Lunokhod-1 is the first lunar self-propelled vehicle. It was delivered to the surface of the Moon on November 17, 1970, by the Soviet interplanetary station Luna-17 and worked on its surface until October 4, 1971. It was intended to study the features of the lunar surface, radioactive and X-ray cosmic radiation on the Moon, the chemical composition and properties of the soil.

Lunokhod-1 was created in the design bureau of the Khimki Machine-Building Plant named after S.A. Lavochkin under the leadership of Grigory Nikolaevich Babakin. The self-propelled chassis for the Lunokhod was created at VNIITransMash under the leadership of Alexander Leonovich Kemurdzhian.
The preliminary design of the lunar rover was approved in the fall of 1966. By the end of 1967, all design documentation was ready.
The automatic interplanetary station Luna-17 with Lunokhod-1 was launched on November 10, 1970, and on November 15, Luna-17 entered the orbit of an artificial satellite of the Moon.
On November 17, 1970, the station safely landed in the Sea of ​​Rains and Lunokhod-1 slid onto the lunar soil.
The research apparatus was controlled using a complex of equipment for monitoring and processing telemetric information based on Minsk-22 - STI-90. The Lunokhod control center at the Simferopol Space Communications Center included a Lunokhod control center, which consisted of control panels for the crew commander, the Lunokhod driver and the highly directional antenna operator, a workstation for the crew navigator, as well as a room for operational processing of telemetric information. The main difficulty in controlling the lunar rover was the time delay, the radio signal traveling to the Moon and back took about 2 seconds, and the use of low-frame television with a picture changing frequency from 1 frame in 4 seconds to 1 in 20 seconds. As a result, the total delay in control reached 24 seconds.

During the first three months of planned work, in addition to studying the surface, the device also carried out an application program, during which it worked on searching for the landing area for the lunar cabin. After completing the program, the lunar rover worked on the Moon three times longer than its originally calculated resource. During its stay on the lunar surface, Lunokhod-1 traveled 10,540 m, transmitted 211 lunar panoramas and 25 thousand photographs to Earth. The physical and mechanical properties of the surface layer of soil were studied at more than 500 points along the route, and its chemical composition was analyzed at 25 points.
On September 15, 1971, the temperature inside the sealed container of the lunar rover began to drop as the resource of the isotope heat source was exhausted. On September 30, the device did not communicate and on October 4, all attempts to contact it were stopped.
On December 11, 1993, Lunokhod-1, together with the landing stage of the Luna-17 station, was put up for auction by the Lavochkin Association at Sotheby's. With a stated starting price of $5,000, the auction ended at $68,500. According to the Russian press, the buyer turned out to be the son of one of the American astronauts. The catalog stated that the lot “rests on the surface of the Moon.”

VNIITransMash
The main developer of the chassis for planetary rovers (wheels, engines, drive, suspension, control system) in the USSR was (and remains to this day in Russia) the Leningrad VNIItransmash (VNIITM). This institution developed mainly chassis for tanks, so that extensive experience was accumulated in the field of creating off-road vehicles, since the common property of a planetary rover and a tank is movement on unprepared terrain.

In one of the VNIITM workshops

Many different devices were created and tested here - Lunokhod 1 and 2 (1970), a walking rover sent to Mars in 1971, jumping for Phobos (1988), a robot for cleaning the roof of the destroyed power unit of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (1986), a planetary rover for a failed expedition Mars-96, several rovers within the framework of cooperation with foreign organizations (in recent years), etc.

Probably many people noticed that all lunar rovers that moved around other planets were wheeled. And this despite the fact that many other approaches have long been known - caterpillar, walking, etc. Apparently, there are serious reasons to choose wheels.
Almost all celestial bodies that are available to us for study have a solid surface with many relatively flat areas. There are no swamps, quicksand, forests or vegetation that would require caterpillars or walking movers. On the Moon and Mars, as well as on Mercury and Venus, wheels can be used everywhere.

Wheels are a very economical type of propulsion. To turn, say, tracks, you need much more power. But these are additional batteries that need to be delivered hundreds of thousands of kilometers.
Reliability is also important - it is problematic to replace a torn track or a broken leg lever on Mars, while the breakdown of even a few wheels does not necessarily jeopardize the completion of the task.
The theory of motion of wheeled vehicles is also the best developed. Suffice it to remember that walking machines have so far found almost no application, even in well-studied terrestrial conditions.
The wheel drive from electric motors is also relatively simple, making it easy to turn.
So, the choice of a wheel propulsion device is clearly justified. Next we will look at several options for wheels created at VNIITM

Lunokhod wheels

The wheels of the Lunokhod can already be considered a classic. Most of the subsequent models and real planetary rovers borrowed at least something from them. The wheels consist of three titanium rims, with a steel mesh attached to them with lugs made of the same titanium. On a hard surface, the support occurs on the middle rim, but on soft ground the rim penetrates deeply and then the mesh works.

Trial wheel options for Lunokhod
These are two trial versions of wheels for the Lunokhod. The wheel is suspended, in one case, with the help of elastic metal bands, in the other - with the help of cylindrical springs along the axis of the wheel.

Another option - here the outer surface of the wheel is made of an elastic mesh, but under the mesh there are ribbon springs that work when the mesh is damaged by impacts. The wheel profile prevents side slippage. The lugs (in the middle) work mainly when the mesh bends on hard soils.

For planets with strong gravity (Mars, Earth), the weak mesh is abandoned in favor of a solid surface with lugs (shell wheel). In the case of the Mars rovers, scientists proceeded from the first photographs of the Viking, where the surface of Mars looked rocky.

As you can see, in all designs they try to ensure good adhesion to the ground (lugs, mesh), low weight (no solid disks, if possible mesh and spokes, or a solid but hollow wheel), suspension (spokes, springs, etc.), measures against lateral slip (characteristic convex or concave profile).
In almost all wheeled planetary rovers, the wheel is a single (often even sealed) module, which also includes a gearbox, an electric motor, a brake, and the necessary sensors. This module is called “motor-wheel”. The use of motor wheels allows, along with the suspension, to ensure equal load on all wheels and efficient use of power on uneven terrain, when part of the wheels is hanging in the air, etc.

Cross-sectional view of the motor-wheel
If we consider the wheeled propulsion system as a whole, the question arises: why do planetary rovers, in particular the Lunokhod, have so many wheels?
Firstly, until the last moment the use of tracks was not ruled out. In the case of the 8-wheel Lunokhod, this would not require a complete revision of the design. Secondly, reducing the load on the ground. And finally, reliability - operability when several wheels fail.
In case of jamming in the wheel drive, the Lunokhod was equipped with special unlocking mechanisms. A pyrotechnic charge, upon command from the Earth, could break the shaft and, as a result, the faulty locked wheel would become a driven wheel. With a four-wheeler this would be impossible. Fortunately, this opportunity was never used

SUSPENSION

The suspension is made independent for each motor wheel. This allows you to overcome small protrusions and depressions, avoiding strong rolls of the entire machine and overloading individual engines. Ideally, each wheel should touch the ground at any time, and with approximately equal loads from interaction with it. This is ensured not only by the mechanics, but also by the electronic part, which evaluates the load on the engines and suspension. The mechanical part of the suspension is usually made in the form of levers, and torsion bars are used as elastic elements - steel or titanium rods, which represent a “spring” that works in torsion. The use of hydraulics is problematic due to strong temperature fluctuations on the surface of planets.

The story of the death of Lunokhod-2 is instructive - a new roll-trim sensor was installed on it (the entire automation unit of Lunokhod-2 was developed with triple duplication - as for a manned vehicle).
The sensor in Lunokhod-1 was developed by VNIITM itself, but it was considered that the machine-building enterprise should mind its own business and the development of a new sensor was entrusted to another organization.
The new sensor used antifreeze fluid. However, the low gravity on the Moon was not taken into account. As a result, immediately after landing, the sensor turned out to be inoperative. But this sensor should protect the Lunokhod from capsizing - automatically stop it if the tilt is too great (at the same time, it allows you to get an idea of ​​​​the geometry of the lunar surface). Here he showed that the Lunokhod stands at an angle of 40 degrees even before leaving the landing module.
I had to drive without a sensor, focusing only on what was visible through the television cameras - the horizon line and a simple level - a rolling metal ball. Everything went well, but in the third month the Lunokhod drove into a rather large crater. He stood there with the solar panel open, charging. When it was time to leave the crater, they underestimated the angle of inclination. As a result, the car got caught in the solar battery and soil got on it, which led to a drop in power. Attempts to shake off the soil only worsened the situation - the soil got into the internal compartment. This is how Lunokhod-2 ended its life.
By the way, Lunokhod-1 was even less lucky - the launch vehicle exploded during take-off. So that Lunokhod-1 that was on the Moon is not exactly the first Lunokhod.
In any case, Lunokhod-2 traveled a much greater distance on the Moon - 40 km in 3 months - than Lunokhod-1 - 10 km. in 10 months. The experience gained by the researchers and drivers had an impact.

A chamber for simulating the atmosphere of planets and a rover in it

MOVEMENT SPEED

This may come as a surprise to some, but the maximum speeds of all automatic rovers are very small - no more than 1-2 km/h. Actually, for unmanned vehicles this is not so important, since their control is complicated by a signal delay that reaches tens of seconds. Also, low speed reduces the likelihood of damage when hitting a stone, there are no skids, etc.

MANEUVERABILITY

A large turning radius will become a problem if there is a rock or crevice nearby where the vehicle could end up when turning.
The most common solution is borrowed from tracked vehicles: by making different wheel speeds on the left and right sides of the vehicle (in the simplest case, using brakes), you can turn it almost on the spot.
This approach also simplifies the design and increases its reliability, since there is no need to make swivel wheels. A well-known example is Lunokhod (1970).

Another option for increasing maneuverability is swivel wheels. For example, parallel rotation of all wheels in the desired direction was implemented in the XM-PK device (1976)

DANGER OF FAILURE

The next problem is the need to overcome crevices and not fall through on loose soil. This can be solved in several ways: wheels of large width and diameter, a large number of wheels on each side.
For example, the Lunokhod had 8 wide wheels. Their hemispherical profile prevents lateral sliding (when moving along a slope).
Another solution (1989) involved the use of large (comparable in size to the rover itself) low-pressure inflatable wheels with a metal frame and lugs. However, such wheels do not withstand temperature changes well and require maintenance. But they have found application on Earth - in those places where movement through deep snow is necessary.

The rovers were tested in Central Asia, in Kamchatka (in areas of fresh eruptions) - so that there was a wide variety of relief forms... After all, it was not known in advance what kind of soil, for example, was on the Moon. There were suggestions that the soil was in suspension and the Lunokhod could simply drown. Therefore, tests were also carried out on snowfields - where the snow is covered with volcanic sand.

OVERCOMING STONES, STICKING

On the planets where it is now possible to deliver planetary rovers, there are many stones, rocky outcrops, and craters. The fact that for a walking vehicle of the future will probably not be a problem (you must admit, a person can easily overcome most obstacles that are insurmountable for wheels) is a very pressing problem for today’s rovers.
Let's imagine a situation where an ordinary car hits a large stone on one side. The whole machine tilts and the vehicle runs the risk of overturning. For a planetary rover, this behavior is unacceptable, because the suspension is much more complicated - when one of the wheels runs over a stone, the rest can carry the vehicle completely horizontally.

Here there is virtually no ground clearance - there is no bottom, instead there are conical motor wheels. If a stone gets under them, there is no jamming, since the lugs are located along the entire length of the wheel. There is, however, a drawback here - there is little space left to place the payload (a possible solution is to place the batteries inside the wheels). In another development - IARES - instead of bevel wheels, conventional ones are used, together with rollers, which also have lugs.
But even this may not save you if the stone ends up under the bottom of the rover and it “sits on its belly.” Therefore, they try to make the ground clearance (clearance) maximum. An increase in ground clearance, in turn, can lead to instability of the device - the center of gravity should be located as low as possible (there were even projects to place batteries inside motor wheels, but this leads to other problems).

There were also funny things.
The Lunokhod was delivered to the Moon by the Luna-17 interplanetary station, but the people were informed about the launch of another rocket to “continue exploration of the Moon.” Soviet radio talked about the lunar rover only after the successful landing on the moon.

Moreover, it was planned to launch two rockets, one of them is a reserve one, and if something happens to the first one on the Moon, then the astronaut will have to drive up to the reserve one on a lunar rover! Where should he fit? A trolley was provided, and once, for testing, a Zaporozhets was tied to the lunar rover - and it successfully pulled it! On Earth, of course. By the way, when choosing a landing site, they also used American photographs of the Moon - and where did they come from?

Lunokhod 1 was the first successful planetary rover designed to explore other worlds. It was delivered to the lunar surface on November 17, 1970 aboard the Luna 17 lander. It was operated by remote control operators in the Soviet Union and traveled more than 10 kilometers (6 miles) during its nearly 10 months of operation. For comparison, it took Mars Opportunity about six years to achieve the same results.

Participants in the space race

In the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union were engaged in a "space race," with each side seeking to be the first to put a man on the moon as a way of demonstrating their technological capabilities to the world. As a result, each side was the first to do something - the first man was launched into space (Soviet Union), the first launches of two and three people into space were made (United States), the first docking in orbit was carried out (United States) and, finally , landing of the first crew on the Moon (United States).

The Soviet Union pinned its hopes of sending a man on the moon on Zond rockets. However, after a series of test launch failures, including a launch pad explosion in 1968 that resulted in fatalities, the Soviet Union began to focus its attention on other lunar programs instead. Among them was a program for automatically landing a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon and remote control of a planetary rover.

Here is a list of the successes of the Soviet lunar program: Luna-3 (with its help, an image of the far side of the Moon was obtained for the first time), Luna-9 (this device made the first soft landing in 1966, that is, three years before the Apollo 11 flight and the landing of astronauts to the Moon), as well as Luna-16 (this device returned to Earth with samples of lunar soil in 1970). And Luna 17 delivered a remotely controlled rover to the Moon.

Context

The Luna-17 device successfully launched on November 10, 1970, and five days later it was in orbit of the Moon. After a soft landing in the region of the Sea of ​​Rains, Lunakhod-1, which was on board, descended along a ramp to the lunar surface.

“Lunakhod-1 is a lunar planetary rover; its shape resembles a barrel with a convex lid, and it moves with the help of eight wheels independent of each other,” NASA noted in a brief statement about this flight. “The rover is equipped with a conical antenna, a precisely aimed cylindrical antenna, four television cameras, and a special device for influencing the lunar surface in order to study the density of lunar soil and conduct mechanical tests.”

This rover was powered by a solar battery, and during cold nights its operation was ensured by a heater powered by the radioactive isotope polonium-210. At this point, the temperature dropped to minus 150 degrees Celsius (238 degrees Fahrenheit). The Moon always faces one side towards the Earth, and therefore daylight at most points on its surface lasts about two weeks. Night time also lasts for two weeks. According to the plan, this rover was supposed to work for three lunar days. It exceeded original operating plans and operated for 11 lunar days—its operation ended on October 4, 1971, 14 years after the Soviet Union's first satellite was launched into Earth orbit.

By the end of its mission, Lunokhod 1 had traveled approximately 10.54 kilometers (6.5 miles) and had transmitted 20,000 television images and 200 television panoramas to Earth, according to NASA. In addition, with its help, more than 500 studies of lunar soil were carried out.

Legacy of Lunokhod-1

The success of Lunokhod 1 was repeated by Lunokhod 2 in 1973, and the second vehicle has already traveled approximately 37 kilometers (22.9 miles) on the lunar surface. It took the Opportunity rover 10 years to achieve the same result on Mars. The image of the Lunokhod-1 landing site was obtained using the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter lunar space probe with a high-resolution camera on board. For example, in the photographs taken in 2012, the descent module, the Lunokhod itself and its footprint on the surface of the Moon are clearly visible.

The rover's retroreflector made a pretty surprising leap in 2010 when scientists shined a laser light on it, indicating it had not been damaged by lunar dust or other elements.

Lasers are used to measure the exact distance from the Earth to the Moon and lasers were used for the same in the Apollo program.

After Lunokhod-2, no other vehicle made a soft landing until the Chinese, as part of their space program, launched the Chang'e-3 spacecraft with the Yutu rover. Although Yutu stopped moving after the second lunar night, it remained operational and stopped functioning only 31 months after the start of its mission, thus far surpassing the previous record.

On November 17, 1970, the Luna-17 automatic station delivered the world's first planetary rover, Lunokhod-1, to the surface of the Moon.
USSR scientists successfully implemented this program and took another step not only in the race with the USA, but also in the study of the Universe.

"Lunokhod-0"

"Korolevsky" lunar rover

World famous lunar rover Babakin

But what is he like?

"Lunokhod-1", or a non-children's radio-controlled toy

"Lunokhod-3"

Lunokhod 1 was the first of two robotic vehicles to study the Moon as part of the Soviet Lunokhod program. The spacecraft that delivered Lunokhod 1 to the lunar surface was called Luna 17. Lunokhod-1 became the first controlled wheeled robot to operate outside the Earth. The launch date of the apparatus on the Moon is November 17, 1970. Lunokhod 2 was launched three years later.

"Lunokhod" is a transport device, automatically controlled, capable of moving on the Moon and designed to conduct lunar exploration.

When developing and creating the first automatic lunar rover, Soviet scientists and designers faced the need to solve a complex of complex problems. It was necessary to create a completely new type of machine, capable of functioning for a long time in unusual conditions of outer space on the surface of another celestial body.

Main goals:

• creation of an optimal engine with high cross-country ability with low weight and energy consumption, ensuring reliable operation and traffic safety;
• creation of remote control systems for the movement of the Lunokhod;
• ensuring the necessary thermal conditions using a thermal control system that maintains the temperature of the gas in the instrument compartments, the temperature of structural elements and equipment located inside and outside the sealed compartments (in outer space during periods of lunar days and nights), within specified limits;
• selection of power sources;
• materials for structural elements: development of lubricants and lubrication systems for vacuum conditions and much more.

The scientific equipment of the lunar rover was supposed to provide:

• study of the topography of the area;
• determination of the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the soil;
• study of the radiation situation on the flight route to the Moon and on its surface;
• study of X-ray cosmic radiation;
• experiments on laser ranging of the Moon.

The first lunar rover - the Soviet “Lunokhod-1” was delivered to the Moon by the “Luna-17” spacecraft and worked on its surface for almost a year (from November 17, 1970 to October 4, 1971).

“Lunokhod-1” consists of two parts: a sealed instrument compartment with equipment and a self-propelled chassis. The mass of Lunokhod-1 is 756 kg, length (with the lid open) 4.42 m, width 2.15 m, height 1.92 m. The instrument compartment is used to accommodate the equipment of on-board systems and protect it from the influence of the external environment in space conditions . It has the shape of a truncated cone with convex upper and lower bottoms. The compartment body is made of magnesium alloys, providing sufficient strength and lightness. The upper bottom of the compartment is used as a radiator-cooler in the thermal control system and is closed with a lid. During the moonlit night, the lid closes the radiator and prevents heat from being removed from the compartment due to thermal radiation from the radiator. During the lunar day, the lid is open, and solar panels located on its inside recharge the batteries that supply the on-board equipment with electricity.

The instrument compartment houses thermal control systems, power supplies, receiving and transmitting devices of the radio complex, devices of the remote control system and electronic converter devices of scientific equipment. In the front part there are: TV camera windows, an electric drive of a movable highly directional antenna, which serves to transmit TV images of the lunar surface to Earth; a low-directional antenna that provides reception of radio commands and transmission of telemetric information, scientific instruments and an optical corner reflector made in France. The following are installed on the left and right sides: 2 panoramic telephoto cameras (in each pair, one of the cameras is structurally combined with a local vertical locator), 4 whip antennas for receiving radio commands from the Earth. An isotope source of thermal energy is used to heat the gas circulating inside the apparatus. Next to it is a device for determining the physical and mechanical properties of lunar soil.

Sharp temperature changes during the change of day and night on the surface of the Moon, as well as a large temperature difference between the parts of the apparatus located on the sunny side and in the shade, made it necessary to develop a special thermal control system. At low temperatures during the lunar night, to heat the instrument compartment, the circulation of coolant gas through the cooling circuit is automatically stopped and the gas is sent to the heating circuit.
The Lunokhod's power supply system consists of solar and chemical buffer batteries, as well as automatic control devices. The solar panel drive is controlled from the Earth; in this case, the cover can be installed at any angle ranging from 0 to 180°, necessary for maximum use of solar radiation.

The onboard radio complex ensures the reception of commands from the Control Center and the transmission of information from the vehicle to the Earth. A number of radio complex systems are used not only when working on the surface of the Moon, but also during the flight from Earth to the Moon. Two TV systems of the Lunokhod are used to solve independent problems. The low-frame television system is designed to transmit to Earth TV images of the terrain necessary for the crew controlling the movement of the lunar rover from the Earth. The possibility and feasibility of using such a system, which is characterized by a lower image transmission rate compared to the broadcast television standard, was dictated by specific lunar conditions. The main one is the slow change of the landscape as the lunar rover moves. The second TV system is used to obtain a panoramic image of the surrounding area and photograph areas of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth for the purpose of astro-orientation. The system consists of four panoramic telephoto cameras.

The self-propelled chassis is designed to move the rover along the surface of the Moon. Chassis characteristics: number of wheels - 8 (all driven); wheelbase - 170 mm; track - 1600 mm; wheel diameter along the lugs - 510 mm; wheel width - 200 mm. The chassis is designed in such a way that the lunar rover has high maneuverability and operates reliably for a long time with minimal dead weight and electricity consumption. The chassis allows the Lunokhod to move forward (with two speeds) and backward, and to turn in place and while moving. It consists of a chassis (elastic suspension and propulsion), an automation unit, a traffic safety system, a device and a set of sensors for determining the mechanical properties of the soil and assessing the cross-country ability of the chassis. Turning is achieved by varying the speed of rotation of the wheels on the right and left sides and changing the direction of their rotation. Braking is carried out by switching the chassis traction motors to electrodynamic braking mode. To hold the lunar rover on slopes and bring it to a complete stop, electromagnetic-controlled disc brakes are activated. The automation unit controls the movement of the lunar rover using radio commands from the Earth, measures and controls the main parameters of the self-propelled chassis and the automatic operation of instruments for studying the mechanical properties of lunar soil. The traffic safety system ensures automatic stopping of the lunar rover at extreme angles of roll and trim and overload of the electric motors of the wheels. A device for determining the mechanical properties of lunar soil allows you to quickly obtain information about the movement. The distance traveled is determined by the number of revolutions of the driving wheels under ground conditions. To take into account their slipping, a correction is made, determined using a freely rolling ninth wheel, which is lowered to the ground by a special drive and raised to its original position. The vehicle is controlled from the Deep Space Communications Center by a crew consisting of a commander, driver, navigator, operator, and flight engineer.

The driving mode was selected as a result of an assessment of television information and promptly received telemetric data on roll, trim, distance traveled, condition and operating modes of wheel drives. In conditions of space vacuum, radiation, significant temperature changes and difficult terrain along the route, all systems and scientific instruments of the lunar rover functioned normally, ensuring the implementation of both the main and additional programs of scientific research of the Moon and outer space, as well as engineering and design tests.

“Lunokhod-1” examined in detail the lunar surface over an area of ​​80,000 m2. Using TV systems, more than 200 panoramas and over 20,000 surface images were obtained. The physical and mechanical properties of the surface soil layer were studied at more than 500 points along the route, and its chemical composition was analyzed at 25 points. The distance traveled was 10 km 540 m. The duration of active operation of Lunokhod-1 was 301 days 6 hours 37 minutes; the shutdown was caused by the depletion of its isotope heat source resources. At the end of the work, it was placed on an almost horizontal platform in a position in which the corner reflector ensured long-term laser location of it from the Earth.

On January 16, 1973, using the automatic station “Luna-21,” Lunokhod-2 was delivered to the area of ​​the eastern edge of the Sea of ​​Serenity (the ancient Lemonier crater). The landing area was chosen to obtain new data about the complex junction zone of the lunar “sea” and “continent”. Improvements in the design and on-board systems, as well as the installation of additional instruments and expansion of equipment capabilities, made it possible to significantly increase maneuverability and carry out a large amount of scientific research. Over 5 lunar days, in conditions of difficult terrain, Lunokhod-2 covered a distance of 37 km.

Structure of “Lunokhod-2” (“Luna-21”) (operating time of the device from 01/16/1973 to 05/09/1973)
"Lunokhod-2" ("Luna-21") 1 Magnetometer. 2 Low directional antenna. 3 Highly directional antenna. 4 Antenna pointing mechanism. 5 Solar battery (converts solar radiation energy into electricity to recharge chemical batteries). 6 Hinged lid (closed during movement and during a moonlit night). 7 Panoramic telephoto cameras for horizontal and vertical viewing. 8 Isotope thermal energy source with a reflector and a ninth wheel for measuring the distance traveled (at the rear of the device). 9 Soil intake device (in folded position). 10 Whip antenna. 11 Motor-wheel. 12 Sealed instrument compartment. 13 Soil chemical composition analyzer “Rifma-M” (X-ray spectrometer) in the folded position. 14 Stereoscopic pair of television cameras with hoods and dust covers. 15 Optical corner reflector (made in France) 16 Television camera with hood and dust cover.

Source:Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978.

Russia's lunar program

“After all, in twenty years, one of the three of us will definitely die - either the emir, or the donkey, or me. And then go figure out who knew theology better!” I decided to summarize the information received at numerous conferences, symposiums and from personal conversations. By the end of the year, the Federal Space Program 2016-2025 will be adopted. Whatever is included in this program receives funding. Of course, changes can be made during the course of work, however, they are usually associated with new implementation deadlines, and not with an increase in funding. All plans for the period beyond 2025 are nothing more than “funny pictures”. Just the wishes of scientists, engineers and officials.


At the first stage (this is what is specified in the FKP), our natural satellite is going to be studied only with the help of automatic stations. In 2019, the Luna 25 (or Luna-Glob) probe is scheduled to land on the Boguslavsky crater, which is located in the south polar region of the Moon. Luna 25 is a prototype probe for training. We need to re-learn how to build automatic interplanetary stations, learn to land on the Moon. However, about 20-25 kg of scientific instruments will still be placed on it. Despite the test nature, the mission is unique - for the first time the probe will land in the polar region of the Moon. It was there that orbital neutron detectors discovered traces of hydrogen (read: water ice) in the regolith. And not only in shaded craters (probes will not land there - there is no Sun for solar panels and communication with the Earth), but also nearby. The next device is an orbital one - “Luna-26” (or “Luna-Resurs-1 orbital”). Reconnaissance from orbit, relay and a very interesting experiment LORD (Lunar Orbital Radio Detector). The next station should start in 2021. If something goes wrong, the FKP plans to repeat the mission in 2023. The large lander Luna-27 (or Luna-Resurs-1 landing) is scheduled to land in the south polar region of the Moon in 2023. On board there will be up to 50 kg of instruments, including a European drill for “cryogenic” (so that “volatile” particles do not evaporate from the soil) drilling. They are again considering the possibility of placing a mini-rover on Luna 27. Once upon a time, they were going to put ““ as such a rover. If the 2023 mission is unsuccessful, they plan to repeat the landing in 2025. The last lunar probe in the FCP 2016-2025 is “Luna-28” (“Luna-Resurs-2” or “Luna-Grunt”) - a heavy probe (up to 3t ) - is launched, apparently on "Angar A5" with an oxygen-kerosene upper stage DM-03, and serves to deliver soil from the southern polar region of the Moon. "Luna-29" - a large lunar rover with a "cryogenic" drill - is in the wishes scientists, but is absent from the FKP - which means it will be implemented already in the 25th year.

In addition to automatic interplanetary stations, at the first stage of the lunar program, numerous research projects will be carried out on the topic of the lunar transport system and lunar infrastructure. The money for them is deposited in the FKP. Money has also been allocated for the development of a super-heavy rocket. Only for development - not for creation “in metal”!

Flight tests of the new Russian spacecraft PTK NP should begin in 2021. They are also included in the Federal Space Program. In 2021 and 2022, the new spacecraft will fly to the ISS twice in an unmanned version. It is supposed to be launched into orbit using the “Angara A5” (possibly in a shortened version - without URM II).

In 2023, something interesting awaits us - one Angara A5 will launch the PTK NP into orbit, and the second will launch the DM-03 oxygen-kerosene upper stage, equipped with a docking unit. After docking, the bunch will fly around the Moon (without entering lunar orbit).

Also in 2023, it is planned to send to the Moon (in lunar orbit) a prototype tug with low-thrust engines and a large cargo container (cargo - 10 tons) - will it be the famous “nuclear tug” or something equipped with large solar panels? The first option seems more logical, however, in some pictures you can see the second - with solar panels. The prototype will have a capacity of 0.3-0.5 MW - 2-3 times less than a megawatt complex.

The tug will drag the container to the Moon for two whole years. As cargo - either a module of a lunar orbital station or an automatic prototype of a manned landing vehicle.

In 2024, the PTK NP should go into space for the first time in a manned version and deliver cosmonauts to the ISS or to the so-called PPOI - a promising manned orbital infrastructure consisting of one scientific and energy module, a “kolobok” module, an inflatable habitable module, a slipway module and one or two free-flying OKA-T-2 modules.

And so - second half of 2024 - for the first time - a manned flight around the Moon by Russian cosmonauts. Again two Hangars A5 and DM-03 for acceleration to the Moon. The flyby will be repeated in 2025.

Then the FKP ends and not just dreams, but real fantasies begin. In 2027, a super-heavy rocket should begin flying with a payload in low Earth orbit of about 80 (or even 90) tons. In the first launch, it will send an unmanned PTK NP into lunar orbit.

At the end of 2027, a large megawatt (or even more powerful!) tug with low-thrust engines should bring a cargo weighing 20 tons into lunar orbit in 7-8 months. Moreover, the tug itself is launched by a super-heavy rocket, and the cargo by “Angara A5”. As cargo - an orbital station module or a heavy probe/landing scientific platform.

In 2028, a landing module for a manned expedition should be launched to the Moon on a super-heavy rocket. In 2029, the PTK NP with its crew will go to it. But the two spacecraft will dock in near-lunar orbit - but the crew will not land on the Moon - this flight is only a rehearsal for the expedition.

It is interesting that from the 28th to the 30th it is planned to implement the “Moon - Orbit” program. A reusable takeoff and landing probe will be sent to the Moon, and a fuel tanker will be sent to lunar orbit. The probe will be able to deliver soil samples from the surface to the PTK NP (which is in lunar orbit).

In 2030, the second landing module will launch and a little later - the PTK NP with a crew. Russian cosmonauts will set foot on the lunar surface for the first time - 60 years after the Americans!

In parallel with manned expeditions, it is planned to begin the deployment of a so-called “lunar test site” in the south polar region of the Moon, which will include automatic scientific instruments, telescopes, prototypes of devices for using lunar resources, etc. The test site will be visited - once a year, astronauts will fly there for a couple of weeks to change photographic plates and repair equipment.

Construction of the base is planned for the period after 2040, a flight to Mars (based on lunar experience and lunar resources) - in the 50s. Before the 50s, it is planned to deliver soil from Phobos (already to the FKP - before the 25th) and Mars (~ 30-35), create an assembly complex at the Lagrange point for reusable ships that will fly along the Earth-Mars route, build a fleet “nuclear tugs” - the electrical power of the reactors of the Martian complex is from 4 MW and above.

This is what, according to the designers of RSC Energia, the lunar base should look like.

Overall, something resembling a strategy is finally presented. True, the timing is absolutely insane - the 30th year is very far away. Linking the program to the heavy PTK NP and the super-heavy rocket - which does not exist and will not exist for another 10-15 years. Money for its creation (not development, but creation) is not included in the FCP 2016-2025.

The combination of humans and automata is not thought out at all (where is the control of rovers from orbit without signal delay, for example?). And the automatic missions themselves until 2025 are not very interesting (even normal lunar rovers are not planned, not to mention lunar rovers). The lunar orbital station appears in the plans and then disappears. In the “extreme” version, it seems that it was abandoned after all. The “nuclear tug”, the pride of Russia, is not a key element of the program.

Again, on two chairs - this is not “a flag on the Moon at any cost” (everything is taking too long - the state will have a desire to “jump out of the lunar train, which is crawling”) and not the Moon is a resource base (there is no sensible reusable lunar transport system , fuel/energy generation from local resources is not stated as a priority).

Since no one has canceled the principle of “criticizing - suggesting”, I present to your attention :) The first manned launches to the Moon within the framework of our proposal are planned for 2022. And this is a very realistic timeframe - if the country’s leadership shows political will. .

Selenokhod- a project to study the Moon using a landing module and a lunar rover, developed by a Russian team as part of the Google Lunar X PRIZE competition since October 2007. Initially, the weight of the lunar rover was 15 kg, but during the development process it dropped to 5. On May 1, 2013, the first prototype of the lunar rover was presented and tested at the American base MRDS (Mars Desert Research Station), simulating the landscape conditions of Mars, somewhat similar to the lunar ones. On December 18, 2013, the Selenokhod project was closed due to the lack of sponsors and investors.