Liberal and social democratic ideology. Political ideologies of modern times

The ideological space is always pluralistic. A wide variety of ideological theories exist simultaneously in society. Functioning, they complement each other, creating a single ideological system. Even in totalitarian regimes, where there is a state ideology that absorbs almost completely the spiritual life of society, counter-ideologies function. Banned, persecuted counter-ideologies still challenge this state.

The main modern ideologies - liberalism, socialism, nationalism - arose in the conditions of the formation and development of Western European civilization. These ideologies reflected the real and diverse conflicts of the era of bourgeois development. They expressed to the maximum extent the understanding of the problems of modern society by the main social strata and classes, and it was in these ideologies that social groups acquired a clear self-awareness.

Liberalism

In the political history of the West, the emergence of liberalism is associated with the development of capitalist society and coincides in time with the period of bourgeois revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries. The theorists of classical liberalism J. Locke (1632-1704), Adam Smith (1723-1790), C.-L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) expressed the interests of the third estate, fighting feudal reaction. Their ideas formed the basis of the concept of liberal democracy.

The central place among the ideas of liberalism is occupied by the idea of individual freedom. Liberalism defended self-worth human personality and her right to independently pursue her personal interests. Individualism in the understanding of the Enlightenment is the ability to assert oneself as a bearer of reason, the ability to transform reality in accordance with the demands of reason, to make it worthy of human nature.

The liberal doctrine of natural human rights to life, liberty, and property required society to provide the individual with maximum freedom for self-realization. The natural and only limitation of such freedom was the freedom of another individual.

The liberal theory of the “social contract” justified the sovereignty of the people as the source of power and the formation of the state as a contract between the people and the government. The protection of personal safety and property rights was the primary reason for the social contract, according to which the union of people into a commonwealth and subordination to government is the protection of their safety and property. The government is only the guardian of public rights. If the government has failed to protect the rights of citizens, it means that it has not lived up to their trust and, therefore, can no longer claim obedience on the part of citizens.

The idea of resistance to despotic power occupied the most important place in the ideology and political struggle of the 17th-18th centuries. Liberals were largely divided on how to resist government overreach. In general, liberalism recognized the right to revolutionary resistance to despotism and justified not only the revolutions in England and France, but also the American War of Independence.

In addition to the principle of governing with the consent of citizens, liberalism also substantiated the principle of governing on the basis of law. The purpose of the state is to ensure the rule of law, the requirements of which it itself must obey. Classical liberalism strongly advocated the equality of citizens before the law and defended the legal foundations of democracy and parliamentarism. Equality in freedom under universal law - this is the liberal imperative of law.

In the economic field, liberals defended the principle of free market exchange, personal entrepreneurial initiative, competition, and condemned protectionism and political interference in the economy. Liberals of that time saw the main function of the state in protecting private property, establishing a general framework for free competition, maintaining order and monitoring the law-abiding behavior of citizens, as well as protecting the foreign policy sovereignty of the country. The state is just a "night watchman". The slogan "Anarchy plus a constable" well reflected the essence of this point of view.

The most consistent concept of liberal democracy and constitutionalism was formulated by one of the leading ideologists of the American bourgeois revolution, T. Payne. Paine considered the state a necessary evil: the smaller it is, the better for society. Endowed with inalienable rights, free and equal individuals by nature precede the state in the past, present and future. A state is considered legitimate and civilized only if it is formed on the basis of the active consent of citizens, constitutionally formalized and recorded through parliamentary representative mechanisms. Such representation and such government do not have any special rights, they only have duties to their citizens.

In democratic representative government, liberals saw a fairly effective mechanism for protecting the interests of the individual and society. The theorists of liberalism, in particular J. Locke and especially the followers of S.-L. Montesquieu, substantiated the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, which should check and balance each other. The system of checks and balances was seen as an obstacle to the usurpation of power by anyone, be it an individual, a party, a branch of government or a majority. A democratic majority, unrestricted by anything, can also become a despot, liberals believed. Therefore, in a democracy there must be a center of resistance to democracy, i.e. electoral despotism of the majority. Minority rights must be guaranteed. In essence, liberals defended the right to political opposition.

In the spiritual sphere, liberalism leaned towards tolerance and compromise. Freedom of opinion and speech for a liberal is the most important principle of life.

Liberalism played a huge role in the destruction of the ideological values of traditional society. He established a new democratic creed:

Individualism, which sees the main task of society and the state in providing each individual with opportunities to develop his abilities;

Freedom, which must be ensured within the limits of law to the greatest extent possible for each individual;

Equality, as the statement that all people are equal by nature and have equal rights and opportunities;

Fraternity, understood as the cooperation of people in creating a prosperous society and the refusal to use their freedom to harm others.

Liberal reformism

The ideology of classical liberalism began to change in the 19th century. Liberalism evolved towards liberal reformism. One of the first among the ideologists of liberalism to see the need and promise of this strategy was J. St. Mill (1806-1877), who already in the middle of the 19th century pointed out the need for a flexible social policy aimed at smoothing out those irregularities with which fate unfairly endowed humanity, but within the framework of the currently existing social order.

The principle of state non-interference in the market economy was also questioned. State regulation of the economy and reforms began to be seen as a necessary condition for improving society and resolving its contradictions.

The development trend of bourgeois reformism has become noticeable since the 70s of the 19th century. Reforms in the field of the electoral system, income tax collection, and the development of antitrust and labor legislation marked this period in the USA, England, France, and Germany. State intervention in the economy intensified during the First World War and especially during the global crisis (1929-1933).

The English economist J. Keynes (1883-1946) made a huge contribution to the formation of the doctrine of liberal reformism. His program, formulated under the influence of the global economic crisis, included active government intervention in the socio-economic sphere, in particular, a comprehensive increase in government spending, expansion of public works, inflationary and cyclical tax policies, cyclical balancing of the budget, achieving a balance of “demand” and “full employment”, etc. Liberal reformism according to Keynes received its political embodiment in the “New Deal” of President F.D. Roosevelt, thanks to which the United States emerged from the economic crisis and successfully carried out a deep economic restructuring of society.

"Finest hour"liberal reformism in the USA dates back to the 60s of the 20th century, during the reign of the administrations of J. Kennedy and L. Johnson. The ideologists of liberal reformism put forward the concept of the "welfare state", which reflected new role state in the social sphere Western countries. Social policy in capitalist countries has become the most important area of state activity, and allocations for social needs have grown in gigantic proportions. The optimistic determination of ideologists and politicians was associated with the successes of the scientific and technological revolution and economic growth. It seemed that the era of technical answers to social problems had arrived, and economic growth with rational social policies would finally solve social problems and end poverty.

Social liberalism has indeed managed to resolve many issues related to education, health care, social insurance, employment, minority rights, and increasing citizen participation in the political process. But unemployment and poverty remained, although on a scale not comparable to that of the 19th century. Social liberalism also gave rise to new problems. The expansion of state public policies led to the growth of bureaucratic structures and the bureaucratization of politics. Increase social programs gave rise to a kind of “revolution of growing claims” and citizens began to look at the state as a body that should provide them with all rights, including social ones, on an ever-increasing scale. Many other problems arose that required new ideological approaches in the 80s of the 20th century.

Despite significant differences, liberal reformism did not break its ideological connection with classical liberalism. The bridge between old and new liberalism was a commitment to individual freedom, social progress, political pluralism and democracy. Only now the achievement of all this was recognized as impossible without state intervention, since only the state, being, from the point of view of liberals, a supra-class body, is capable of acting as an impartial mediator between social interests and acting for the common good and in the name of the freedom of everyone.

The merit of liberal ideology is that it affirmed the individual-personal principle of being. This ideology was able to convey democracy, freedom and the intrinsic value of the human “I” as universal, generally civilized values in their essence. Liberalism changed political practice and political language, instilled a new legal culture, a new legal consciousness, and served the cause of creating a civil society and a rule-of-law state.

Thus, liberal ideology is a fairly integral theoretical construct that has a number of characteristics. In economics, this is the justification of economic freedom and property rights, in social relations - equality of opportunity, in politics - the defense of representative, pluralistic democracy, in spiritual life - freedom of thought and speech, in religion - anti-clericalism, in morality - individualism. Modern liberalism is a spokesman for the interests of the middle class. As an ideology, modern liberalism, like classical liberalism, advocates a dynamic society oriented towards social progress, in which the personal factor, personal merit and results would be in the foreground. This ideology requires from the individual the maximum realization of his abilities, the desire to take responsibility for his own destiny, without counting on charity and guarantees of the patron state.

Socialist ideology

Socialist ideology has a long history. However, the term “socialism” first appeared in public literature only in the 30s of the 19th century. Literary authorship is attributed to the French theorist Pierre Leroux, who in 1834 wrote the article “On Individualism and Socialism.”

Ideas that later came to be called socialist appeared in the 16th century. They reflected the spontaneous protest of the exploited strata of the period of primitive accumulation of capital. These theories about an ideal social order that corresponds to human nature, eliminates exploitation, raises the welfare of the lower class and eliminates private property, came to be called utopian socialism. Its founders are the Englishman Thomas More (1478-1535), author of the book “Utopia,” and the Italian Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639), who wrote “The City of the Sun.” They believed that it was public property that created the conditions for fair distribution, equality, well-being and social peace. Social equality was seen as the highest good for both the individual and society.

During the XVII-XIX centuries. many theorists tried to discover the formula ideal society, since capitalism, having created a world overflowing with wealth, still abounded in poverty. The greatest contribution to the development of socialist concepts of a utopian orientation was made by the French A. Saint-Simon (1760-1825), Charles Fourier (1772-1837) and the Englishman Robert Owen (1771-1858). Their views were formed under the influence of the Great French Revolution and the rapid development of industrial capital. The views of the theorists of utopian socialism differed significantly among themselves on many issues, but they all believed that society already had the conditions for immediate reform of the system on fair terms in order to end inequality, poverty and vices. The initiative for change must come from the top, from the haves, who are obliged to help the poor and make everyone happier. Socialist ideology purposefully defended the interests of workers, social progress and believed in a wonderful future for humanity.

During this period, the extreme manifestation of socialism emerged - communist ideology. Communist ideology was more consistent in its desire to transform society on the basis of equality through the establishment of public ownership of the means of production and sometimes also of consumer goods.

The theorists of utopian socialism formulated the basic principles of organizing a future just society: from each according to his abilities, each ability according to his deeds, comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual, elimination of differences between city and countryside, diversity and change of physical and spiritual labor, free development of each as a condition for free development of all. Utopian socialists believed that either all people should be happy, or no one. The socialist system must provide a real opportunity for everyone to be happy. The ideology of the socialists of the early 19th century was imbued with an emotional and figurative idea of the future and resembled social poetry.

Representatives of utopian socialism and communism had different approaches to the methods of implementing their ideas. Saint-Simon and Fourier believed that the main path is reform, and the sacred cause of the poor is also the cause of the rich. Others, for example, Mably, Meslier, Babeuf, called on the working people to revolution.

Marxism as the ideology of the proletariat

In the 40s of the 19th century, Marxism emerged as a theoretical expression of the proletarian movement. K. Marx (1818-1883) and F. Engels (1820-1895) created a philosophical, economic and socio-political theory that had a huge impact on the history of mankind in the second half of the 19th and 20th centuries. Marxism and communist ideology have become synonymous.

Communist society in the Marxist understanding is not an open ideal model of a happy system, but a natural result of the progress of civilization. Capitalism itself creates the preconditions for social revolution, the elimination of private property and the transition to socialism. The main contradiction that explodes capitalism from within is the contradiction between the social nature of labor, formed by industry and the market, and private ownership of the means of production. Capitalism, as Marxists believed, also creates its own social gravedigger - the proletariat. The liberation of the proletariat is the leitmotif of the social revolution. But by liberating itself, the proletariat liberates all working people from all forms of exploitation. The achievement of socialism is possible only as a result of the historical creativity of the proletariat, the accomplishment of the proletarian revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The slogan "Workers of all countries, unite!" became a mobilizing call in the fight against exploiters. Marxism as an ideology turned socialism into the struggle of millions; for many decades this ideology became the spiritual weapon of the exploited and oppressed.

According to Marx and Engels, the development of the communist formation goes through a number of stages: the transition period, the first phase and the highest phase. This is a long process of transforming the life of society on truly humanistic principles, when a person becomes the highest being for man. Communism in its highest development is a society of free, conscious workers, where public self-government will be established, and the state will wither away, where there will be no classes, and social equality will be embodied in the principle “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs.” In the Marxist interpretation of communism there is a movement towards the unlimited flourishing of the individual in conditions of freedom from exploitation. Communism is the beginning true history humanity.

The revolutionary pathos of Marxism was embodied in the theory and practice of Leninism, which became the theoretical basis of the proletarian revolution in Russia and socialist construction in the USSR.

Despite the serious defeats caused by the collapse of the Soviet Union and the liquidation of the Eastern Bloc of socialist states, orthodox Marxism retains significant influence on certain social groups in post-Soviet society. This is due to the attractiveness of the ideas of social equality, justice and social guarantees from the state for labor, free education, medical care, and housing.

Simultaneously with the revolutionary direction in socialist thought, another direction was being formed, which was also based on Marxism, but tried to adapt to new historical realities not through forced revolutionism, but through social reforms. In the 20th century, this direction began to be called social democratic as opposed to communist.

Democratic socialism

The ideology of modern social democracy has its roots in the reformist movement in the Second International (1889-1914), represented by E. Bernstein, Vandervelde, Vollmar, Jaures and others, to the views of the theorists of the Workers' Socialist International, which existed in the interwar period, to the concepts of liberal reformism, among which Keynesianism has a special place.

A feature of the ideology of the Social Democrats is reformism, the justification of the policy of regulation and redistribution of income in an effectively working market economy. One of the leading theoreticians of the Second International, E. Bernstein, denied the inevitability of the collapse of capitalism and any connection between the onset of socialism and this collapse. Socialism does not boil down to replacing private property with public property, Bernstein believed. The path to socialism is the search for new “comradely forms of production” in the conditions of the peaceful development of a capitalist economy and political democracy. “The ultimate goal is nothing, the movement is everything” - this became the slogan of reformist socialism.

The modern concept of “democratic socialism” in its main features was created in the 50s as a result of the adoption of the Declaration of Principles of the Socialist International at the international conference of socialist parties in Frankfurt am Main in 1951. “Democratic socialism,” according to the program documents of social democracy, is a path that differs from both capitalism and “real socialism.” Capitalism, according to social democrats, has developed enormous productive forces, but has placed property rights above human rights. The communists, where they came to power, destroyed freedom, created a new class society and an inefficient economy based on forced labor.

Social Democrats attach equal importance to both the principle of personal freedom and the principles of solidarity and justice. The traditional formula: “Socialism = socialization + planned economy,” according to theorists of social democracy, should be completely discarded. The criterion for the difference between capitalism and socialism lies not in the principles of economic organization, but in the position that a person occupies in society, in his freedom, the right to participate in decision-making that is significant for the state, and the opportunity to realize himself in various spheres of public life.

The components of the concept of “democratic socialism” are political, economic and social democracy.

The idea of political democracy is based on the principles of freedom and equality. Social democrats recognize the possibility of the existence of various forms of democracy, but in any case the fundamental requirements of political democracy should be: the presence free elections, providing citizens with a valid choice between different political alternatives, the possibility of changing the government by peaceful means, guaranteeing individual and minority rights, the existence of an independent judicial system based on the rule of law. Democracy, in the interpretation of social democrats, is presented as an absolute value that has a supra-class character. Advocating for “pure” democracy, social democrats understand the state as the supreme social institution within which opposing social interests are regulated and reconciled. The state acts as the main body of social change and progressive development.

Providing a rationale for economic democracy, the Social Democrats emphasized in their official documents that they advocated public ownership, but within the framework of a mixed economy. Private ownership is available in certain sectors of the economy. The variety of forms of ownership should work for production efficiency. Collective property is not just an end in itself, but should serve as a tool for improving the well-being of society.

Social Democrats give priority to market relations in their economic strategy. The state, in turn, must regulate the market: not allow only big business to dominate it, and ensure that technologies are used for the benefit of the whole society. In other words, international social democracy has recognized the principle: "Competition - as much as possible, planning - as much as necessary."

The achievements of economic democracy are also linked to the development of “participation” of workers’ representatives in the management of capitalist firms, as well as the development of “self-government.” In general, the economic sphere should have a clearly defined social orientation and be controlled by society, but without losing the efficiency inherent in a market economy.

The term “social democracy” denotes the qualitative side of people’s way of life, which comprehensively characterizes the degree of human social freedom, the conditions and content of its labor activity, accessibility of the education system and spiritual values, state of the environment, living conditions. The struggle for social democracy is, first of all, a struggle for a higher quality of life.

Social democrats in Western countries, being in power or influencing the government, largely contributed to the democratization of society, the expansion and consolidation of the rights and freedoms of workers. Their real policy was close to the practice of liberal reformism, but was distinguished by a greater social orientation and the struggle for social justice.

The strengthening of the position of the Social Democrats is also due to the fact that authoritarian communism turned out to be a path strewn with enormous sacrifices and paved with economic and social failures. Social democracy continues to seek a balance between freedom and social justice and strives for social state, in which the danger of the unruly flourishing of bureaucracy is eliminated, forward planning does not tie society hand and foot and the personal responsibility of all members of society is placed in the foreground.

Socialist ideology, in both its revolutionary and reformist modifications, has had and continues to have a serious influence on working people, especially those who are hired. The influence of this ideology is due to the fact that it is aimed at a fair society, without exploitation, with equal social status for citizens. Socialism for the first time connected the possibility of realizing high humanistic ideals with the need to abolish private property and destroy the exploitative state.

Ideologically, the main confrontation of the 20th century is the struggle between liberal and socialist ideas. The collapse of the Eastern Bloc of socialist states put socialist ideology on the defensive. But socialism, understood as a humane, democratic society, still remains an “open question,” an intellectual and practical task for which supporters of socialist ideology do not yet have a solution.

The general trend in the development of socialist ideology at the end of the 20th century is the liberalization of socialism, although radical forms - communism and neo-Bolshevism - also retain influence.

Conservatism

Conservatism arose at the end of the 18th century as a reaction to the French Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Conservative ideology was a response to the challenge of liberalism and radicalism. Since conservatism arises precisely as a contrast to liberal views on human nature, freedom, equality and fraternity, it is not considered an independent, “pure” ideology. Conservatism is interpreted as an epiphenomenon of liberalism, i.e. a phenomenon accompanying liberalism, an appendage of liberalism. This birth of conservatism did not prevent it from turning into a fairly coherent system of views, which has undergone significant evolution, adapting to the modern world.

The intellectual conservative tradition was developed by the Englishman E. Burke (1729-1797) and the French J. de Maistre (1754-1821). L. de Bonald (1754-1840). They became the founders of the traditional conservative movement, which was distinguished by its rejection of the nihilistic nature of the French Revolution of the 18th century, bourgeois democracy and individual freedom. The “founding fathers” of the political ideology of conservatism expressed the interests of the aristocracy, those layers that capitalism deprived of a stable social status and class privileges.

Conservatives contrasted the liberals’ optimistic view of human nature, whose mind and will are able to transform society on the basis of freedom, with the idea of the initial imperfection of human nature, due to which excellent projects for the radical reorganization of society are doomed to failure, since they violate the established order for centuries. Conservatives believed that the true “nature” of man is completely alien to the concept of “freedom.” Only concrete historical freedoms, obtained by ancestors, verified by traditions and accepted as historical heritage, have meaning.

The most important principle of conservative ideology is moral absolutism, the recognition of the existence of unshakable moral ideals and values. These moral ideals and personal values must be formed by all means of social and government influence and curb the “sinful” nature of man. Politics in this sense also cannot be free from morality.

Another important principle of conservatism is traditionalism. Traditional principles are, according to theorists of conservatism, the foundation of any healthy society. Social reforms must be based on the spiritual traditions and values created by all previous generations. E. Burke believed that in any society, solidarity between generations develops. Every political figure who makes decisions must do so responsibly not only to his contemporaries, but also to his ancestors and descendants. E. Burke demonstratively contrasted the constructive rationalism of liberals with an apology for “prejudice.” It is in “ordinary prejudices”, in tradition, that wisdom inherited from ancestors is accumulated and the collective mind, including political intelligence, is reflected.

The traditionalism of conservative ideology is closely related to political realism. A doctrinaire approach is alien to conservatism. Political practice, as conservatives believe, should not be based on bare theoretical schemes. Reforms that are carried out in society should not be designed for an abstract person, but for real people of flesh and blood, whose lifestyle and established habits cannot be suddenly changed without great misfortunes. Conservatism returned a sense of historicity to political thought and defended continuity in turbulent revolutionary times. historical development and the preservation of useful parts of the "old public building", rather than the invention of abstract structures on the "blank slate" of revolutionary history.

Conservatism, especially modern conservatism, has a positive attitude towards the idea of equality of people before God. Equality exists in the field of morality and virtue, perhaps even political equality. But all forms of conservative ideology do not accept social equality and are anti-egalitarian. No society is conceivable without hierarchy and, therefore, inequality. This is precisely the basis of the order corresponding to “nature”. Egalitarianism destroys the social hierarchy on which social stability is based. At the same time, anti-egalitarianism does not mean that conservatives advocate a rigid pyramidal structure of society. Social mobility vertically and horizontally is important for social development. At the end of the 18th century, E. Burke formulated the principle of meritocracy, according to which power should be in the hands of worthy people, people from various social groups. Having accepted political democracy over time, conservatives became supporters of elitist democracy, when the democratic mechanism makes it possible to form a professional political elite and promote worthy people to power. Worthy - worthy - this is the principle of conservatives in relation to the social status of an individual.

Conservative ideology has a negative attitude towards the tendency to politicize people, which became especially pronounced in the 20th century. Private interests are more important to a person than politics. Politics is the sphere of activity of political elites. The participation of the masses in political life must be limited and controlled.

Conservatism tends to focus on local, regional, national values. Society is not scattered into separate grains of sand of individuals, but is focused on the general, the whole, on “we”. It is concentrated primarily at the local level: in the family, community, parish, craft corporation, local government institutions. The social “we” at the local level is a natural source of stability, education, preservation of traditions, and the formation of patriotism.

Conservatism in the 19th century gradually turns into a modification of ideology that accepts some of the values of liberalism, primarily political. The bourgeoisie, having survived revolutions and won political power, also sought support in new socio-political ideas. Particular attention in conservatism was drawn to the desire for the unity of society, to means of strengthening the authority of power, to hierarchy, and to emphasizing the connecting role of spiritual values.

In the 20th century, conservative theories developed under the significant influence of classical liberalism. In the United States, so-called market conservatism arose, which viewed trends towards state regulation of the economy as a dangerous break with the liberal traditions of Western civilization, as a “road to slavery” and totalitarianism.

Until the 70s of the 20th century, conservatism occupied a peripheral position and was on the defensive in relation to liberal reformism and social democratic theories. The rise of conservatism began in the second half of the 70s and especially from the beginning of the 80s, when political forces that adopted the ideology of conservatism came to power in many Western countries.

Neoconservatism

The objective basis for the emergence of neoconservatism was the structural crisis of the capitalist economy. Previous means used to overcome crisis situations and justified by the ideology of liberal reformism turned out to be insufficient. More radical means were required. The belief that scientific and technological progress, by virtue of its rational mechanism, will solve social problems has collapsed. It turned out that in order to stabilize society, strong moral reinforcement and additional means of legitimation were needed. Neoconservatism was a response to the “challenge” of the crisis state of scientific and technological civilization and the weakening of its spiritual and moral foundations. It has proven to be more effective than other ideologies. Neoconservative ideology more strongly stimulated individual achievement, and neoconservative policies found sufficient effective means solutions to economic and social problems.

In terms of worldview, neoconservatism advocates the priority of the principle of freedom over the principle of equality. Equality is possible only as equality of opportunity, but not as equality of conditions and results. Social order is realized primarily through social hierarchy, which arises organically, naturally. While defending the idea of freedom and human rights, neoconservatism focuses on a person’s responsibilities to himself and to society. Human rights only in combination with awareness of responsibilities and developed sense debts ennoble the personality.

In the economic field, neoconservatism advocates limiting government intervention in the market economy.

The state is obliged to promote private initiative, and not stifle it. This assistance is possible through the provision of tax incentives, stimulation of private investment and market supply. Being opponents of patronage regulation of the economy, neoconservatives rely on the personal factor: personal initiative, personal interest, personal capabilities and personal responsibility - these are the most important and unshakable values of an effectively functioning economy.

The social policy of the neoconservatives is closely related to the economic policy. Three basic principles constitute the essence of neoconservative social doctrine: the principle of solidarity, based on the idea of the unity of labor and capital, the principle of justice, i.e. “fair distribution of income and property”, “fair wages”, “fair tax policy” and others, the principle of subsidiarity - assistance to promote self-help and private initiative. In accordance with these principles, individuals and small communities should solve their own socio-economic problems themselves, and entrust to the state only those issues that cannot be solved in a similar way. The essence of social economic policy neoconservatives is to create conditions that allow workers to save, acquire property, gain financial independence and independence from state “social care”.

Neoconservatives believe that social benefits should be provided free of charge to those who need them and are not able to provide for themselves. All other citizens must pay for all the services they need and use, but receive them in the form and quality that they desire and that their material wealth allows.

A social market economy is the formula of the neoconservatives. The social market economy, from the point of view of modern conservatives, is not only the most successful economic form, strengthening and expanding the class of owners. It is also best suited to people: it gives tasks to citizens, but does not control them.

In the political sphere, neoconservatives are faithful to the old conservative tradition - democracy must be vertical, elitist. Political activity is not a privilege or a monopoly of one social group, but a profession available to everyone, but only if he has the appropriate abilities, vocation and special education. Everyone can and even should be interested in politics, since it concerns everyone, and everyone can participate in the political life of the country in one way or another, but only professionals should be politicians and work in politics in order to rid political decisions of amateurism, and politics itself from ochlocratic tendencies.

Neoconservatism absorbed the principles of classical liberalism, primarily the principle of individual freedom, but managed to link them with such traditional values as religion, family, law and order, decentralization and self-government, and ethnocultural diversity.

The organic concept of society, which neoconservatism preserved, contributed to the perception of society as an integrity, where the behavior of individuals with their passions and selfishness is subordinated to established structures, values, and traditions. Thanks to this, society remains stable and ensures continuity of development, the connection of the past with the future.

All modern political ideologies, reflecting the conflicts of social existence, are in constant development. Ideologies acquire new historical forms, borrowing from each other value guidelines that better fulfill the role of mobilization and organization of certain social strata, direct their social action. This is how liberalism becomes “more socialist” and socialism becomes “more liberal”. Conservatism internalizes the values of liberalism. Modern ideologies seem to be retreating from a one-sided vision of the world and moving along the path of interpenetration and complementarity. However, this does not yet lead to the loss of their self-identity. Ideologies reflect both social interest and the search for more realistic and effective programs social development. The competition of forces vying for power, as well as the competition of ideologies, is an element of power relations, it is the engine of political development, one of the guarantees of its democratic tendencies.

Essay

The concept of political ideology

Introduction

The most general category characterizing the subjective side of politics is political consciousness. The main forms of existence of political consciousness are political ideology and psychology. Among them, political ideology plays a special and increasingly important role.

The term "ideology" ancient Greek origin and literally means “the study of ideas”, since it consists of two words “idea” and “logos”. It was introduced into scientific circulation by Antoine Destube de Tracy, one of the representatives of the later generation of French enlighteners. In his work "A Study on the Power of Thinking" he used the term ideology to characterize the science of ideas.

In the modern world, in a certain sense, there has been a globalization of political ideologization. We now find ourselves in the same melting pot political ideas, concepts of doctrine and ideas of all times, peoples and regions.

Political ideology is a certain doctrine that justifies the claims of a particular group of people to power and, in accordance with this goal, achieves the subordination of public opinion to its own ideas. Political ideology is one of the most influential forms of political consciousness, influencing the content of power relations.

The term was introduced by the French scientist A. de Trecy in the 18th century. The founder of the theory of ideology, K. Marx, saw in it, first of all, a form of illusory consciousness caused by the contradictions of production relations. Ideology, according to the French philosopher Destutt de Tracy, is ideas that allow one to establish solid foundations for politics, ethics, etc.

1. Political ideologies of modern times

Among the main ideological trends in the modern world, the following should be highlighted:

Liberalism, formed on the basis of the political philosophy of the English enlighteners D. Locke, T. Hobbes, A. Smith at the end of the 17th–18th centuries. and linking individual freedom with respect for fundamental human rights, with the system of private ownership and the ideology of free competition. Liberalism defended a critical attitude towards the state, the principles of high political responsibility of citizens, religious tolerance and pluralism, and the idea of constitutionalism. In the 20th century trends in the universalization of states that embody the principles of freedom and equality of citizens have reoriented the political program of neoliberals towards pluralistic forms of organization and exercise of state power (in contrast to the previous tendency of liberalism to determine the democracy of life by the majority) R. Dahl, C. Lindbdum and other neopluralists believe that than the weaker the rule of the majority, the more it corresponds to the principles of liberalism;

Conservatism, which defends the priority of continuity over innovation, inviolability naturally the established order of things, the pre-established hierarchy of human society, the corresponding moral principles, underlying family, religion and property. Conservatism arose as a negative reaction to the Great French Revolution of 1789, when, shocked by attempts at radical political reorganization, the spiritual fathers of this movement - J. de Maistre, L. de Bonald, E. Burke - tried to affirm the idea that the conscious transformation of social orders is unnatural. The growing influence of conservatism in the modern world is associated with the reaction to the economic crisis of 1973–1974, mass youth protest movements in Western Europe and the expansion of the influence of Keynesian ideas. Neoconservatism offers spiritual priorities of family and religion, social stability, moral mutual responsibility of the citizen and the state, respect for the law, strong public order and stability. The theorists of neoconservatism (D. Bell, Z. Brzezinski, N. Kristoll) sought to develop programs that would overcome the deficit in social governance (due to excessive democratization), modernize the mechanisms for protecting elitism, and improve the means of conflict resolution;

Socialism, which connects the prospects for solving major social problems with building a more just and united society, with improving the lives of working people. There are different varieties of socialist ideology: communism, social reformism, traditional and modernist currents of social democratic ideology, but what they all have in common is a materialist interpretation of social life, a social-class approach to social phenomena, the humanistic nature of ultimate goals, social collectivism, historical optimism .

Liberalism

In the political history of the West, the emergence of liberalism is associated with the development of capitalist society and coincides in time with the period of bourgeois revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries. The theorists of classical liberalism J. Locke (1632-1704), Adam Smith (1723-1790), S. L. Montesquieu (1689-1755) expressed the interests of the third estate, fighting feudal reaction. Their ideas formed the basis of the concept of liberal democracy.

The central place among the ideas of liberalism is occupied by the idea of individual freedom. Liberalism defended the intrinsic value of the human person and its right to independently pursue personal interests. Individualism in the understanding of the Enlightenment is the ability to assert oneself as a bearer of reason, the ability to transform reality in accordance with the demands of reason, to make it worthy of human nature.

The idea of resistance to despotic power occupied a crucial place in the ideology and political struggle of the 17th-18th centuries. Liberals were largely divided on how to resist government overreach. In general, liberalism recognized the right to revolutionary resistance to despotism and justified not only the revolutions in England and France, but also the American War of Independence.

Classical liberalism strongly advocated the equality of citizens before the law and defended the legal foundations of democracy and parliamentarism. Equality in freedom under universal law - this is the liberal imperative of law.

In the spiritual sphere, liberalism leaned towards tolerance and compromise.

Freedom of opinion and speech for a liberal is the most important principle of life. Liberalism played a huge role in destroying the fearful ideological values of traditional society. He established a new democratic creed:

Individualism, which sees the main task of society and the state in providing each individual with opportunities to develop his abilities;

Freedom, which must be ensured within the limits of law to the greatest extent possible for each individual;

Equality, as a statement that all people are equal by nature and have equal rights and opportunities; - brotherhood, understood as the cooperation of people in creating a prosperous society and the refusal to use their freedom to harm others.

Conservatism

Conservatism arose at the end of the 18th century as a reaction to the French

The Enlightenment and the Great French Revolution. Conservative ideology was a response to the challenge of liberalism and radicalism. Since conservatism arises precisely as a contrast to liberal views on human nature, freedom, equality and fraternity, it is not considered an independent, “pure” ideology. Conservatism is interpreted as an epiphenomenon of liberalism, i.e. a phenomenon accompanying liberalism, an appendage of liberalism. This birth of conservatism did not prevent it from being transformed into a fairly coherent system of views, which has undergone significant evolution, adapting to the modern world.

The intellectual conservative tradition was developed by the Englishman E. Burke (1729-1797) and the French J. de Maistre (1754-1821). L. De Bonald (1754-1840). They became the founders of the traditional conservative movement, which was distinguished by its rejection of the nihilistic nature of the French Revolution of the 18th century, bourgeois democracy and individual freedom. The “founding fathers” of the political ideology of conservatism expressed the interests of the aristocracy, those layers that capitalism deprived of a stable social status and class privileges. The most important principle of conservative ideology is moral absolutism, the recognition of the existence of unshakable moral ideals and values. These moral ideals and personal values must be formed by all means of social and government influence and curb the “sinful” nature of man. Politics in this sense also cannot be free from morality.

Another important principle of conservatism is traditionalism.

Traditional principles are, according to theorists of conservatism, the foundation of any healthy society. Social reforms must be based on the spiritual traditions and values created by all previous generations. E. Burke believed that in any society, solidarity between generations develops. Every political figure who makes decisions must do so responsibly not only to his contemporaries, but also to his ancestors and descendants.

The traditionalism of conservative ideology is closely related to political realism. A doctrinaire approach is alien to conservatism.

Political practice, as conservatives believe, should not be based on bare theoretical schemes. Reforms that are carried out in society should not be designed for an abstract person, but for real people, flesh and blood, whose lifestyle and established habits cannot be suddenly changed without great misfortunes. Conservatism returned to political thought a sense of historicity, defended in turbulent revolutionary times the continuity of historical development and the preservation of useful parts of the “old social building”, instead of inventing abstract structures on the “blank slate” of revolutionary history.

Worthy - worthy - this is the principle of conservatives in relation to the social status of an individual.

Democratic socialism

The ideology of modern social democracy has its roots in the reformist movement in the Second International (1889-1914), represented by E. Bernstein, Vandervelde, Vollmar, Jaurès and others, to the views of the theoreticians of the Workers' Socialist International, which existed in the interwar period; concepts of liberal reformism, among which Keynesianism has a special place.

A feature of the ideology of the Social Democrats is reformism, the rationale for the policy of regulation and redistribution of income in an effectively functioning market economy. One of the leading theoreticians of the Second International, E. Bernstein, denied the inevitability of the collapse of capitalism and any connection between the onset of socialism and this collapse. Socialism does not boil down to replacing private property with public property, Bernstein believed. The path to socialism is the search for new “comradely forms of production” in the conditions of the peaceful development of a capitalist economy and political democracy. “The ultimate goal is nothing, the movement is everything” - this became the slogan of reformist socialism.

“Democratic socialism,” according to the program documents of social democracy, is a path that differs from both capitalism and

"real socialism". Capitalism, according to social democrats, has developed enormous productive forces, but has placed property rights above human rights. The communists, where they came to power, destroyed freedom, created a new class society and an inefficient economy based on forced labor.

The components of the concept of “democratic socialism” are political, economic and social democracy. The idea of political democracy is based on the principles of freedom and equality. Social democrats recognize the possibility of the existence of various forms of democracy, but in any case, the fundamental requirements of political democracy should be: the presence of free elections; providing citizens with genuine choice between different political alternatives; the possibility of changing the government through peaceful means; guarantee of individual and minority rights; the existence of an independent judicial system based on the rule of law. Democracy, in the interpretation of social democrats, is presented as an absolute value that has a supra-class character. Advocating for “pure” democracy, social democrats understand the state as the supreme social institution within which opposing social interests are regulated and reconciled. The state acts as the main body of social change and progressive development.

In other words, international social democracy has recognized the principle:

"Competition - as much as possible, planning - as much as necessary."

Structure of ideology

Within the framework of any ideology, any ideological teaching, the following structural components or levels are distinguished:

1) Theoretical-conceptual, which is formed by the basic provisions that reveal the values and ideals of a certain social class, nation or state, or a group of adherents of a certain direction of political development (for example, reformers, conservatives or revolutionaries);

2) Programmatic-political, in which socio-philosophical principles or ideals are transformed by the political elite into specific programs, slogans and demands, facilitating the adoption by the political leadership of certain political decisions and the implementation of related actions;

3) Updated, which constitute specific political goals realized by citizens, as well as their implementation using specific methods and actions.

At the same time, ideology, as the most important key element of the political system and political life of society, performs a number of significant functions in it. At the same time, the connection between ideology and politics is dual: ideology directs political activity and the political development of society, but at the same time, political practice and political reality test the realism and strength of a particular political doctrine. As a result, a kind of “vicious circle” or cycle is formed: a specific social situation gives rise to a certain ideology that meets the needs of the time - which, in turn, takes possession of the masses, becomes a material force and changes political life - as a result, the resulting new political situation leads to a revaluation of the original the content of ideological teaching, its capabilities and reliability.

2. Functions of political ideology

The most important function of political ideology is to legitimize the power of certain political forces and regimes. Counter-ideologies also perform this function, because they legitimize the right to state power of opposition forces.

Ideologies perform mobilizing and integration functions that unite people into a social whole. They raise and direct social strata and classes to certain actions, and inspire them to fight for their interests.

Ideological unity unites people, forms a political community, and contributes to the emergence of a sense of a collective “we.”

Ideologies have a critical function. They have a critical charge for understanding reality and overthrowing other ideological idols.

The cognitive function of political ideology is connected with the fact that, being a reflection of the society that gave birth to it, ideology inevitably carries within itself real contradictions of life, problems associated with the nature of the social structure, the level of economic development, and sociocultural tradition.

Ideology carries knowledge about society and its conflicts. Ideological constructs are not cynical lies, but a natural form in which groups and classes become aware of their position. Distortion of reality occurs in accordance with certain social interests.

The constructive function of political ideology manifests itself most clearly when adopting a political program of action that is implemented in practice. The constructive function can also manifest itself indirectly, when political ideals motivate the actions of individuals and social groups, and inspire them to actively participate in the political process.

The Republic, Danton once said, lived in the minds of people twenty years before its proclamation.

Political ideology performs a normative function. It fixes a certain political and ideological imperative, against which practical projects are compared, and contains political guidelines and norms that should be adhered to. During transitional periods of reforms and revolutions, the normative component bears a special burden. Various ideological trends create a whole range of such normative guidelines that carry an obligation.

The main functions of political ideology are: mastering public consciousness, introducing into it its own criteria for assessing the past, present and future, creating a positive image in the eyes of public opinion of the goals and objectives of political development it proposes. At the same time, political ideology is called upon not so much to disseminate and propagate its goals and ideals as to achieve purposeful actions of citizens in fulfillment of the tasks it sets.

Political science usually includes among the general functions of ideology:

1) Orientation - ideology includes basic ideas about society and the political system, about politics and power, helps a person navigate political life and carry out conscious political actions;

2) Mobilization - offering society a certain model (idea, program) of a more perfect state (system, regime), ideology thereby mobilizes members of society to implement them;

3) Integrative - it strives to formulate national and national values and goals, offers them to society, uniting people on their basis;

4) Depreciation (i.e., mitigating) - by explaining and justifying the existing political system and political reality in the eyes of people, ideology thereby helps to relieve social tension, mitigate and resolve crisis situations when state power does not have the material or organizational capabilities of society and citizens ;

5) The function of expressing and protecting the interests of a certain social group or class - for example, Marxist ideology claims to defend the interests of the proletariat, liberal - a layer of entrepreneurs and owners, etc.

Conclusion

One cannot understand modern politics unless one acquires a sufficient understanding of political ideology. The various political ideas and concepts that make up it in the last decade, thanks to the development of communications, are spreading more easily and wider than before, taking possession of the masses and becoming a political force, determining the guidelines and methods of action of the authorities.

All modern political ideologies, reflecting the conflicts of social existence, are in constant development. Ideologies acquire new historical forms, borrowing from each other value guidelines that better fulfill the role of mobilization and organization of certain social strata and direct their social action. This is how liberalism becomes “more socialist” and socialism becomes “more liberal”. Conservatism internalizes the values of liberalism. Modern ideologies seem to be retreating from a one-sided vision of the world and moving along the path of interpenetration and complementarity. However, this does not yet lead to the loss of their self-identity. Ideologies reflect both social interest and the search for more realistic and effective programs of social development. The competition of forces vying for power, as well as the competition of ideologies, is an element of power relations, it is the engine of political development, one of the guarantees of its democratic tendencies.

A political party that criticizes the activities of the country’s government offers its own alternative program for the development of the state. This fact allows us to consider it as

1) democratic

2) opposition

3) liberal democratic

4) massive

Explanation.

Because the party is not ruling - it is opposition.

Answer: 2

A political party characterized by formation around a group of leaders, amorphous organization and the absence of fixed membership is called

1) personnel

2) opposition

3) liberal democratic

4) mass

Explanation.

Main structural element cadre parties are committees. The committee is created on a territorial basis, and its number is usually small. The committees are autonomous and loosely coupled. All their activities are concentrated around the candidate for elected office. Such a party is concerned with ideological issues insofar as they can help their candidates. Parties built on the basis of committees, which can be considered as their primary organizations, do not have a membership system with appropriate registration and regular payment of membership fees.

Answer: 1

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

You are wrong, this is the definition of a cadre party. We must learn to distinguish them.

Elizaveta Mironova (Moscow) 25.04.2014 13:03

lack of fixed membership and amorphousness - this is personnel??? isn’t it the other way around???? not mass???

Petr Dmitrievich Sadovsky

We have everything right.

The central place in liberal democratic ideology is occupied by the idea

1) equal distribution of material goods

2) civil society

3) class struggle

4) the need to eliminate exploitation

Explanation.

Liberal democratic ideology is a form of socio-political structure - a legal state based on representative democracy, in which the will of the majority and the ability of elected representatives to exercise power are limited in the name of protecting the rights of the minority and the freedoms of individual citizens.

Liberal democracy aims to provide every citizen with equal rights to due process, private property, and integrity. personal life, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and freedom of religion. These liberal rights are enshrined in higher laws (such as a constitution or statute, or in precedent decisions made by the highest courts), which, in turn, empower various government and public bodies to ensure these rights.

The correct answer is listed at number 2.

Answer: 2

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

The formation of parties is associated with the spread of norms

2) parliamentarism

4) traditions

Explanation.

Parliamentarism, a system of state power, characterized by a clear distribution of legislative and executive functions with a privileged position of the legislative body - parliament in relation to other state bodies. It is under such a system that political parties begin to form (England, France, USA).

Answer: 2

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

Petr Dmitrievich Sadovsky

Any process, including the formation of parties, is influenced by many factors. And the scientist’s task is to find out which factor(s) had a greater influence. Of course, the rules of law are important and certainly played their role, but laws (rules of law) also existed in absolute monarchies, although there were no parties there.

Strict party discipline, fixed membership, adherence to ideology are signs

1) parties of voters

2) mass parties

3) personnel parties

4) avant-garde parties

Explanation.

According to the definition of a mass party, the correct answer is 2.

Personnel parties do not have a fixed membership and are temporary, usually formed during the election race.

There are no electoral parties, there are electoral associations.

Vanguard party is a political party that claims to be the vanguard of society, solving its problems and leading activities to implement these solutions.

The correct answer is listed at number 2.

Answer: 2

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

Cadre parties - admission to them is subject to certain conditions, they have fixed membership, strict discipline, mandatory membership fees; their leadership is largely centralized (in Marxist-Leninist parties there is a principle of democratic centralism);

Mass parties - there is no fixed membership or it is not strictly taken into account. Party contributions are not fixed in nature and are paid at will or in the form of donations to the party treasury. There are no local party organizations, no meetings are held, the local leadership is not elected, but is made up of well-known businessmen and politicians, at the grassroots level the party leader is the boss

Petr Dmitrievich Sadovsky

Just the opposite. Swap cadre and mass parties in the definitions.

1) sovereignty in internal and external matters

2) presence of controls

3) adoption of laws generally binding on citizens

4) establishment and collection of taxes

Explanation.

The first applies only to the state; the party cannot be independent of the state; it acts and exists within the framework and conditions of the state.

The third is to the state, because it is endowed with legislative powers.

Fourth - to the state, it pursues a policy of income redistribution, the executive branch of government, the party does not have such powers.

The correct answer is listed at number 2.

Answer: 2

Political parties

1) adopt laws that are generally binding on the population

2) participate in the struggle for power

3) establish and collect taxes

4) represent a sovereign organization of power

Answer: 2

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

What characteristic is common to a political party and a state?

2) sovereignty in internal and external matters

3) institution of citizenship (nationality)

4) universally binding decisions for the population

Explanation.

All the rest are inherent only to the state, and the development of politics. programs and the state and parties, but they have different legal power and influence.

The correct answer is listed under number 1.

Answer: 1

Subject area: Politics. The state and its functions, Politics. Political parties and movements

On what basis are political parties divided into ruling and opposition?

1) organizational

2) attitude towards the existing government

3) ideological

4) place in the political spectrum

Explanation.

Ruling parties are parties that entered parliament and received the majority of seats there.

Opposition parties are parties that did not enter parliament or that entered parliament but do not support the course of the ruling party.

The correct answer is listed at number 2.

Answer: 2

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

By formulating political programs, demands, slogans and bringing them to the authorities, political parties primarily perform the function

1) representation of the interests of social groups

2) training of personnel

3) political socialization

4) participation in the development of laws

Explanation.

Parties are of interest to one or another group of people.

The correct answer is listed under number 1.

Answer: 1

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

conservative political ideology?

2) “A fair structure of society should be based on the redistribution of wealth, state support for the most disadvantaged layers”

Explanation.

Conservatism is an ideological commitment to traditional values and orders, social or religious doctrines. In politics - a direction that defends the value of state and social order, rejection of “radical” reforms and extremism. In foreign policy, there is a focus on strengthening security, the use of military force, and support for traditional allies; in foreign economic relations, there is protectionism. In conservatism, the main value is the preservation of the traditions of society, its institutions, beliefs and even “prejudices.”

It is also true to say that conservatism is one of the political and ideological currents of political thought, reflecting the commitment of its supporters to preserve the traditions and foundations of the state and society.

Conservatism is focused on preserving and maintaining historically established forms of state and public life, its value principles embodied in religion, family, property, etc.

Conservatism as a political and ideological phenomenon initially took shape in the West, or more precisely, in the Anglo-Saxon cultural and historical space.

Basic principles:

Society is a system of norms, customs, traditions, social institutions that must be preserved and developed;

Existing social institutions are preferable to any new programs aimed at transforming them;

Distrust of social innovations and complete denial of any revolutionary changes;

Strengthening the universal moral order sanctioned and supported by religion;

Pessimism in assessing human nature, disbelief in the power of reason and the abilities of the individual.

The correct answer is listed under number 1.

Answer: 1

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

Opposition parties are political parties that

1) take part in parliamentary elections

2) develop and pass laws

3) act illegally, without official registration

4) criticize government policies

Explanation.

Opposition - a party or group that opposes the dominant party or opinion supported by the majority. Also, the political activities of parties, groups and movements opposing the government course and leading a struggle for state power with the ruling party (parties).

Answer: 4

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

What is typical for any political party?

1) a significant number of supporters

2) the presence of central and local organizations

3) unity of political views

4) significant financial resources

Explanation.

Political party is special public organization(association), which directly sets itself the task of seizing political power in the state or taking part in it through its representatives in the bodies of state power and local self-government. Most parties have a program: an exponent of the party’s ideology, a list of its goals and ways to achieve them.

The correct answer is listed at number 3.

Answer: 3

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

What are the functions of political parties in a democratic society?

1) development of political programs

2) adoption of laws

3) appointment of heads of regions

4) conducting foreign policy

Explanation.

Internal functions concern recruiting new members, securing party funding, establishing effective communication between leadership and local branches, etc.

External functions are decisive for party activities:

Expression, advocacy and protection of the interests of large social groups and layers; o integration of people within social groups based on common goals, mobilization of the masses to solve important social problems;

Development of ideology, formation of public opinion, dissemination of political culture;

Creating opportunities for political socialization of the individual;

Training of personnel for political institutions, participation in the formation of the political elite;

Organization of election campaigns and participation in them;

The struggle for state power and participation in political governance.

The correct answer is listed under number 1.

Answer: 1

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

Read excerpts from policy documents of leading political parties. Which one adheres social democratic political ideology?

1) “A fair structure of society should be based on the redistribution of wealth and state support for the most disadvantaged layers.”

2) “A person in society cannot be free from the foundations of his social circle, clan, traditions. Their respect, as well as honoring the history of their fatherland, are the leading values of the movement.”

3) “All connections and contacts of an individual with society and the state are of a forced nature, the field of freedom of an individual is limited only by the field of freedom of another similar person.”

4) “The party recognizes the inviolability of personality and property, non-interference of the state in the private life of citizens as the leading principles of its activities.”

Explanation.

Social democracy is a socio-economic system whose main goal is to ensure social equality through high taxes and redistribution of income by the state. Unlike Socialism, it does not involve the destruction of the class of private entrepreneurs, as under socialism.

The correct answer is listed under number 1.

Answer: 1

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

Petr Dmitrievich Sadovsky

To answer this question you need to have an understanding of political ideologies.

Alina Idiatullina 17.02.2015 19:33

The first answer does not relate to social democratic ideology. It belongs to the liberal ideology. The correct answer is 4.

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

Learn the types of ideologies, otherwise you will make mistakes in the real exam. Number 4 is liberal ideology. Liberalism is a philosophical and economic theory and political ideology, which is based on the position that a person is free to dispose of himself and his property.

Read excerpts from policy documents of leading political parties. Which one adheres liberal political ideology?

1) “The state and society must rely, first of all, on the moral foundations and traditions of previous generations, the main value is continuity of course.”

2) “A fair structure of society should be based on the redistribution of wealth and state support for the most disadvantaged layers.”

3) “A society based on property inequality and forced labor is constantly threatened by social conflicts.”

4) “The Party recognizes individual freedom and inviolability of personality and property as the leading principles of its activities.”

Explanation.

The correct answer is listed at number 4.

Answer: 4

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

2) LIBERAL

3) Social democratic

4) Democratic

Actually it's much more logical :)

Valentin Ivanovich Kirichenko

At the heart of liberalism is the recognition of individual freedom and the inviolability of property. This is the 4th answer. What you considered answer 2 to be liberal is incorrect, since this postulate is closer to social democratic ideas.

During a discussion about the role of the state in the life of society, citizen P. spoke as follows: “The priority in the activities of a modern state should be social support for the poor. For these purposes, a progressive tax on the rich should be introduced and taxes on corporate profits should be increased.” What political ideology is P. a supporter of?

1) liberal

2) social democratic

3) anarchic

4) conservative

Explanation.

Social democratic parties advocate a more visible participation of the state in the life of society and in managing the economy while maintaining fundamental freedoms. Social Democrats stand for the creation of decent living conditions for people, the redistribution of income in favor of the disabled and poor, and the accessibility of the education system. One way to achieve this goal is to introduce a progressive tax on the rich.

Liberal ideology is associated with upholding the ideas of democracy, the rule of law, equality of opportunity, and equality before the law.

The basic principles of conservatism are traditionalism, stability, order. Conservatives advocate strong state power and defend the priority of state interests over individual ones.

The correct answer is indicated under number: 2.

Answer: 2

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

2) liberal

3) social democratic

4) communist

Explanation.

Which of the leading political ideologies is characterized by the statement: “The state, the country cannot be considered as a blank slate, any inscription in the annals of the country’s history must be based on the experience and foundations of the ancestors”?

1) conservative

2) liberal

3) social democratic

4) communist

Explanation.

Social democratic parties advocate a more visible participation of the state in the life of society and in economic management while maintaining fundamental freedoms. Social Democrats stand for the creation of decent living conditions for people, the fight against social inequality, the redistribution of income in favor of the disabled and poor, and the accessibility of the education system. One way to achieve this goal is to introduce a progressive tax on the rich.

Liberal ideology is associated with upholding the ideas of democracy, the rule of law, equality of opportunity, and equality before the law.

The basic principles of conservatism are traditionalism, stability, order. Conservatives advocate strong state power and defend the priority of state interests over individual ones.

Communism is an ideology that involves the construction of socialism - a society of social justice on the principles of collectivism, freedom, equality in a revolutionary way. After the proletarian revolution, power had to be taken into the hands of the proletariat (dictatorship of the proletariat), private ownership of the means of production was abolished. In the second half of the 20th century, the rejection of revolution and the peaceful transition to socialism brought communism closer to social democratic ideas.

3) carrying out organizational activities among party activists

4) participation in the organization, preparation and conduct of parliamentary elections

Explanation.

Functions of a political party:

struggle for power, influence on state policy

participation in the exercise of power;

participation in the formation of power

formation of public opinion;

expression of interests of social groups;

political education;

policy training;

exercising control over the activities of executive authorities

This example illustrates the function of monitoring the activities of executive authorities.

The correct answer is indicated under number: 2.

Answer: 2

The Public Chamber is an organization that ensures the interaction of citizens of the Russian Federation, public associations with state authorities and local governments in order to take into account the needs and interests of citizens of the Russian Federation, protect the rights and freedoms of citizens of the Russian Federation.

A trade union organization is a voluntary public association of people connected by the commonality of their professional activities, created to represent and protect the rights of workers in labor relations, as well as the socio-economic interests of the organization’s members.

A political party is a voluntary union that expresses the interests of social groups and participates in the struggle for political power.

The correct answer is indicated under the number: 1.

Answer: 1

Subject area: Politics. Political parties and movements

Liberalism in the historical past, and to a large extent even today, is the most widespread ideological and political doctrine. It represents a system of views on the world around us, principles and attitudes that underlie the socio-economic and political strategy of governments, programs of political parties and movements of liberal orientation. Moreover, liberalism is not only a theory, but also a social practice, a type of social consciousness, a way of thinking of its adherents. Liberalism was formed and developed in various socio-historical and national-cultural conditions. Upon closer examination, liberalism reveals a very bizarre variety of shades, transitional stages, contradictions, etc. In its genesis, liberalism went through a number of stages and was embodied in various modifications. IN different periods and in different socio-historical and national-cultural conditions he performed in various forms. Given this fact, they say that there are many liberalisms. 19.2.2.1.1. Classical liberalism All definitions of liberalism in one way or another revolve around the idea of individual freedoms, realized in the principles of organization of society, in the way of life of its members, and in the methods of political government that protect the democratic system. 19.2.2.1.1.1. The origins of liberalism Liberalism (from the Latin liberalis - free) became historically the first form of ideology of the New Age. It took shape in the struggle of the bourgeoisie against the feudal order in the 17th-18th centuries. Having inherited a number of ideas of the ancient Greek thinkers Lucretius and Democritus, liberalism as an independent ideological movement was formed on the basis of Western European political philosophy of the late 17th-18th centuries. (J. Locke, C. Montesquieu, A. Smith, B. Constant, A. de Tocqueville). J. Locke (1632-1704) is considered the founder of classical liberalism. Throughout the 19th century. these ideas were continued and developed by I. Bentham, J. S. Mill, T. H. Green, L. Hobhouse, B. Bosanquet, I. Kant and other supporters of Western socio-political thought. Liberalism is a very flexible and dynamic system ideas, open to influence from other movements, sensitive to changes in social life and modified in accordance with new realities. The roots of the liberal worldview go back to the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Newtonian scientific revolution. The turning point in the formation of liberalism and the demarcation of the main currents of Western socio-political thought of the New and Modern times was the Great French bourgeois revolution late XVIII V. In its main political and ideological document - the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789” - clear formulations of those ideas, values and attitudes that have become a powerful weapon in the fight against the old order are given in a succinct and complete manner. Significant contributions to the formation of the liberal worldview were made by representatives of the European and American Enlightenment, French physiocrats, adherents of the English Manchester school, adherents of German classical philosophy, and classical political economy. Despite all the differences, the commonality between these different thinkers, ideological trends and movements was that they, each in their own way in accordance with the realities of their time, spoke out for a revision of outdated values and approaches to solving the most important socio-economic and political problems. They substantiated the need to rebuild socio-political and state institutions that had lost their effectiveness, and advocated the revision and modernization of basic provisions, doctrines and concepts in accordance with the changed state of affairs in society. The prerequisite for the liberal worldview is the philosophy of individualism, based on the isolation of human individuality from the social aggregate, the affirmation of the idea of the equality of all people in their innate, natural right to self-realization. Individualism is a concept that considers the individual as the main driving force in society. If for Aristotle the polis is a self-sufficient value, then for Locke the individual is “the master of his own person.” Mill formulated this idea in the form of an axiom: “Man himself knows better than any government what he needs.” In the concept of individualism, a person appears as an autonomous, self-governing person who, independently, independently of society, is capable of establishing the laws of his own morality and behavior. The very concept of “liberalism” entered the political lexicon in the first half of the 19th century, when political parties of liberals appeared in a number of Western European countries. And the first use of the term “liberalism” dates back to 1811-1812, when in Spain a group of politicians and publicists defined the constitution they compiled as “liberal”. Around the same time, this term began to be used in England, in the country that gave birth in the 19th century. the world of such prominent representatives of liberalism as I. Bentham, J. S. Mill, G. Spencer. In Russia, for a number of reasons, the liberal worldview took root later than in most European countries - at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Among the most famous representatives of Russian liberal thought of the pre-revolutionary period, the names of T. N. Granovsky, P. B. Struve, B. N. Chicherin, P. N. Milyukov, who tried to develop and apply the principles of liberalism to Russian realities, should be mentioned first of all. It was they who laid the foundations of Russian constitutionalism, the ideas of the rule of law and civil society in relation to Russian realities. Their merit also consisted in the practical formulation of the problems of individual rights and freedoms, the subordination of state power to law, and the rule of law. Classical liberalism originated in the 17th century. as the ideology of the bourgeoisie and was finally formed by the middle of the 19th century. 19.2.2.1.1.2. The ideological basis of classical liberalism Liberalism in the political process exists in three main forms: as an ideological movement, represented in different periods by different social forces, but still committed to its original canons; as a socio-political (organizational-political) movement; as a set of certain institutions, procedures and principles of management that create the opportunity to pursue liberal policies at the state level in all spheres of public life. In this section, liberalism is considered as a special type of worldview, which is a set of wide range theories, concepts of a political, economic, cultural and general social nature. In this understanding, liberalism is a certain view of: the social environment surrounding a person; preferred paths of social development; political system and political institutions; features and nature of the economy; specifics cultural development; the role of religion in public life; position of the individual in society, etc. With this approach, liberalism acts as an organizing structure that determines both the type of thinking and the nature of perception social phenomena and facts. In the political philosophy of liberalism during the period of the XVII-XIX centuries. a fundamental evolution took place - from the recognition of a constitutional monarchy as an ideal political structure and the limitation of the voting rights of citizens through qualifications to the justification of the idea of a democratic republic with universal suffrage. Liberalism justified the process of isolation and formation of an independent individual - a representative of the nascent bourgeoisie. The economically active, but politically powerless bourgeoisie expressed its claims to power in this political-ideological doctrine. The central place among the ideas of liberalism is occupied by the idea of individual freedom. From the moment of its inception, it defended the intrinsic value of the human person and its right to independently pursue personal interests. Individualism in the understanding of the Enlightenment is the ability to assert oneself as a bearer of reason, the ability to transform reality in accordance with the demands of reason, to make it worthy of human nature. The liberal doctrine of natural human rights to life, liberty, and property required society to provide the individual with maximum freedom for self-realization. The natural and only limitation of such freedom was the freedom of another person. The paradigm of liberalism is a system of fundamental ideas about the innate, inalienable human rights to life, liberty, private property and the “pursuit of happiness” (T. Jefferson). At the same time, private property is considered as the basis of individual freedom, and freedom, in turn, as a necessary condition for the self-realization of the individual. Hence the apology for individualism and the interpretation of society as a collection of equal, independent individuals. For liberals, the individual is always above any group or community. Among all freedoms, economic freedom and freedom of enterprise are paramount for them. It is no coincidence that one of the first theorists of liberalism, the Frenchman B. Constant, voiced the idea that the freedom to elect and be elected should be granted only to those who are rich enough. In their classical form, the economic postulates of liberalism were formulated by A. Smith, who advocated a “system of natural freedom” in the economy and full scope for private initiative. For the bourgeoisie, behind the demand for individual freedom was hidden the desire of the third estate to eliminate the privileges of the aristocracy and clergy and achieve the same (equality) legal rights with them. Based on the doctrine of the “rule of law” of J. Locke and J. Mill’s idea of the intuitive ability of the individual to acquire political common sense, supporters of this ideology fought for “negative freedom,” i.e., freedom from the social control of the state, from various restrictions (for example, they advocated the abolition of class privileges and hereditary power). But when this happened, the slogan “Get rich!” was put forward, and arose new form inequality based on the wealth of some and the poverty of others. In the economic sphere, the classics of liberalism advocated the abolition of restrictions on free enterprise, defended private initiative, and the principle of non-interference by the state in the economic and private lives of citizens. This is where the idea of the state arose as a “night watchman” (F. Lassalle), whose main functions were to protect private property, freedom and personal integrity, as well as protect the country from external aggression. The theorists of liberalism (especially I. Kant, A. Smith) assigned the state an important role in providing material assistance to the poor, those who, for various reasons, cannot earn a living; the state must thereby guarantee respect for their natural rights. Liberals defended the principle of free market exchange, personal entrepreneurial initiative, competition, and condemned protectionism and political interference in the economy. The founders of liberalism actively supported the slogan put forward by commercial and industrial circles (“don’t interfere with action”), which demanded the elimination of regulation of economic life. Therefore, this ideology can be called liberal-bourgeois, because it began with the slogan of freedom, still filled with the humanistic content of the Renaissance, then moved on to the understanding of freedom as freedom of enterprise and formal rights of personality and property, and now widely promotes the cult of consumption. Liberalism is based on an economic vision of human behavior, where economics is understood as a priority area compared to politics. 19th century liberalism became the ideology of the bourgeoisie, which wanted to gain complete freedom of action in the economic field and at the same time, with the help of the state, consolidate its political dominance. Only the possession of property leads to true independence and forms individualism. Free individuals create society, and society creates the state. According to the theory of classical liberalism, society is primary, and the state is secondary, and it arises on the basis of the theory of “social contract”. Accordingly, the role of the state in this situation was minimized. This resulted in insufficient development of the functions of the state in the field of economics and social life. Since its inception, liberalism has defended a critical attitude towards the state and the principles of political responsibility of citizens. Power transmitted by inheritance (in monarchies), all forms of class privileges were declared to be no longer valid and unacceptable in the new socio-historical conditions. As one of its founding fathers, J. Locke, emphasized, each individual is “his own master.” His follower J. S. Mill formulated this idea as an axiom: “Man himself knows better than any government what he needs.” The main problems of liberal ideology have always been the determination of the permissible degree and nature of state intervention in the private life of an individual, the combination of democracy and freedom, loyalty to a specific Fatherland and universal human rights. The liberal theory of the “social contract” substantiated the sovereignty of the people as the source of power and the understanding of the state as a contract between the people and the government. The protection of personal safety and property rights was the primary reason for the social contract, according to which the association of people in commonwealth and submission to government is the protection of their safety and property. The government is only the guardian of public rights. If the government has failed to protect the rights of citizens, it means that it has not lived up to their trust and, therefore, can no longer claim obedience to it on the part of citizens. The idea of resistance to despotic power occupied a crucial place in the ideology and political struggle of the 17th-18th centuries. Liberals generally differed on the question of ways to resist government overreach. In general, liberalism recognized the right to revolutionary resistance to despotism and justified not only the revolutions in England and France, but also the American War of Independence. In addition to the principle of governing with the consent of citizens, liberalism also substantiated the principle of governing on the basis of law. The purpose of the state is to ensure the rule of law, the requirements of which it itself must obey. Classical liberalism strongly advocated the equality of citizens before the law and defended the legal foundations of democracy and parliamentarism. Equality in freedom under universal law - this is the liberal imperative of law. The most consistent concept of liberal democracy and constitutionalism was formulated by one of the leading ideologists of the American bourgeois revolution, T. Paine. He viewed the state as a necessary evil: the smaller it is, the better for society. Endowed with inalienable rights, free and equal individuals by nature precede the state in the past, present and future. A state is considered legitimate and civilized only if it is formed on the basis of the active consent of citizens, constitutionally formalized and recorded through parliamentary representative mechanisms. Such representation and such government do not have any special rights, they only have duties to their citizens. The task of the state is to regulate relations between free citizens based on strict compliance with laws that are designed to guarantee personal freedom, inviolability of property and other human and civil rights. In democratic representative government, liberals saw a fairly effective mechanism for protecting the interests of the individual and society. The theorists of liberalism, in particular D. Locke and C. Montesquieu, substantiated the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial, which must check and balance each other. The system of checks and balances was seen as an obstacle to the usurpation of power by anyone, be it an individual, a party, a branch of government or a majority. A democratic majority, unrestricted by anything, can also become a despot, liberals believed. Minority rights must be guaranteed. In essence, liberals defended the right to political opposition. Liberalism put forward a number of provisions that had a significant impact on the nature of the spiritual life of society. His undoubted merit is the substantiation and confirmation in practice of the ideas of free thinking and, above all, the freedom of the individual from spiritual subordination to the church, the right of people to criticize the religious worldview from rationalistic, scientific positions. Liberalism defends the principle of freedom of conscience, i.e. the right of citizens to profess any religion or not to profess any, their right and ability to independently formulate their moral duties, to follow the principles of either religious or secular morality. In a word, liberalism proclaims the principles of freedom of views and beliefs of people, freedom of their will and creative self-realization. An integral part of the liberal concept is the idea of pluralism, which affirms the principle of diversity in all spheres of public life. Many ideas (humanism, freedom, progress, etc.), borrowed from the philosophy of the Enlightenment, were modified in a certain way in line with liberal ideology and were actively used by bourgeois ideologists as a powerful means of struggle for the triumph of a new bourgeois society replacing the feudal one. Thus, the Enlightenment’s faith in progress, in the triumph of human reason, resulted in the political philosophy of liberalism in an apology for common sense, the idea of equality and popular sovereignty - in the idea of equality of opportunity. The original religious and moral basis of liberalism was made up of Protestant ethics (primarily Calvinism), which determined the strengthening of the “spirit of capitalism.” Thus, the theoretical core of liberalism consists of: the doctrine of the “state of nature”; theory of “social contract”; theory of "people's sovereignty"; unalienable human rights (life, liberty, property, resistance to oppression, etc.) d.). Based on the principle of human freedom, liberalism has played a huge role in developing the ideas, ideals and norms of modern democracy. We are talking about the equality of all citizens in the face of the law, about the possession by every person of basic political rights and freedoms (the right to citizenship, vote, free movement, freedom of speech, assembly, the creation of associations and parties), about the principle of tolerance of dissent and protection of minority rights. We are also talking about the ideas of separation of powers, free elections of all main institutions of power, and the creation of a system of checks and balances in the relationship between them. Finally, we are talking about the ideal of a rule of law state, the bodies of which would have (within the framework of laws adopted democratically) the full power granted to them and at the same time would be under the effective control of the people and the public. Liberalism also played a significant role in the development of modern principles for organizing economic life. He is credited with substantiating the position that free enterprise, free markets and free competition are universally significant mechanisms of social progress. They not only allow a person to realize his independence and initiative in the economic sphere and in other areas of public life, but, no less important, they encourage and force him, and objectively economically, and not through direct violence or the use of command and administrative methods, constantly worry about increasing the economic efficiency of their activities, about the productivity of their labor, about acquiring knowledge and updating technology, about coordinating the goals and methods of production with the dynamics of public demand for certain items and services. At the same time, fundamental importance is attached to the fact that a person engaged in entrepreneurship must be directly responsible with his capital, his property for the results of his own activities. The philosophy of individualism forms the foundation of inalienable human rights: to life, freedom of religion, private property. The principles of individualism determined the growth of production and the formation of civil society. Ethical-political individualism considers the individual as an end in itself, and society and the state as auxiliary means for the individual to achieve the goal. In the field of economics, it relies on competition and the free play of forces. In the field of education - on the principle of taking into account the individual characteristics of a person, believing that true partnership is possible only between fully developed individuals. In the social sphere, individualism asserts that social processes occur through the interaction of individuals, as opposed to solidarism or universalism, which consider social phenomena in their entirety. 19.2.2.1.2. Neoliberalism 19.2.2.1.2.1. The crisis of liberalism and the search for new concepts An important historical merit of liberalism is that it played a key role in the formation and institutionalization in the late 19th - first decades of the 20th centuries. the basic principles and institutions of the modern political system, such as parliamentarism, separation of powers, the rule of law, etc. These principles were ultimately accepted by all major political forces. The ideas of liberalism were adopted by part of the political elite of the West, social movements, and were constituted in a liberal party. The first party to rely on its practical activities on the ideas of liberalism, there was a party of Whigs (liberals) in Great Britain. In the USA, the Democratic Party became such a party. However, following the classical liberal model (abolition of class privileges, separation of legislative, judicial, executive powers, ensuring legal guarantees of freedom of speech, conscience, meetings, organizations, equality of citizens before the law) led to the polarization of society. Free market relations have failed to ensure social harmony and justice. The ideas of liberalism began to experience a crisis. This was especially evident at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. in the conditions of the formation of corporate or state-corporate capitalism, when it was discovered that the free, unrestricted play of market forces does not at all ensure, as expected, social harmony and justice. With the development of productive forces, especially in large-scale industrial production, by the end of the 19th century. Some principles of classical liberalism began to become obsolete, and above all such as freedom of small private enterprise and non-interference of the state in the country's economy. Therefore, government intervention in the economy intensified already during the First World War. Classical liberalism exhausted its potential in the 1930s. During the economic crisis and under the influence of planned material production in the USSR, the ideologists of liberalism realized that in the new conditions, the regulation of production by the state became the main factor in the development of the economy. Large group political economists, sociologists, political scientists and political figures made proposals to revise the most important provisions of classical liberalism and implement reforms designed to limit the arbitrariness of corporations and alleviate the situation of the most disadvantaged segments of the population. The ideology of classical liberalism began to change already in the 19th century. Liberalism gradually evolved towards liberal reformism. One of the first among the ideologists of liberalism to see the need and prospects for changing its strategy was J. S. Mill, who already in the middle of the 19th century. pointed out the need for capitalism to implement a flexible social policy. In the second half of the 19th century. The principle of state non-intervention in the economy was also called into question. Gradually, the conviction was formed that a necessary condition for improving society and resolving its inherent contradictions was state regulation of the economy and reforms. Famous sociologists, political scientists and political economists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries acted as reformers. J. Hobson, T Green, F. Nauman, B. Croce, C. Beard, J. Dewey and others. Their merit lies in the development of a set of new ideas and concepts that formed the basis of the new, or social, liberalism. Under the influence of Marxism and rising social democracy, they revised some of the basic provisions of classical liberalism. First of all, the state was recognized as having an active role in the social and economic spheres. The watershed that clearly and irrevocably established the new, or social, liberalism was the great economic crisis of the 1930s. Russian neoliberals of the late XIX - early XX centuries. in the person of P. I. Novgorodtsev, L. I. Petrazhitsky and others also contributed to the development of liberal ideas - they put forward serious additional arguments in favor of strengthening the social principle in liberalism. The most significant difference between “social liberalism” (compared to classic version) can be considered his sharp turn towards recognition of a greater role for the state. The fate of liberalism in Russia is dramatic. Between 1861 and 1917 he expressed the desire of the bourgeoisie to eliminate class privileges, transform absolutism into a constitutional-parliamentary monarchy, and establish the legal system. Liberal theorists emphasized the identity of the development paths of Russia and Western Europe, the unity of the historical process. Being evolutionists, they were categorically opposed socialist revolutions , considering them anomalies in the life of society. The ideas of liberalism underlay the party program of the Cadet Party, which united in its ranks the color of the intelligentsia, who dreamed of a radical transformation of Russia through parliamentary means. The Cadets consistently advocated for the separation of powers, for the creation in Russia of the foundation of a civil society and the rule of law. In the field of foreign policy, they were guided by Western democracies. The ideas of liberal reforms largely determined the political course of the government of P. A. Stolypin. In particular, he attempted, with the help of the state, to transform peasants into farmers and private owners, thereby creating the conditions for the modernization of the country. After the end of the civil war, the most famous liberals P. Struve, M. Tugan-Baranovsky and others, while in exile, pinned their hopes on the capitalist transformation of the USSR during the implementation of the new economic policy, while simultaneously criticizing the already identified features of a totalitarian society. Attempts to solve the problems that arose led to the emergence of numerous internal trends in liberalism. The theories of “new liberalism”, “social liberalism”, “conservative liberalism” and other theories appeared, the authors of which tried to combine basic liberal values with the idea of a strong state or with socially oriented ideas that asserted a greater responsibility of society for the well-being of people. During the discussion, the development of a political program of neoliberalism took place, the main provisions of which proclaimed the need for the participation of the masses in the political process, the democratization of managerial decision-making, and the consensus of managers and governed. The English economist J. Keynes made a huge contribution to the formation of the doctrine of liberal reformism. His program, formulated under the influence of the global economic crisis, included active government intervention in the socio-economic sphere. In particular, it was envisaged to increase government spending in every possible way, expand public works, carry out inflationary and cyclical tax policies, cyclically balance the budget, achieve a balance of “demand” and “full employment,” etc. Liberal reformism, according to Keynes, received its political embodiment in the “new course" by President F.D. Roosevelt, thanks to which the United States emerged from the economic crisis and successfully carried out a deep economic restructuring of society. The transition to new liberalism, to the principles of economic and social policy adopted by it in one form or another, covered almost all industrialized countries. After World War II, social liberalism played a major role in justifying reforms that ensured significant economic growth and improved living standards for the majority industrialized population. developed countries. 19.2.2.1.2.2. The main provisions of the concept of neoliberalism In general, the strengthening of elements of state ideology and social goals that adapted the traditional values of liberalism to the economic and political realities of the second half of the 20th century. made us talk about its historically updated form - neoliberalism. One of the most important moments in the development of this direction was the creation in 1947 of the Liberal International, founded by 19 founding parties, which were later joined by another 13 parties, as well as fragments of liberal groups from the countries of Central and of Eastern Europe. In the ideology of neoliberalism, the most important are two interrelated groups of relationships: between the free market and the limits of government intervention; between the individual and society. In the works of R. Dahl, A. Lijphart, A. McEwan, J. Rawls, L. Hobhouse and his other representatives, ideas can be traced: about the need to strengthen democratic institutions; about the role of the state in ensuring the public good (“smart” and responsible management); about the need to expand state functions not only in protecting individual human rights and freedoms, but also in the fight against poverty; about the creation necessary conditions for the development and improvement of political, social and economic democracy. They also use some social democratic ideas about justice and solidarity, and emphasize the role of civil society. Liberalism, having taken the form of neoliberalism, allowed and even assumes constant state intervention in economic processes, and also advocates state regulation of the social life of society, relations between various social communities people and political groups to preserve and strengthen socio-political stability in the country. Neoliberals began to charge the state with the responsibility of developing a general strategy for economic development and taking measures to implement it. With the recognition of the state as an equal owner, the idea of pluralism of forms of ownership took shape. They consider the most important function of the state to be the social protection of citizens, especially those groups and segments of the population that experience the greatest difficulties. Among its functions, neoliberals began to include active protection of freedom of enterprise, market, and competition from the growing threat of monopolism in all its forms. The state is called upon to fulfill this role through the adoption of antimonopoly legislation, providing support to small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, innovative entrepreneurs who are at greatest risk. One of the most important goals is to steadily expand the number of owners. In contrast to the previous tendency to mechanically determine the democracy of political life by the majority, neoliberals began to give preference to pluralistic forms of organization and exercise of state power. Moreover, R. Dahl, C. Lindblum and other neopluralists believe that the weaker the rule of the majority, the more it corresponds to the principles of liberalism. True, representatives of right-wing liberal movements (F. Hayek, D. Escher, G. Olson) believe that with pluralism, mechanisms can be formed for the majority to expropriate the rich minority, and this can jeopardize the fundamental principles of liberalism. Modern liberals have changed their view of both ideology and its place in society. If in the past they rejected any ideology, preaching utilitarianism, the philosophy of utility, today they recognize the important role of ideology in social development and call for free competition between different ideological systems. A significant role in modern liberal views is assigned to social science as an effective force in understanding and improving society, in shaping people’s worldviews. Neoliberals proclaim justice as the most important advantage of the political system, and governments proclaim their orientation towards moral principles and values. Their political program was based on the ideas of consensus between managers and governed, the need for the participation of the masses in the political process, and the democratization of the procedure for making management decisions. The famous liberal theorist J. Rawls, in his books “The Theory of Justice” and “Political Liberalism,” placed the problem of social equality at the center of the liberal doctrine, put forward the provisions that, on the one hand, there should be equal access to social priority goods for everyone (the principle of equal opportunities), on the other hand, for the least affluent part of the population, institutional structures can create additional opportunities for social development (benefits for the poor when paying higher education and etc.). But they consider social equality to be a utopia that does not stem from human nature itself. The finest hour of liberal reformism in the USA occurred in the 60s. XX century, during the reign of the administrations of J. Kennedy and L. Johnson. The ideologists of liberal reformism put forward the concept of a “welfare state” (with the obligation of governments to protect individuals from the abuses and negative consequences of the market system), the concepts of “information society”, “convergence”, etc. Social policy in Western countries has become the most important area of government activity. In the 20th century Impressive progress has been made in the implementation of fundamental liberal ideals, ideas and concepts. The establishment and institutionalization of democratic norms and principles in most advanced countries formed the opinion that the liberals’ agenda was somewhat exhausted, and they themselves were inclined to see their task no longer in achieving something new, but in preserving what had been achieved. Realizing the fact of the increasing negative consequences of an overgrown bureaucracy and state regulation in the economic and social spheres, most liberals advocate stimulating market mechanisms while simultaneously reducing the regulatory role of the state. Recognizing the inevitability and even necessity of government intervention, they are constantly concerned with how to limit the scope of this intervention. At the same time, most liberals are aware of the limits of possible limitations on the role of the state. In this state of affairs, discussions about the crisis, and even the death of liberalism, gained popularity. However, under conditions typical for post-war decades intensification of the dynamics of socio-historical processes, liberalism as a project of adapting state and political institutions to constantly changing realities could not simply leave the stage. Moreover, in the 1970-80s. They are already talking about the revival of liberalism. Most adherents of liberalism have made quite energetic efforts to rethink their positions on the most important issues concerning the nature of the relationship between society, the state-political system and the individual, capitalism and democracy, freedom and equality, social equality and justice, etc. . The debatable nature of the basic liberal principles (the consequence of which is constant splits in liberal organizations, polemics in numerous journals and scientific literature) consists in the absence of a clear and logically consistent relationship between them. Already the ideologists of early liberalism (D.S. Mill and others) were forced to admit that: the social limits of individual freedom are established not only by the state, but also by the activities of the individuals themselves and their organizations; the state and the public sector of the economy can become a means of realizing the desires of individuals and, therefore, instruments of their freedom. Moreover, the market system is by no means a perfect means of ensuring universal welfare, but often exhibits inefficiencies that manifest themselves in inflation, unemployment, restrictive tax laws, etc., ultimately requiring government intervention. For a long time, liberalism could not accurately formulate its position regarding the role and limits of the public sector in public life and constantly fluctuated between the concepts of a “zero state” (a direction that calls itself liberalist) and a “minimal state” of the classical model, reduced to the police and the army. In the still young history of neoliberalism, several periods are distinguished: from the 30s. XX century - social (neoliberalism), recognizing limited government regulation public relations; in the 50-70s. - “liberal-conservative consensus”; since the 70s - right (conservative) libertarianism. In modern liberalism of the beginning of the 21st century. Several currents appear: social-statist; ethical dimension of social development; libertarian direction. Liberalism is not a strictly doctrinal teaching; it can distinguish both Western European and Eastern European philosophical, political and economic schools; Christian, national, social democratic, conservative and other movements. Liberalism played a positive role in the emergence and development of democracy, in the establishment of universal human values in society. Many ideas developed by liberal theorists were adopted by both moderate conservatives and social democrats. The core values of neoliberalism formed the basis of many national ideologies, advocate integral part theories of political participation, democratic elitism, etc. In this regard, they began to talk about a kind of liberal-conservative consensus (especially characteristic of the political landscape of the United States) and about a certain agreement between liberals, moderate conservatives and social democrats in the countries of Foreign Europe. Essentially, modern liberalism occupies an intermediate position between neoconservatism and social democracy, helping parties of this orientation come to power by creating coalitions with them. However, on the other hand, many fundamental ideas have been preserved in neoliberalism, which over time have demonstrated the serious limitations of this ideology in changing conditions. These provisions include: orientation primarily towards public types of human activity ( political activity , enterprise, freedom from prejudice, etc.); the traditional attitude towards morality as a private matter of a person and a negative attitude towards faith (which narrows the relationship between the individual and society and provokes an increase in human loneliness); hostile attitude towards the interests of various communities (people, nation, state, party, etc.) as “fictions” (which contributes to the atomization of society); a certain isolation from nature and other people; egoism of needs; autonomy of will and reason, etc. These kinds of ideas and provisions could not provide answers to the challenges of the time, and did not allow us to accurately predict the leading trends in the development of post-industrial societies. The values of conservatism turned out to be more suitable for developing such responses to the challenges of our time. Therefore, there are very few political parties left that are based only on the ideas of liberalism. They have lost their former positions, although they still persist in the modern political life of many states. Thus, in the European Parliament, which has more than 500 deputies, the liberals have consistently held just over 40 seats over the past decade. The Liberal Party has survived in Great Britain, in Germany it is called the Free Democratic Party, there are the Italian Liberal Party, the Swiss Liberal Party, the Swedish People's Party, etc. 19.2.2.1.3. Libertarianism and utilitarianism Academic liberalism is divided into two important directions: libertarianism (libetarianism) and utilitarianism. Libertarianism is a modern conservative trend in liberalism; individualistic ideological, political, social and economic radical right movement. Libertarianism places emphasis on the rights and freedoms of the individual, formed under the influence of the community, while the state is given a minimal role. Of all modern ideological movements, it comes closest to anarchism in social issues. Libertarian liberalism defends the principle of “zero state”. The main theoretical foundations of this direction were developed in R. Nozick’s book “Anarchy, State and Utopia” (1974). Libertarianism has its roots in the anarchist ideas of the 18th century English thinker. Godwin (“Discourse on Political Justice,” 1793), the radical (individualistic) wing of classical liberalism, European anarchism, American transcendentalists (R.W. Emerson), thinkers who completely deny the positive regulatory role of the state in public life (A.J. Noack “Our enemy is the state”, 1928, etc. ). The ideology of libertarianism is also presented in the works of L. Mises, K. Popper, M. Friedman, F. von Hayek and others. Their philosophical basis is the idea that a person, as the sole owner of his life, has the right to do with it at his own discretion until as long as he does not forcefully interfere with another person's life. In their opinion, it is the unconditional belief in natural law (“man is born free”) that distinguishes libertarians from both liberals and conservatives. Liberals (especially social liberals) favor personal freedom but favor some regulation of economic activity. Conservatives are supporters of economic freedom, but from a moral standpoint they advocate limiting the freedom of personal life, leisure, etc. Libertarists, on the other hand, advocate the freedom of the individual in all spheres of his life, which should result in an appropriate quality of life. The principle of natural selection - the survival of the fittest social institutions - is transferred by libertarians to the entire history of human society. This selection is supported only by those systems of rules (from ideology and religion to the method of organizing production) that provide the best conditions for survival for the groups applying them, that is, the highest standard of living - for the largest possible number of people who accept and follow these rules. Within this paradigm, libertarians oppose the state in its main regulatory manifestations - ideological, social, economic and moral. They oppose laws regulating gambling, prostitution, drug use, etc. Much attention in libertarianism is paid to socio-economic relations. They are characterized by support for traditional ideas of the principle of “freedom of action”, the use of the provisions of classical (individualistic) liberalism in modern conditions. Democracy, in their opinion, can function successfully only when it is limited by the rule of law with complete freedom of market competition and minimal government intervention (the best government is the one that “does not rule” at all; “ultra-minimalist state”). Libertarists are strong opponents of government price controls. wages, labor relations, the economy as a whole. Representatives of libertarianism consistently oppose and fight against government intervention in the social sphere, against the redistribution of the state budget and other income within the framework of various social programs, believing that it is carried out at the expense of producers in favor of those who do not want to work. F. Hayek noted that “nothing is so destructive for the legal guarantees of individual freedom as the desire for the mirage of social justice.” However, while verbally speaking for reducing the role of the state in principle (as the antipode of the individual and the “enemy of freedom”) and in a number of its spheres (social, personal, etc.), libertarians support the activities of the state that provide the necessary favorable conditions for the activities of large business, national and transnational corporations, international financial structures. Libertarianism and utilitarianism contain a “critical core”, which includes three main criteria: freedom, “minimal state”, happiness-well-being-efficiency. Systems based on these three criteria fall into many lines of argumentation. The connection between libertarian and utilitarian movements is provided by economic theories , which prove that an economy based on free exchange satisfies a requirement called the “Pareto criterion.” It is a criterion of efficiency established by reference to the ethical principle of an individual's happiness (liberal economists prefer to call these "preferences" or "distinct utilities") According to this principle, the condition of a society satisfies the Pareto criterion if in any other possible society the person is less well off , considers himself less happy, etc. For libertarians, this quality of life is a direct consequence of freedom of exchange. From the point of view of utilitarian liberals, freedom of exchange and the market system itself need additional means of protection. With this approach, freedom is considered not as an ultimate goal, but only as a means for effective action, the consequence of which is material and mental well-being. Thus, a “minimal state” is recommended because the market system is efficient, etc. Utilitarian views were held by such leading Western economists as M. Allais, G. Hootakker, T. Koopmans and J. Debro. Representatives of the “monetarist” trend, such as M. Friedman, who became active in the 1960-80s, are ideologically more libertarians than utilitarians. The Chicago school frees civil relations from everything civil, intimate, moral, and spiritual. The leader of the Chicago school, M. Friedman, recommends replacing public services with private ones, paid not from the budget, but in a targeted manner: to specific consumers for a specific service. They propose to replace the state police with a private security system, the state bank of issue with a system of competing banks, each issuing its own currency, etc. The neoliberal utopia of the Chicago school about the inevitable narrowing of the sphere of power-political relations is akin to the Marxist utopia about the withering away of the state. On the contrary, D. Rawls, the author of the work “The Theory of Justice”, which had a great impact on liberal thought of the second half of the 20th century, adheres rather to classical positions in the spirit of the theory of the “minimal state”, insisting that the distribution of income and wealth be directed to benefit all individuals. From this requirement, according to Rawls, follows not only the principle of equal access of all citizens to public office, but also the maintenance of social and economic inequality “to the benefit of all.” At the turn of the 1970-80s. the main question discussed by liberal theory - what should be the volume of the public sector to preserve freedom - again acquired practical relevance and was posed by supporters of “monetarism” in the most acute form, in the fight against two most important factors in the socio-economic life of Western countries. The first of these was the economic crisis of 1974, which ended rapid economic growth and the appearance of universal employment. Social democratic governments, which pursued a policy of “macroeconomics” and “stabilization” in accordance with the recommendations of John Keynes, failed to restore the previous situation with sufficient speed. They were hit with a hail of accusations from those forces that defended the principle of more limited government intervention (“monetarism”) or a complete rejection of all intervention (“ new classicism"). Libertarian ideas and corresponding political, ideological and economic developments in relation to transitional societies include shock therapy, economic liberalization, the control of national institutions by international financial organizations, a negative attitude towards the rapid creation of effective national institutions necessary for implementing reforms, and democratic control behind the process of their implementation. Attempts at modernization policies using libertarian ideas, undertaken in the mid-90s. XX century in a number of “transit” countries of Latin America, Eastern Europe and Russia led to a sharp drop in the level of industrial production in the life of the population, uncontrolled enrichment of the nomenklatura and bureaucracy, aggravation social contradictions. Libertarian concepts are subject to critical analysis in the scientific literature. For many decades, libetarians waged an implacable struggle against fascism and communism. “Now, as D. Bowes writes, after fascism and socialism as a whole have left the political scene, the main conflict of the 21st century. There will be a struggle between libertarianism and a diluted version of socialism - social democracy, whose supporters recognize the need for civil society and the market process, but constantly find some reason to limit, regulate, streamline people's decisions. In their opinion, the future belongs to libertarianism, since “neither socialism, which has demonstrated its inconsistency, nor strict conservatism could create a free, technologically developed society,” the emergence of which they expect in the 21st century.

Every culture has its own ideology. IN in a general sense ideology is a worldview that includes ideas about reality and guidelines for practical activity. Ideology gives meaning to specific human actions. There are six main types of ideology: liberalism, conservatism, communism, fascism, anarchism and social democracy.

Liberalism is an ideology that arose in the 19th century, focusing on the principle of freedom. Founders John Locke, John Mill, Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson. It has special authority in Europe. Within the framework of liberalism, the principles of separation of powers, the idea of free elections, and the idea of human rights and freedoms were formed. Liberalism is focused on free market relations. The market is the organization of the country's economy, in which private entrepreneurs play the main role, and the state intervenes in economic life to a very small extent. Individual freedom is placed above any collective interests. In pre-revolutionary Russia, liberalism was represented by: the People's Freedom Party (Cadets), the Democratic Reform Party and the Freethinkers Party.

Conservatism is an ideology that focuses on the stability of society and respect for traditions and the past. Founders Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre. Supporters of this ideology are against drastic changes and revolutions, and for the slow renewal of society. Conservatism denies the equality of people. The main values are family, state, religion, nation and property. In pre-revolutionary Russia, conservatism was represented by: the Russian Monarchist Party, the Union of the Russian People, the Trade and Industrial Party, the Union of October 17.

Communism is an ideology based on the social, philosophical and economic ideas of Karl Marx. The main idea is the need to build a classless society in which all means of production belong to the people. To do this, it is necessary to destroy private property, family and state. The only way to build a just society is revolution. The main force that must carry out the revolution is the proletariat.

Fascism is an ideology that declares either the nation or the state to be the main value, as a result of which the interests and rights of the individual are considered secondary. Fascism emerged in the first half of the 20th century in countries such as Italy and Germany. Founders Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, Bennito Mussolini. In order to achieve the dominance of the Aryan race, Germany started a war and tried to destroy the Slavs, Jews, and Gypsies. The departure of fascism from the broad political arena was predetermined by the sad experience of World War II.

Social democracy is an ideology that was formed as a result of separation from communism. Founders Eduard Bernstein, Eduard David. Social democracy is widespread in Europe, in Great Britain it was called “Labourism”. Social Democrats are less radical than communists. They believe that the main means of achieving social justice is not revolution, but gradual reforms. The goal of social development is socialism. The state must play the main role in the development of socialism. The state as a whole is independent of the economy and can be influenced by the basic values of freedom, justice and solidarity.

Anarchism is an ideology that considers a society free from the state to be its main value.. Anarchism emerged in the mid-19th century. Founders Pierre Joseph Proudhon, William Godwin, Mikhail Bakunin. The state is an evil from which it is necessary to free ourselves. A person is a being who is capable of independently understanding what justice is and what needs to be done to make everyone happy.