and similar misconceptions, inherent in each of us in a conflict situation, as a rule, aggravate the conflict and prevent a constructive exit from problematic situation. If the perceptual distortion in conflict is excessive, there is a real danger of becoming trapped by one's own bias. As a result, this can lead to the so-called self-confirming assumption: assuming that the partner is extremely hostile, you begin to defend against him, going on the offensive. Seeing this, the partner experiences hostility towards us, and our preliminary assumption, although it was incorrect, is immediately confirmed. Knowing about such ideas in a conflict situation, try to more carefully analyze your feelings in specific cases.

Open and effective communication between conflicting parties

TOPIC 8. COMPLETION OF NEGOTIATIONS AND THEIR RESULTS

1. Conflict resolution in negotiations

2. Technology for completing negotiations

3. Psychological conditions for success in negotiations

Conflict resolution in negotiations

The complexity and multivariate development of the negotiation process implies ambiguity in the methods and forms of its completion. Many authors even use various concepts that reflect the specificity and completeness of the cessation of negotiation processes: “settlement”, “settlement”, “suppression”, “attenuation”, “completion”, “elimination”, etc. Of these concepts, the broadest is “completion,” which means the end of the negotiation process for any reason. The main forms of ending a conflict: resolution, settlement, attenuation, elimination, escalation into another conflict.

Conflict resolution – it is a joint activity of its participants aimed at ending opposition and solving the problem that led to the clash.

Conflict resolution involves the activity of both parties to transform the conditions in which they interact, to eliminate the causes of the conflict. To resolve the conflict, it is necessary to change the opponents themselves (or at least one of them), their positions that they defended in the conflict. Often the resolution of a conflict is based on changing the attitude of opponents towards its object or towards each other.

Conflict resolution differs from resolution in that a third party takes part in eliminating the contradiction between opponents. Its participation is possible both with the consent of the warring parties and without their consent.

When a conflict ends, the underlying contradiction is not always resolved.

Only about 62% of conflicts between managers and subordinates are resolved or managed. In 38% of conflicts, the contradiction is not resolved or escalates. This happens when the conflict dies down (6%), develops into another (15%) or is resolved administratively (17%).

Decay of conflict- this is a temporary cessation of opposition while maintaining the main signs of the conflict: contradictions and tense relations. The conflict moves from an “overt” form to a hidden one.

Conflict subsides usually as a result of:

Loss of motivation for confrontation (the object of the conflict has lost its relevance);

Reorientation of motive, switching to urgent matters, etc.;

Depletion of resources, all strength and capabilities for the fight.

Under eliminating the conflict understand the impact on it, as a result of which the main structural elements of the conflict are eliminated. Despite the “unconstructiveness” of elimination, there are situations that require quick and decisive influence on the conflict (threat of violence, loss of life, lack of time or material capabilities). Resolving the conflict is possible using the following methods:

Removal of one of the opponents from the conflict (transfer to another department, branch; dismissal from work);

Exclusion of interaction between opponents for a long time (sending one or both on a business trip, etc.);

Eliminating the object of the conflict (the mother takes away the toy from the quarreling children that caused the conflict).

Evolving into another conflict occurs when a new, more significant contradiction arises in the relations of the parties and the object of the conflict changes.

The outcome of the conflict is considered as the result of the struggle from the point of view of the state of the parties and their attitude towards the object of the conflict.

The outcomes of the conflict can be:

Elimination of one or both parties;

Suspension of the conflict with the possibility of its resumption;

Victory of one of the parties (mastery of the object of the conflict);

Division of the conflict object (symmetrical or asymmetrical);

Agreement on the rules for sharing the object;

Equivalent compensation to one of the parties for possession of the object by the other party;

Refusal of both parties to encroach on this object;

An alternative definition of such objects that satisfy the interests of both parties.

When they talk about rationalizing a conflict, they mean a meaningful, planned influence on the behavior of the opposing parties in the direction of achieving positive consequences. The form of rational influence on the conflict is its regulation.

The concept of “regulation” should be distinguished from the concept of “resolution” of conflict. The latter denotes the process of eliminating, first of all, the basis of the conflict, its causes and subject. Conflict regulation is limited to identifying certain elements of conflict interaction and eliminating or using them in management. Regulation is the translation of a conflict into the “rules of the game” that are desirable for the management system, in other words, the desired pattern of conflict interaction.

The final stage of the conflict is its permission. The concepts of “resolution”, “overcoming”, “reconciliation” imply conscious intervention during the conflict. There is a huge literature on this problem. Conflictologists also use the concept of “attenuation” of conflict. However, it is not entirely adequate to the content of its final stage; it smacks of spontaneity, while conscious action dominates at this stage. The concept of “ending” the conflict is more acceptable.

The concept of “completion” of the conflict allows us to emphasize the one-sidedness of anti-conflict actions, designated by the terms “suppression” and “cancellation” of the conflict. Neither one nor the other action leads to a resolution of the conflict, since it is exclusively volitional, ignoring the objective logic of the contradiction. It is possible to suppress or cancel a conflict only temporarily, and then it inevitably arises again, since the underlying objective contradiction remains unresolved, and the elements of the conflict situation have not been eliminated.

The question of the criteria for resolving the conflict is important.

According to the American conflictologist L/. Deutsch(1976), the main criterion for conflict resolution is satisfaction of the parties with its results. Domestic teacher V. M. Afonkova(1975) identified the following criteria for conflict resolution:

Cessation of opposition;

Elimination of traumatic factors;

Achieving the goal of one of the conflicting parties;

Changing the individual's position;

Formation of the skill of active behavior of an individual in similar situations in the future.

Criteria for constructive conflict resolution aredegree of resolution of the contradiction, underlying conflict, and victory in no right opponent. It is important that when resolving a conflict, a solution is found to the problem that caused it. The more completely the contradiction is resolved, the greater the chances for normalization of relations between the participants, the less likely it is for the conflict to escalate into a new confrontation. No less significant is the victory of the right side. The affirmation of truth and the victory of justice have a beneficial effect on the socio-psychological climate of the organization, the effectiveness of joint activities, and serve as a warning to individuals who could potentially seek to achieve a legally or morally dubious goal through conflict. It must be remembered that the wrong side also has its own interests. If you ignore them altogether and do not strive to reorient the motivation of the wrong opponent, then this is fraught with new conflicts in the future.

Conditions and factors for conflict resolution

Majority conditions and factors successful conflict resolution is psychological character, as it reflects behavioral characteristics And interactions between opponents. Some researchers highlight organizational, historical, legal and other factors. Let's take a closer look at them.

Ending conflict interactions- the first and obvious condition for the beginning of the resolution of any conflict. As long as some measures are taken by one or both sides to strengthen their position or weaken the opponent’s position through violence, there can be no talk of resolving the conflict.

Search for common or similar points of contact in the goals and interests of opponents is a two-way process and involves an analysis of both one’s own goals and interests and the goals and interests of the other party. If parties want to resolve a conflict, they must focus on the interests, not the personality of the opponent

When resolving a conflict, a stable negative attitude of the parties towards each other remains. It is expressed in a negative opinion about the opponent and in negative emotions towards him. To begin to resolve the conflict, it is necessary to soften this negative attitude. Main - reduce the intensity of negative emotions, experienced in relation to the opponent.

At the same time it is expedient stop seeing your opponent as an enemy, an adversary. It is important to understand that the problem that caused the conflict is best solved together by joining forces.

This contribute to:

Critical analysis of your own position and actions. Identifying and admitting your own mistakes reduces the negative perception of your opponent;

The desire to understand the interests of another. To understand does not mean to accept or justify. However, this will expand the idea of ​​the opponent and make him more objective;

Highlighting the constructive principle in the behavior or even in the intentions of the opponent. There are no absolutely bad or absolutely good people or social groups. Everyone has something positive, and it is necessary to rely on it when resolving a conflict.

Important reduce the negative emotions of the opposite party.

Among the techniques are such as a positive assessment of some of the opponent’s actions, readiness to bring positions closer together, turning to a third party who is authoritative for the opponent, a critical attitude towards oneself, balanced own behavior, etc.

Objective discussion of the problem, clarification of the essence of the conflict, the ability of the parties to see the main thing contributes to the successful search for a solution to the contradiction. Focusing on secondary issues and caring only about one’s own interests reduces the chances of a constructive solution to the problem.

When the parties join forces to end the conflict, it is necessary taking into account each other's status (position). The party occupying a subordinate position or having junior status must be aware of the limits of concessions that its opponent can afford. Too radical demands can provoke the stronger side to return to conflict confrontation.

Another important condition is choosing the optimal resolution strategy, appropriate to the given circumstances. These strategies are discussed in the next paragraph.

The success of ending conflicts depends on how the conflicting parties take into account the factors that influence this process. These include the following:

1)time: availability of time to discuss the problem, clarify positions and interests, and develop solutions. Reducing the time by half of the available time V order to achieve agreement leads to an increase in the likelihood of choosing an alternative that is more aggressive;

2)Third side: participation V the end of the conflict between neutral persons (institutions) who help opponents solve the problem. A number of studies support the positive influence of third parties on conflict resolution;

3)timeliness: the parties begin to resolve the conflict in the early stages of its development. The logic is simple: less opposition - less damage - less resentment and claims - more opportunities to reach an agreement.

4)balance of forces: if the conflicting parties are approximately equal in capabilities (equal status, position, weapons, etc.), then they are forced to look for ways to peacefully resolve the problem. Conflicts are resolved more constructively when there is no work dependence between opponents;

5) culture: a high level of general culture of opponents reduces the likelihood of a violent conflict developing. It has been revealed that conflicts in government bodies are resolved more constructively if opponents have high business and moral qualities;

6)unity of values: the existence of agreement between the conflicting parties about what should constitute an acceptable solution. In other words, “...conflicts are more or less regulated when their participants have a common value system,” common goals, interests;

7) - experience (example): at least one of the opponents has experience in solving similar problems, as well as knowledge of examples of resolving similar conflicts;

8)relationships*, a good relationship between opponents before the conflict contribute to a more complete resolution of the contradiction. For example, in strong families, where there are sincere relationships between spouses, conflicts are resolved more productively than in problem families.

Most of the conditions and factors for successful conflict resolution are psychological character, as it reflects the characteristics of the behavior and interaction of opponents. Some researchers highlight organizational, historical, legal and other factors. Let's look at them in more detail

Stopping conflict interactions– the first and obvious condition for the beginning of the resolution of any conflict. As long as some measures are taken by one or both sides to strengthen their position or weaken the opponent’s position through violence, there can be no talk of resolving the conflict.

Search for common or similar points of contact in the goals and interests of opponents is a two-way process and involves an analysis of both one’s own goals and interests and the goals and interests of the other party. If parties want to resolve a conflict, they must focus on the interests, not the personality of the opponent ( R. Fischer, W. Urey).\

Until the conflict is resolved, the parties maintain a stable negative attitude towards each other. It is expressed in a negative opinion about the opponent and in negative emotions towards him. To begin to resolve the conflict, it is necessary to soften this negative attitude. Main - reduce the intensity of negative emotions experienced in relation to the opponent.

At the same time it is expedient stop seeing your opponent as an enemy, adversary. It is important to understand that the problem that caused the conflict is best solved together by joining forces.

This is facilitated by:

Critical analysis of your own position and actions. Identifying and admitting your own mistakes reduces the negative perception of your opponent;

The desire to understand the interests of another. To understand does not mean to accept or justify. However, this will expand the idea of ​​the opponent and make him more objective;

Highlighting the constructive principle in the behavior or even in the intentions of the opponent. There are no absolutely bad or absolutely good people or social groups. Everyone has something positive, and it is necessary to rely on it when resolving a conflict.

Important reduce the negative emotions of the opposite party. Among the techniques are such as a positive assessment of some of the opponent’s actions, readiness to bring positions closer together, turning to a third party who is authoritative for the opponent, a critical attitude towards oneself, balanced own behavior, etc.

Objective discussion of the problem, clarification of the essence of the conflict, the ability of the parties to see the main thing contribute to the successful search for a solution to the contradiction. Focusing on secondary issues and caring only about one’s own interests reduce the chances of a constructive solution to the problem. When the parties join forces to end the conflict, it is necessary taking into account each other's status (position). The party occupying a subordinate position or having junior status must be aware of the limits of concessions that its opponent can afford. Too radical demands of a subordinate to a superior can provoke the stronger side to return to conflict confrontation.

Another important condition is choosing the optimal resolution strategy appropriate to the given circumstances. These strategies are discussed in the next paragraph.

Make stress work for you

If troubles cannot be avoided, then it is advisable to try to benefit from them as much as possible by changing the point of view:

Try to accept a negative event as a positive one (losing a job as an opportunity to find a better one);

Treat stress as a source of energy. In a calm state, you could not do so much; in an excited state, you managed to do incomparably more. See a problem as a challenge;

Don't think of past events as failure;

You cannot be responsible for the actions of other people, but you can only control your reaction to them. The main thing is victory over emotions;

Don't try to please everyone, it's unrealistic, please yourself from time to time.

Behavior in crisis situations

There are several ways to survive serious life conflicts:

Try to look into the future in a positive light. At least for a moment, remember how you felt when everything was fine. During the war, many who survived the famine say that remembering the delicious things they ate before the war allowed them to survive the pangs of hunger and survive;

Learn physical relaxation techniques, avoid tense postures that cause stress;

Live for today: set goals for today, don't demand too much from yourself;

If you need to solve a large and complex problem, the mere thought of which makes you give up, break it down into small components and begin to solve them gradually;

Do not allow yourself to drown in pity for yourself and your life, do not refuse the help of loved ones;

Remember that you are not alone. What you are experiencing now, others have endured and survived. So will it be for you.

Avoid friction in the family

Start resisting stress with your family, at home.

Find an opportunity to discuss problems at home; try to share the concerns of the other side;

Don’t “discharge yourself” at home;

Learn to listen to the problems of your loved ones with a positive attitude, and not as an additional burden: “Well, what happened to you again?”;

Always be together, let the problem unite you and not add additional difficulties.

Other examples of stress neutralization are presented in table. 6.2.
Table 6.2. Examples of stress neutralization methods.

Main criterion resolved conflict - satisfaction of the parties result. For others, such parameters as the degree of resolution of the contradiction underlying the conflict (the degree of normalization of the parties’ relations and relationships with other people depend on this) and the victory of the right opponent are also important.

Affiliate type conflict resolution - resolving conflict through the use of constructive methods.

Its main features are that it takes place:

Constructive interaction between the leader and conflicting parties. In order for the arguments of the head of the organization to be accepted or at least listened to, the manager needs to instill trust in himself, eliminate negative feelings, observe etiquette, and correctness in handling;

Perception of the opposing side's arguments;

Willingness to compromise, mutual search for solutions; development of mutually acceptable alternatives;

The desire to combine personal and organizational factors;

Perception as a normal factor of activity.

The partnership type of conflict has its advantages. He's closer to real solution problems, allows us to find unifying factors, i.e. satisfy (maybe not always completely) the interests of the parties. Of no small importance is:

· creating a favorable work atmosphere,

· friendly interpersonal relationships team members in the process of work,

· ability to distinguish reasons from reasons,

· choose the most correct ways to resolve conflicts.

Conditions for constructive conflict resolution:

Ø cessation of conflict interaction;

Ø search for close or even common points of contact (conflict map);

Ø reducing the intensity of negative emotions;

Ø elimination of the “enemy image”;

Ø reduction of negative emotions in the opponent;

Ø an objective view of the problem;

Ø taking into account each other’s statuses;

Ø selection of the optimal resolution strategy.

Factors for constructive conflict resolution:

Ø Time: a reduction in time leads to an increase in the likelihood of choosing aggressive behavior;

Ø The third side: the participation of third parties seeking to resolve the conflict leads to a calmer course and quicker resolution;

Ø Timeliness: the sooner the parties come to a settlement, the better;

Ø Balance of Power: if the parties are approximately equal, they have no choice but to seek a compromise;

Ø Culture: a high level of general culture of opponents reduces the likelihood of a violent conflict developing;

Ø Unity of values: the existence of agreement between the conflicting parties about what should constitute an acceptable solution;

Ø Experience: the presence of experience in resolving a conflict on at least one of the parties leads to faster resolution

Ø Relationship: Good relations between the parties before the conflict speed up its resolution.

Stages of Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is a multi-stage process that has its own logic, i.e. stages.

1. Analytical this P(collection and assessment of information on the following issues):

Ø - object of conflict

Ø - opponent

Ø - own position

Ø - reasons and immediate cause

Ø - social environment

Ø - secondary reflection (revision of the situation taking into account the above analyzed elements).

2. Forecasting a solution option:

Ø - most favorable

Ø - least favorable

Ø - what will happen if you just stop actions.

3. Determination of criteria for conflict resolution.

4. Actions to implement the planned plan.

5. Monitoring the effectiveness of actions.

6. Error analysis.

Ways to resolve conflict

Basic tactics of influencing an opponent in a conflict.

Tactics is a set of techniques for influencing an opponent, a means of implementing a strategy. In conflicts, the development of options for using tactics usually goes from soft to harder.

Conflict resolution strategies are the main lines of action of opponents to influence a conflict situation.

Tough tactics

Pressure tactics- presentation of demands, instructions, orders, threats, up to an ultimatum, presentation of compromising materials, blackmail. In vertical conflicts, it is used in two of three options.

Tactics of physical violence (damage)– destruction of material assets, physical impact, causing bodily harm, blocking someone else’s activities.

Tactics for capturing and holding an object conflict A. It is used in interpersonal, intergroup, interstate conflicts where the object is material.

Tactics of psychological violence (damage) – insult, rudeness, negative personal assessment, discriminatory measures, misinformation, deception, humiliation, etc.

Neutral tactics

Coalition tactics. The goal is to strengthen your rank in the conflict. It is expressed in the formation of unions, increasing the support group at the expense of leaders, friends, appeals to the media, and authorities.

Authorization. Influencing an opponent through penalties, increasing workload, imposing a ban, open refusal to carry out orders.

Demonstration tactics. It is used to attract attention to one’s person (public statements, complaints about health conditions, absenteeism from work, hunger strikes, demonstrations, etc.).

Soft tactics

Tactics for fixing your position. Based on the use of facts and logic to confirm one’s position (most often used).

Friendly tactics. Includes correct address, emphasizing the general, demonstrating readiness to solve the problem, providing necessary information, offer of help, etc.

Transaction tactics. Provides for the mutual exchange of benefits, promises, concessions, and apologies.

The same tactic can be used within different strategies.

Types of tactics and their specificity.

The methods, or tactics, for resolving conflicts are as diverse as the conflict situations themselves. However, they can all be summarized as follows:

(1) tactics of leaving or avoiding conflict;

(2) forceful suppression or method of violence;

(3) the method of unilateral concessions or accommodations;

(4) tactics of compromise or cooperation.

It is easy to see that the basis for this classification of conflict management tactics is the degree of readiness of the parties to meet each other halfway in the confrontation that has arisen.

Tactics of leaving or avoiding conflict

The least degree of such readiness is distinguished by the tactics of avoiding the conflict, which is sometimes called the tactics (method) of avoidance. Nevertheless, it is a very popular way of behavior in a conflict situation; it is often resorted to by both participants in the conflict and those who, due to their official status, must act as a mediator in its resolution.

The essence of this tactic is to ignore the conflict situation, refuse to acknowledge its existence, leave the “scene” on which the conflict unfolds, and remove oneself either physically or psychologically. This tactic means that a person who finds himself in a conflict situation prefers not to take any constructive steps to resolve or change it.

At first glance, it may seem that this tactic should only be assessed negatively. But upon closer examination, it turns out that, like any method, this line of behavior in a conflict has its pros and cons.

The advantages of avoidance tactics are as follows:

(1) it is quickly feasible, since it does not require the search for either intellectual or material resources. So, for example, a manager, avoiding conflict, may not respond to another written request from a subordinate to provide him with certain benefits, since this request is unreasonable;

(2) it makes it possible to delay or even prevent conflict, the content of which is insignificant from the point of view of the strategic goals of a given organization or group. Thus, parents may close their eyes and “not mess with” their adult daughter because the skirts she wears are not of the length that, in their opinion, meets the requirements of decency.

But this tactic also has its downsides. Thus, under certain conditions, it can lead to an escalation of the conflict, since the reason that caused it is not overcome by avoidance tactics, but is only preserved. And if this problem is real and significant, then this delay can only lead to an aggravation and not a resolution of the conflict. However, despite its disadvantages, this tactic can still be used.

The tactics of withdrawal, or avoidance, are also characterized by certain actions of the participants in the conflict, specific forms of their behavior: concealment, classification of information necessary to resolve the conflict that has arisen, in order to prevent its possible aggravation when people become familiar with “explosive” information;

Refusal to recognize the very fact of the existence of the causes of the conflict, in the expectation that it will somehow be resolved by itself, without the active participation of the warring parties;

By delaying, under one pretext or another, the final solution to the problem that caused the confrontation.

Conditions under which escape tactics are used.

(1) If the reasons that gave rise to the confrontation are of little significance; if the immediate cause that gave rise to the conflict is only the “tip of the iceberg”, it only indicates the presence of other underlying preconditions for the conflict. Naturally, under these conditions, one should refrain from wasting energy on unimportant problems, saving them for solving other deep-seated problems when they are fully revealed.

(2) For certain time parameters of the conflict: if the conflict arose at a time when it is not possible to spend it on resolving the confrontation, since there are other pressing problems that are more significant from the point of view of the organization’s goals.

(3) If the available information about the conflict is limited, the necessary information is missing and it is impossible extra work to collect data that would ensure an effective end to the conflict.

(4) If one of the conflicting parties does not have sufficient forces that are able to quickly and successfully resolve the conflict. Thus, an experienced military leader refrains from a full-scale battle until the reserves arrive, and only after their arrival begins a powerful attack on the enemy. This is precisely the tactic that Kutuzov followed during Patriotic War 1812

Force suppression tactics

In many ways, the method of forceful suppression is the opposite of the considered method of care. Its use indicates more high degree readiness to resolve the conflict on the part of at least one of the parties. Its essence consists in the forced imposition of its decision on one of the parties. For the use of this tactic, there are also certain prerequisites that favor its success.

Prerequisites for the use of force methods.

(1) The decisive superiority of one of the parties in the available material and psychological resources, for example, the superiority of the administration, which is in conflict with the working collective of the plant.

(2) Emergence emergency requiring immediate action.

(3) The sudden need to make an unpopular decision, which will obviously be negatively received by the other side. This was precisely the decision of the Russian government in August 1998 to stop payments on government loan obligations, a default that led to a deep financial crisis. Actions of the same order also include decisions by the enterprise administration to reduce wages or increase working hours in conditions of the enterprise threatening bankruptcy.

(4) Subject to the indisputable legality of the actions of the party having a power advantage, when these actions are related to ensuring problems that are vital for a given structure, for example, the immediate dismissal of an employee who committed an act that caused serious material or moral damage to the organization; Such actions may include disclosure by an employee of a trade secret, failure by a medical worker to provide emergency care to the patient, disruption of classes by the teacher, etc.

(5) In case of any manifestations of destructive forms of behavior on the part of members of the organization, such as, for example, drunkenness, drug addiction, theft of property, absenteeism, violation of safety regulations, etc.

Power tactics also have their specific manifestations at the behavioral level. Here it is expressed in the following behavioral forms:

The use of predominantly coercive, forceful methods of influence with limited involvement of educational means, which in the conditions considered may turn out to be as ineffective as they turned out to be unsuitable in the situation described by I.A. Krylov in famous fable"The Cat and the Chef";

The use of a rigid, commanding style of communication, designed for the unquestioning subordination of one side of the conflict to the other; the use, in order to ensure the success of forceful tactics, of the mechanism of competition, which was already known to the ancient Romans under the name of the “divide and conquer” method and which is often used today under the more streamlined name of the “mechanism of checks and balances”; These mechanisms are most often used in practice in the form of a combination of punishment for negligent workers and incentive measures for conscientious workers.

They are contrasted with civilized, thoroughly rationalized methods based on the “win-win” principle, primarily the tactics of unilateral concessions and the tactics of compromises, mutually beneficial agreements or cooperation.

These tactics are more diverse and rich in content, although they are more difficult to implement in practice, since they require a certain level of conflictological literacy from the participants in the conflict. They are characterized by a focus on constructive resolution of the conflict, reducing the level of tension that has arisen, and increasing the level of cohesion of the organization. Mastering these tactics is a necessary condition for the effectiveness of modern management activities.

Method of unilateral concessions, or adaptations

One of the varieties of tactics of this kind is the method of unilateral concessions, or adaptation. For the successful application of this method, there are also a number of specific prerequisites related to the specific features of the conflict situation.

Such conditions may include the following.

(1) An obvious mistake discovered during the conflict, made by one of the parties, for example, by the administration of a plant when establishing production standards for manufactured products. Under these conditions, neither avoiding the conflict nor suppressing it by force is possible, and the only possible tactic that will help the administration “save face” will be a concession to workers in the form, for example, of reducing production standards to a reasonable limit. Such a step by the administration will undoubtedly be perceived as a manifestation of its self-criticism and ability to objectively assess the demands of employees, which will ultimately lead to strengthening the unity of the team and increasing the efficiency of its work.

(2) In conditions where the significance of the necessary concession for one of the parties turns out to be incomparable with its significance for the other party. In these circumstances, by making some small concessions, one side prevents the possibility of a significant release of conflict energy by the other side and thereby again achieves the restoration of agreement. Thus, by satisfying an employee’s request for short-term emergency leave for family reasons, the manager not only prevents a possible conflict, but also acquires a new ally in the person of this employee.

(3) In anticipation of possible crisis events for the group in the near future, when it is necessary to conserve strength, energy, resources for this future and, at the cost of concessions, maintain peace and tranquility during this period. This is what governments do, for example, in the face of a military threat, hastily resolving disputes with neighboring states through individual concessions in the hope of winning them over to their side as allies in the coming war.

(4) One inevitably has to resort to the tactics of concessions when refusing them threatens one of the parties with much more serious immediate damage, when there is a situation of choice, as they say, “between life and wallet.” A similar situation often arises when negotiating with criminals who have taken hostages.

However, the method of unilateral concessions also has its weaknesses, since it does not fully, but only partially implements the “win-win” principle. After all, when using it, only one side benefits, while the other one way or another ends up at a loss, which sooner or later may turn out to be a source of new tension.

Tactics of compromise, mutual concessions

Therefore, more reliable effective method conflict resolution, the tactics of compromise and mutual concessions are recognized, which in the future can become the most reliable basis for long-term cooperation. This tactic is increasingly used in democratic countries and is considered in conflictology as a classic, that is, exemplary, method of resolving conflict situations.

Compromise is understood as the path of mutual concessions, a mutually beneficial deal, and the creation of conditions for at least partial satisfaction of the interests of the warring parties. Compromise, therefore, is a type of agreement based on mutual adjustment of the positions of both parties on the issues under discussion, the search for a mutually acceptable position on controversial issues. Of course, for the successful implementation of this method, a certain set of favorable conditions is necessary. Such conditions include:

(1) the readiness of both parties to realize their goals through mutual concessions on the “win-win” or “give-get” principle;

(2) the impossibility of resolving the conflict by force or withdrawal, that is, according to the “win-lose” principle.

It is in the implementation of this method that such a universal conflict resolution mechanism as negotiations plays a big role. The negotiation process and discussions make it possible to the greatest extent to identify points of contact between the interests of opponents, the so-called “zones of agreement.” It is extremely useful to start negotiations with questions that fall into this zone and allow the other side to say: “Yes!” But for the success of negotiations, it is necessary to comply with a number of conditions, for example, determining the place and timing of their holding, the composition of participants, the presence of intermediaries, the form of decision-making and a number of other conditions. Of course, the tactics of compromise, the most important element of which are negotiations, is not a universal, fail-safe master key to all types of conflict situations. Its use, as well as the use of other methods considered, is problematic and is associated with a number of difficulties that arise during the practical use of compromise tactics.

The most common difficulties encountered are:

(1) refusal of one of the parties from the initially taken position due to discovery during negotiations that it was unrealistic;

(2) the developed solution, due to the mutual concessions it contains, may turn out to be contradictory, unclear and therefore difficult to implement. Thus, promises made by both parties to speed up the implementation of mutual obligations may not be backed by resources;

But, despite these and some other difficulties, compromise solutions are optimal for resolving a conflict situation, because they:

Contribute to the identification and consideration of mutual interests, being aimed at a mutually beneficial result according to the “win-win” principle;

Demonstrate the parties' respect for each other's professionalism and dignity.

This is the main content of the tactics of mutually beneficial cooperation, which is recognized by science as the most effective way to regulate conflict.

Mechanisms for implementing compromise tactics

That is why the most effective in comparison with this tactic, as well as in comparison with the tactics of withdrawal, the use of force and the use of unilateral concessions, is the tactic of mutual gain. The advantage of the “win-win” approach is that both parties benefit, and therefore the decision taken becomes more durable and sustainable. In conflict literature, this tactic has been developed in the most depth and detail, including not only its prerequisites, advantages and disadvantages, but also the mechanisms for its practical implementation. These mechanisms are designed to solve two main problems:

(1) collection of comprehensive information, a complete database on the conflict;

(2) development of basic forms of behavior of conflict participants that ensure its successful resolution.

The solution to the first of these tasks is ensured by an in-depth study of the conflict situation, taking into account all the factors that caused the conflict. The most convenient way of its practical implementation is a conflict map. The main elements of a conflict map: a description of the essence of the problems that caused the conflict, a definition of the nature of the conflict, psychological or social, a list of participants in the conflict (individuals, groups, departments, organizations), and most importantly - a description of the needs of the participants in the conflict, and possibly those that arose among them concerns about the emergence of obstacles that prevent the satisfaction of certain needs.

However, mastering information about the conflict is a necessary but not sufficient condition for its successful regulation. To achieve this complex goal, it is also necessary to solve the second task - ensuring, on the basis of this information, organized actions and behavior of the participants in the conflict in a certain way. Information taken by itself is an invisible, ephemeral, poorly controlled phenomenon. It takes on visible forms only in human communication, verbal and non-verbal. Having been born in the process of communication, conflict can be overcome only in the process of communication.

A four-step method for resolving conflict through compromise

The transformation of conflictual relationships into relationships of agreement is achieved, as experience shows, as a result of the following actions or steps.

(1) It is necessary to allocate special time for communication, conversation, discussion. In this case, it is often necessary to overcome the desire of the other party to avoid contact and resort to escape tactics. To overcome such a desire, it is important to convince the other that overcoming disagreements is also beneficial for him. It is important not to bind the other side with any preliminary obligations, except for participation in the upcoming dialogue and excluding intimidation and threats, that is, attempts at forceful pressure. However, it is very important to agree in advance to make a decision to end the meeting only by mutual consent, in order to prevent, as far as possible, its premature ending, that is, its termination before the conditions for moving on to the next stage are created. But for this you need to follow some other steps.

(2) A favorable environment should be ensured for the entire duration of the meeting. To do this, you should create the necessary amenities for a smooth meeting. There should be no strangers in the room where the conversation is taking place; Telephone calls should also be avoided. It is also useful to pay attention to such little things as room temperature, lighting, etc. You need to prepare in advance for a lengthy discussion of the conflict and serious nervous tension. It is useful to keep the content of conversations secret until the conflict is fully resolved. Only compliance with these basic conditions for holding the meeting will ensure the success of the main, third step of conflict resolution.

(3) Compliance with the basic rules for discussing the problem. These negotiation techniques will be discussed in detail in a later chapter. Basic rules for discussing a problem Before starting a dialogue, you should express the optimistic hope that a mutually beneficial solution will be achieved as a result, and then it is useful to remind you of the need to comply with the previously agreed conditions for the conversation: do not interrupt the discussion prematurely, refrain from playing power games, etc. After these introductory remarks, it is advisable to move on to the next point in the conversation: to formulate the essence of the problem that has arisen and invite the interlocutor to present his vision of the situation that has arisen, which will mark the beginning of the main negotiation process. In the process of its development, one should not be distracted from the problem at hand, discuss the weather, tell jokes, etc. One should not express doubts about the success of the meeting. You need to make every effort to direct the conversation to a constructive result. You can, for example, express regret about your behavior in the past, declare your willingness to make concessions on a controversial issue, express understanding of the problems of your interlocutor, good feelings, respect for him, the desire to find mutually acceptable solutions. By establishing such a process of exchanging gestures of reconciliation, the decisive moment of dialogue ultimately arrives, as a result of which tensions are eased, trust is strengthened and the desired breakthrough in relationships is achieved, allowing the conclusion of an agreement to resolve the conflict on mutually beneficial terms.

(4) The conclusion of an agreement is the final part of the conflict resolution process based on compromise tactics. But in order for the agreement to become strong and feasible, it must be mutually beneficial, balanced, and compromise. Moreover, the decision must be specific, define exactly who should do what and when, and not consist of general phrases about mutual respect, sincerity, etc. It is best to put the agreement reached in writing, without relying on your memory, and give a copy of it to each party to the conflict. Of course, when discussing family problems, a written agreement may not be necessary, but in an industrial conflict it is necessary.

The considered process of conducting dialogue in order to resolve the conflict based on compromise tactics is called the four-step method. It is recommended by conflict experts as the most effective method transformation conflict behavior into a cooperative relationship. These are some methods of resolving conflict through withdrawal, force, unilateral and mutually beneficial concessions. Each of these tactics is implemented using specific, unique means and mechanisms.

Four groups of positive conflict management methods

Positive methods of conflict resolution are of a completely different nature. They serve not only the purposes of resolving conflict situations, but can also play a preventive role, preventing conflicts, especially destructive ones. They can be roughly divided into four groups.

(1) Recommendations of a very general nature, relating not only to conflict interaction, but also to any type of communication between people. These include such rules as constant attention to the interlocutor, the ability to listen patiently; a benevolent, friendly, respectful attitude towards him; constant maintenance feedback with the interlocutor, an appropriate response to his behavior; some slowdown in the pace and rhythm of the conversation if it turns out that the interlocutor is overly excited; the desire to empathize with your partner, to experience the same feelings that are characteristic of the person next to you, that is, to show the ability to sympathize, empathy.

(2) A block of methods that are used in the initial, predominantly pre-verbal phase of conversations and negotiations conducted in order to resolve a conflict situation. At this phase, it is important to give the interlocutor the opportunity to speak out more fully, without trying to interrupt him, to give him the opportunity, as they say, to “let off steam”; show with facial expressions and gestures that you understand your partner’s condition; reduce the social distance that usually separates you, even touch his shoulder, smile.

(3) The main recommendations in the second, main phase of a conversation or negotiation can be reduced to the following: you need to distract or switch the interlocutor’s attention from the subject of the conflict at least for a short time, give him a short break from emotional stress, offering to at least drink a cup of coffee, light a cigarette, or simply say something nice to him: offer to sit down, but preferably not opposite each other, since such a position, according to psychologists, does not reduce, but increases confrontation, and nearby, at a distance of up to half a meter, at an angle to each other; Only after these preliminary behavioral actions should we begin to discuss the problem that caused the conflict. At the same time, it is useful, if necessary, to admit one’s guilt for the emergence of a confrontation; it is necessary to admit that the interlocutor was right in those points where he was right; It is important during the discussion to emphasize the commonality, and not just the differences, in the interests of the parties; It is equally important to pay attention to best qualities the interlocutor that the partner has and who will help him cope with his anxiety and find the optimal way out of the current situation; Of course, it is best to resolve the issue that led to disagreement immediately or try to resolve it as soon as possible, because delay, as a rule, only aggravates the situation.

(4) Recommendations of a universal nature, forming a block of special, operational techniques that can be used in complex conflict situations. They involve taking into account weaknesses and vulnerabilities in the interlocutor’s position, as well as some pain points him as a person. So, in some cases, you should show your interlocutor that he is too harsh, adopting an emphatically polite tone for this purpose; sometimes it is necessary to show stronger aggression towards a partner than what he showed.

You can tell your interlocutor about the negative consequences of a conflict situation that may follow for him personally; and finally, sometimes it should be shown that meeting his demands can lead to negative consequences for people whose opinions he values.

Of course, all of these tactics and techniques can be refined and improved when they are used to regulate specific conflict situations, each of which is unique. An experienced leader, gradually accumulating experience in conflict management, gradually turns it into a kind of set of rules, a code of principles.

In modern conflictology, the following conditions for conflict resolution are formulated.

1) Timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict. This involves identifying objective contradictions, interests, goals and delineating the “business zone” of a conflict situation. A model for exiting a conflict situation is created.

2) Mutual interest in overcoming contradictions based on mutual recognition of the interests of each party.

3) Joint search for a compromise, i.e. ways to overcome the conflict. Constructive dialogue between the warring parties is of decisive importance.

The post-conflict stage involves the elimination of contradictions of conflicting interests, goals, attitudes, and the elimination of socio-psychological tension in society. Post-conflict syndrome, when relations worsen, may be the beginning of repeated conflicts at a different level with other participants.

Modern conflictology in democratic countries identifies the main priorities for conflict resolution. A feature of a democratic society is the recognition of the admissibility of conflicts and the multiplicity of divergent interests.

In Russia, a feature of conflict resolution is the maximalism of the parties, which does not allow reaching consensus, removing motives, and deep sources of social tension. This maximalism is most clearly manifested in Russia in ethno-national conflicts, where one of the conflicting parties defends the principle of sovereignty. This principle of sovereignty is indeed the most authoritative in resolving national conflicts, but it can lead to a deterioration in the financial situation of the local population and cause not an interethnic, but an internal conflict. The principle of the right of nations to self-determination works best in interethnic conflicts.

As a result, which method of resolving the conflict is the most rational? – This is the integration of the parties, political decisions that take into account the interests of all parties.

In R. Dahrendorf's conflict theory, successful conflict management requires the presence of value prerequisites, the level of organization of the parties, and equality of opportunity for both parties to the conflict.

Mass consciousness and mass action. Social movements

“Mass consciousness,” along with group and social consciousness, is a type of social consciousness associated with the activities of a special kind of social communities—the masses. In terms of content, “mass consciousness” is a set of ideas, ideas, moods and illusions accessible to the masses that reflect the social life of society. “Mass consciousness” is narrower in scope than social consciousness; group components and special forms of spiritual mastery of reality (science, professional ethics) fall out of it.

“Mass consciousness” arises and is formed in the process of stereotyping people’s lives in the spheres of work, politics, and leisure, when the same or similar aspirations, interests, assessments, and needs are born. With the help of the media, models of behavior, perception of the surrounding world, knowledge, lifestyles, and stereotypes of consciousness are replicated. The structure of “mass consciousness” consists of public opinion(totality of assessments), value orientations and attitudes influencing the behavior of the masses, “public mood”. Mass consciousness acts as a regulator of mass forms of human behavior. Its role intensifies as the role of the masses grows in economics, politics, and culture.

Mass actions as a form of conflict

The most striking form of social conflicts are mass actions, which are realized in the form of demands on the authorities, or in direct protests. Mass protest is an active form of conflict behavior. It is expressed in various forms: spontaneous riots, organized strikes, violent actions (hostages), non-violent actions - civil disobedience campaigns; the organizers of mass protest are interest groups, or pressure groups. Rallies, demonstrations, picketing, and hunger strikes are effective means of solving specific problems. They are complemented by revolutions, partisan movements, and terrorist attacks.

In conclusion, we note that since conflicts in life are inevitable, it is important to master conflict management technologies.

Social movements

“Social movement” is various associations of social, demographic, ethnic, religious and other groups, their joint actions to achieve common goals. The genesis of social movements is associated with the emergence of conflicts, disorganization, and erosion of past values ​​in society, which encourage part of society to unite for the purpose of self-realization. Social movements united:

1) the common goal is to change your social status;

2) common values ​​(revolutionary, conservative, destructive, positive);

3) a general system of norms regulating the behavior of its participants;

4) an informal leader.

In Marxist sociology, various types of social movements are analyzed - revolutionary, reform, national liberation, professional, youth, women's, etc. On the basis of social movements, political parties who have their own organization, ideology, and programs. In the political life of the twentieth century, mass movements for peace, ecology, national liberation, feminist, and youth play a large role. A number of mass movements take the form of a social institution that has specific norms and sanctions, values ​​(for example, environmentalists, the protection of cultural monuments, religious sects). Informal social movements of punks, skinheads, rockers, mods, and hippies are also widespread in modern society. In a democracy, the importance of mass movements increases.

Social conflict is a way of interaction between individuals, communities, social institutions, determined by their material and spiritual interests, determined social status, power; it is a collision whose goal is neutralization. causing damage or destruction to an enemy. Consensus seems to be one of the methods for making economic, socio-political and other decisions, which consists in developing an agreed position that does not cause fundamental objections from the parties.

Questions for self-control

1. How does social conflict differ from interpersonal conflict?

2. Who can become the subject of social conflict?

3. What determines the social significance of conflictology?

4. Name the main signs of social conflict.

5. Define the concepts of “social conflict” and conflict situation.

6. What is the main way to resolve social conflicts?

7. What is the fundamental difference between formal and informal mass movements?

Literature

2. Druzhinin M.V., Kontorov D.S., Kontorov M.D. Introduction to the theory of conflicts. M., 1989.

3. Zdravomyslov A.G. Fundamental problems of the sociology of conflict in the dynamics of mass consciousness. //Socis, 1998, No. 8.

4. Siegert W., Lang L., Lead without conflict. M., 1990.

5. Political conflicts: from violence to harmony. M., 1996.

6. Pretorius R. Theory of conflict. //Polis, 1991, No. 5.

7. Social conflict. Modern research. M., 1991.

8. Sogrin V.V. Conflict and consensus in Russian politics. // Social Sciences and modernity. 1996, no. 1.

XI. PRODUCTION ORGANIZATIONS:

OPERATION, MANAGEMENT

1. Management of a production organization.

2. Management style and methods.

Basic Concepts

Production organization, management, standards of behavior in production, formal and informal organizations, management, verbal and horizontal communications and structures, hierarchy, stability, intra-organizational values, decision making, instrumentality and subjectivity, subordination, controllability, standardized decisions, directive, collective style, innovative management.

Purpose of information

The previous topics examined social institutions and organizations as a special type of structures that regulate interaction and social relations in society. The purpose of this topic is to reveal the features of the functioning and management of one of the most common forms of social organization - the production organization.

First question. When studying the theoretical concepts of industrial organization, pay attention to the sociological works of American researchers E. Mayo, F. Taylor, D. McGregor, F. Herzberg, E. Goldner and domestic sociologists V. Podmarkov, D. Gvishiani, A. Prigozhin, N. Lanin etc. Consider the formal and informal structures and functions of the production organization and their impact on the efficiency of work and labor organization.

A significant role is played by organizational values ​​aimed at establishing strict social control and meeting the needs of organization members. Determine for yourself the ranking of these values, putting in the foreground the values ​​in the form of obtaining maximum profit by achieving economic efficiency with a rational organization.

Second question Start studying by clarifying the concepts of “management” and “management”. The administrative organization inherent in any production is a management structure with an internal cycle. Determine that management is the most radical way of organizing business and work in general. Expand such concepts as “controllability”, “decision making”, “style and methods of management” based on studying the works of A.I. Prigogine, D. McGregor and other sociologists.

Conclusions. Summarize the materials studied, noting that production organizations and management play a huge role in the realization of basic human needs, improving the level and quality of life of the entire society.

Production organization management

A production organization as a formal organization can be described as a system of specified impersonal requirements and standards of behavior, formally defined and rigidly assigned role prescriptions. It is a pyramid, the horizontal section of which characterizes the system of requirements functional division labor, and vertical – relations of power and subordination.

A formal organization can also be described as a system of departments, groups, and jobs. The workplace of an individual and an individual structural unit easily determined by the positions they occupy in horizontal and vertical sections. In the first case, such a position is called a function, in the second - a status.

The structure of production organizations is a spatio-temporal formation. Its elements are distributed in the organizational space. The topography of organizational space implies four types of division: 1) geographical distribution of workers in workshops, departments, etc., the premises of which are separated from each other; 2) functional - a mason, a standardizer can be located in the same geographical space, but functionally they are separated and, therefore, they have different roles and interests; 3) status - division by position, place in a social group: workers, employees, managers more often contact each other, despite the fact that they may be located in different rooms, they trust each other more; 4) hierarchical - according to place in the management of the organization. The norms of the formal structure prescribe to address the issue to the immediate superior, and not through his “head”. At the same time, a production organization is an open system and, therefore, it functions and develops over time. Its elements, based on activity and relationships, exchange matter, energy, information, etc.

In manufacturing organizations, like others social organizations, there is quite a large number of values. What are the main ones? First of all, the organization needs constant external goal setting to confirm the relevance of its functions. Therefore, the goals themselves are formed by certain specific customers - other organizations that need the productivity of this organization.

Any production organization requires stability, sustainable functioning, and certain guarantees of its need in the future. Therefore, a stable customer, long-term stable relationship with this customer are also an important organizational value.

For a production organization, it is also of significant importance what costs are used to achieve the result of their activities, what is the economic efficiency of management, whether the production of a particular product is unprofitable or makes a profit. Maximum economic efficiency and profit making are an important organizational value in the conditions of commodity production.

The functioning of production organizations is related to the interaction of two components - means of production and labor. The quality of the workforce and its reproduction are associated with meeting the diverse needs of enterprise employees. This satisfaction is carried out within the framework social policy production organizations. The quantitative and qualitative levels of social policy of enterprises undoubtedly belong to significant organizational values.

Discipline, responsibility, stability - all these values ​​are, as it were, the preservative qualities of a production organization. But organizations have a need to introduce innovations, to change their structure, technologies, relationships, and functions. Diverse innovation is also widely recognized as an essential organizational value. This means that innovation, initiative, and creative inclinations, in a certain sense, can act as intra-organizational values.

Thus, we have moved on to an important problem in the sociology of industrial organizations - the problem of management. The management cycle is called the administrative organization. Let's figure out what an administrative organization is. An administrative organization is a system of official relations defined by regulations, instructions, rules, laws, orders, technical standards, maps of official responsibilities, staffing table. The administrative organization includes a number of necessary components: 1) distribution of functions: horizontal specialization between target groups (teams, sections, workshops, departments, etc.); the structure and methods of operation of these groups are usually formalized in regulations, instructions and other official documents; 2) subordination of positions, i.e. vertical distribution of rights, duties and powers, volumes and measures of responsibility in decision making at various levels; 3) a communication system, i.e. a system for transmitting information that operates “from top to bottom” and horizontally. These functions combine management, i.e., the organization of the management process, ensuring the adoption of the optimal decision and its practical implementation, as well as effective control and verification of execution.

Management is a rational way of organizing production work. We can give this definition of management. Management is a purposeful, planned, coordinated and consciously organized process that helps achieve maximum effect while expending minimal resources, effort and time. Management is the object of study of many disciplines: cybernetics, biology, economic theory, etc. The specificity of the sociological approach to management is that it is considered from the perspective of the activities, interests, behavior and interaction of certain social groups that are in a leadership relationship with each other - submission. The sociology of industrial organization studies one of their varieties - management groups.

A synthetic approach to the problem of management was developed by A.I. Prigozhin in his work “Sociology of Organization” (Moscow, 1980). It is based on the principle that the control system is a less complex object than the controlled one or the control object. The control object has a relatively independent form of its existence, and, consequently, its own operating logic and inertia. The degree of freedom and autonomy of the controlled object is expressed by the concept of “controllability”. The degree of controllability depends on the size of the enterprise, the number of personnel, territorial location, technological profile of production, and finally, the trends and norms of discipline that have developed in the team, attitude to work, style and methods of management. The degree of controllability also depends on the flexibility of the control system itself.

The effectiveness of management largely depends on the quality of the solutions used. The decision is the central element of management and production organization. A.I. Prigozhin proposed a classification of management decisions that would take into account, first of all, the degree of contribution of the subject of the decision to organizational transformations. According to his opinion, all management decisions in an organization can be divided into two types. The first is strictly conditioned (deterministic and weakly dependent on the subject of decisions. This type usually includes either so-called standardized decisions (conditioned by the instructions and orders adopted above), or secondarily conditioned orders of a higher organization. This type of practice decision does not depend on the qualities and orientation of the leader .

The second type is the so-called situational decisions, where the qualities of a leader leave a serious imprint on the nature of the decisions made. These include decisions related to both local changes in the organization (for example, rewards, punishments) and changes in the mechanisms, structure, and goals of the organization. An initiative decision is usually considered as a choice of behavioral alternatives from several possible options, each of which entails a number of positive and negative consequences. Among the factors influencing the quality of decisions, in addition to the role positions we have already identified, we should note such as the competence of the personnel preparing the decisions, the business and personal qualities of the manager.

Management style and methods

The theory of management styles by D. McGregor describes the features of three main management styles: 1. Authoritarian style, which is characterized by strict control, coercion to work, negative sanctions, and an emphasis on material incentives. 2. Democratic style, emphasizing use creativity subordinates, flexible control, lack of coercion, self-control, participation in management, emphasis on moral incentives to work. 3. Mixed type, alternating elements of authoritarian and democratic management styles.

D. McGregor does not consider it necessary to recommend one or another management style as more preferable. In his opinion, before choosing a particular model at an enterprise, a diagnostic study should be conducted and a number of questions should be clarified: what is the level of trust in the relationship between managers and subordinates, the state of labor discipline, the level of cohesion and other elements of the socio-psychological climate in the team. Based on these studies, two social trends were formed in the United States - the introduction of new forms of labor organization and a program to improve the quality of life.

IN last years in industrial developed countries Along with the traditional leader-manager, a need arose for a new type of manager - an “innovation manager”. An innovation manager, according to B. Santo, is not a boss in the traditional sense of the word, but an employee, a partner. Its activities are aimed at transferring knowledge, implementing economic decisions, creating incentive mechanisms, etc. It acts as a catalyst for joint activities, leads to the search for new goals, and sets in motion those who identify themselves with these goals. An innovative manager achieves a goal by developing internal contradictions of the organization. His strategy is a gradual transition to large-scale cooperation, setting high ambitious goals, and more rapid socio-technical development of a market economy. His tactics consist of changing personnel in key positions, relying on successfully operating functional systems, selecting, accumulating even minor benefits and advantages, followed by a breakthrough to a new state of the organization.

Questions for self-control

1. Define the concept of “production organization”?

2. What are the features of the structure and functions of production organizations?

3. What are general and intra-organizational values?

4. What role do informal groups play in industrial organizations?

5. List the main forms and methods of management activities.

6. What is the meaning of D. McGregor’s theory of management styles?

Literature

1. Blau P. Study of formal organizations // American Sociology. M., 1972.

2. Blake R., Mouton D. Scientific methods of management. Kyiv 1990.

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13. Radaev V.V. Economic sociology. M., 1998.

Educational literature

1. Elsukova A. N. et al. History of sociology. Minsk, 1997.

2. History theoretical sociology. M., 1998.

3. Komarov M. S. Introduction to sociology. M., 1994.

4. Kravchenko A. I. Sociology. Tutorial. Ekaterinburg, 1998.

5. Kravchenko A. I. Sociology. Problem book. M., 1997.

6. Kravchenko A.I. Fundamentals of Sociology. M., 1997.

7. Radugin A.I., Radugin I.V. sociology. Lecture course. M., 1995.

8. Russian Sociological Encyclopedia (ed. G. V. Osipov). M., 1998.

9. Modern Western sociology. Dictionary. M., 1990.

10. Smelser N. Sociology. M., 1994.

11. Sociological encyclopedic dictionary (ed. G. V. Osipov). M., 1997.

12. Sociology. Problems and directions of development (ed. S. I. Grigoriev). M., 1997.

13. Toshchenko Zh. T. sociology. M., 1996.

14. Frolov S.S. sociology. Textbook for universities. M., 1997.

15. Sheregi F. E. applied sociology. Textbook. M., 1996.

16. Efendiev A. G. Fundamentals of Sociology. M., 1994.

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