Who destroyed the Library of Alexandria? The Library of Alexandria and its fate.

It is traditionally believed that the Library of Alexandria - once the largest collection of works by the greatest thinkers and writers of antiquity such as Homer, Plato, Socrates and many others - was destroyed by fire 2000 years ago and its collection is irretrievably lost. This mystery of the ancient world has captured the imagination of poets, historians, explorers and scientists who mourn the tragic loss in the field of knowledge and literature.

Nowadays, the idea of ​​the existence of the Library of Alexandria, located in the famous intellectual center of the ancient world, has acquired a mystical connotation. It is not surprising that this library is an eternal mystery, because to this day not a single remnant has been discovered architectural monuments, no archaeological finds that could be confidently attributed to the library, which is to a certain extent strange, given the universal fame and grandeur of this building.

The lack of material evidence has raised the question of whether the Library of Alexandria even existed in the form in which we can imagine it.

Home to the Pharos Lighthouse, one of the 7 Wonders of the Ancient World, lies the Mediterranean port city of Alexandria. Which founded in 330 BC. e., he, like many other cities, was named in his honor. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. e. the empire was in the hands of his generals. One of them, Ptolemy I Soter (Translated from Greek “soter” - “savior”), in 320 BC. e. captured Egypt, making Alexandria the capital. Since that time, Alexandria, once a small fishing village, became the seat of the Ptolemaic kings of Egypt and developed into a major intellectual and cultural center.

As you can see, it was greatest city ancient world. The history of the founding of the legendary library is not entirely clear. Around 295 BC. e. the scholar and orator Demetrius of Phalerum, the exiled Athenian ruler, persuaded Ptolemy I Soter to found a library. Demetrius wanted to create a library that could compete with the Athenian one, where copies of all the books in the world would be stored. Later, with the support of Ptolemy I, Demetrius organized the construction of the Temple of the Muses, or Museion, from which the world-famous word “museum” comes. This building was temple complex, designed on the model of Aristotle's Lyceum in Athens - a place where intellectual and philosophical lectures were given and discussions were held.

The Temple of the Muses was to become the first part of the library complex in Alexandria. It was located in a park adjacent to the royal palace, on the territory of the so-called Brucheion, or palace quarter, in the northeastern, Greek district of the city. Museion was a cult place for the veneration of the nine muses. Besides this, he was educational institution with lecture halls, laboratories, observatories, botanical gardens, a zoo, residential areas and canteens, and was also a library itself.

Ptolemy I appointed a priest to manage the Museion. Librarians responsible for the manuscript collections also worked here. During the reign of Ptolemy I's son Soter Ptolemy II Philadelphus (282–246 BC), the royal library was founded, which became the main repository of manuscripts to complete the Temple of the Muses, founded by his father. It is not yet clear whether the royal library was a separate building located near the Museion, or was a continuation of it. Researchers agree on one thing: the royal library was actually part of the Temple of the Muses.

It seems that during the reign of Ptolemy II the idea of ​​​​creating a universal library was brought to life. Museion was supposedly home to more than 100 scientists whose job it was to carry out Scientific research, lecture, publish, translate, copy and collect not only manuscripts of Greek authors (the collection allegedly included Aristotle's private collection), but also works from Egypt, Syria and Persia, as well as Buddhist texts and Hebrew manuscripts.

According to one legend, Ptolemy III was obsessed with the idea of ​​​​assembling the greatest library and therefore issued a decree in which it was stated that all ships docking in the port must hand over the manuscripts on board to the authorities so that the scribes located on public service, made copies of them, which were handed over to the rightful owners. As for the originals, they were transferred to the library for storage.

When talking about the maximum number of copies stored in the library, the figure more often cited is half a million documents. It is not clear whether this figure refers to the number of books or scrolls. Because to create the book it was necessary for me to have quite a few sheets of papyrus, it is more likely that it is said about the number of scrolls. But some scientists believe that even 500 thousand scrolls is a lot, and the construction of a building with so many storage facilities would be a very labor-intensive undertaking, although possible.

During the reign of Ptolemy II, the collection of the royal library expanded to such an extent that it was possible to create a “daughter library”. It was located in the Temple of Serapis in the Egyptian quarter of Rakotis, in the southeastern part of the city. At the time when the library's keeper was the Greek writer Callimachus (305–240 BC), the "sublibrary" contained 42,800 scrolls, all of which were copies made from scrolls in the main library.

For many centuries, lively discussions have not ceased regarding the claim that the Library of Alexandria burned to the ground and the most complete collection of works of ancient literature was lost. What really happened to this amazing treasure trove of ancient knowledge and who is responsible for its destruction?

The first thing to note is that " greatest tragedy of the ancient world" may never have had the scale that is usually spoken of. Because the library disappeared without a trace, something terrible had clearly happened to it. Most often, accusations are directed at Caesar. It is believed that in 48 BC. e. During the battle for Alexandria, the royal palace in which it was located began to be threatened by the Egyptian fleet. To protect himself, he ordered the Egyptian ships to be set on fire, but the fire spread to the coastal part of the city, engulfing warehouses, warehouses and a number of arsenals.

After Caesar's death, the assumption that it was he who destroyed the library was especially popular. The Roman philosopher and playwright Seneca, referring to Livy’s “History of Rome from the Founding of the City,” wrote that 40 thousand scrolls were lost in the fire. The Greek historian Plutarch points out that the “great library” perished in the fire. The Roman historian Dio Cassius (165–235) mentions a warehouse of manuscripts destroyed by a great fire.

Luciano Canfora in his book “The Vanished Library” interprets the testimony of ancient authors this way: it was not the library itself that was destroyed - the manuscripts stored in a warehouse in the port, awaiting loading, were destroyed. From the works of the great scientist, Stoic philosopher Strabo, who in 20 BC. e. worked in Alexandria, it becomes clear that at this time the library was no longer a world-famous center of knowledge. In fact, Strabo does not mention the library at all. He writes about Museion as “part of the premises of the royal palaces.” Continuing his story, Strabo wrote: “it has a place for walking, an exedra and big house, where there is a common dining room for scientists affiliated with Museion.”

If the great library was part of the Museion, then it is clear why Strabo did not mention it separately. In this case, one thing becomes obvious important fact: because Strabo was in Museion in 20 BC. e., 28 years after the “famous tragedy,” which means Caesar did not burn the libraries. Existence of the library in 20 BC. e., even if less magnificent, means that the commander is not suitable for the role of its destroyer, which means that we must look for another culprit in the death of this miracle of ancient Alexandria.

391 - Emperor Theodosius I, pursuing a policy aimed at combating paganism, gave official permission to destroy the Serapeion, or Temple of Serapis, in Alexandria. The operation was led by the Alexandrian Patriarch Theophilus. Later, a temple was built on the site Christian Church. Presumably, both the “daughter library” of Museion and the royal library were destroyed to the ground during this period.

However, no matter how plausible the version that the manuscripts of the Serapeion library were destroyed during this purge may seem, there is still no evidence that the royal library survived until the end of the 4th century. To this day, no ancient sources have been found that contain any mention of the destruction of any book depository at this time, although in the 18th century the historian Edward Gibbon erroneously attributed its destruction to Patriarch Theophilus.

The last contender for the role of criminal is Caliph Omar. 640 - after a long siege, Alexandria was captured by Arab troops led by the commander Amr ibn al-As. As the legend goes, the Arabs, having heard about the amazing library storing the knowledge of the whole world, were looking forward to the moment when they could see it. But the caliph was not impressed by the huge collection of books. He stated: “Either they refute the Koran, being in this case heretical, or they agree with it, becoming superfluous.” After this statement, the manuscripts were collected together and used as fuel.

There were so many scrolls that they heated 4,000 city baths in Alexandria for six months. These incredible events were described 300 years later by the Christian philosopher Gregory Bar-Ebreus (1226–1286). Whether the Arabs destroyed the Christian library in Alexandria or not, only one thing can be said for sure: by the middle of the 7th century, the royal library ceased to exist. This fact is obvious, because this tragic event was not mentioned by the authors of that time, in particular the Christian chronicler John of Nikius (Byzantine monk), the writer John Moschos and the Jerusalem Patriarch Sophronius.

In fact, trying to establish what kind of fire destroyed the library and everything that was stored in it is a futile effort. The situation in Alexandria changed frequently, especially during the Roman period. The city survived a fire on ships set on fire by order of Caesar, as well as a fierce struggle in 270–271. between the troops of Queen Zenobia of Palmyra and the forces of the Roman Emperor Aurelian. The latter eventually returned Alexandria to Rome, captured by the army of Queen Zenobia, but the invaders still managed to destroy part of the city.

The Brucheyon quarter, on the territory of which the palace with the library was located, was actually “swept away from the face of the earth.” A few years later, the city was plundered by the Roman emperor Diocletian. The destruction continued for several centuries. The change of power and ideology was accompanied by indifference to the contents of the library. Thus, the tragedy unfolded gradually, over 400–500 years.

The last known custodian of the legendary library was the scientist and mathematician Theon (335–405), the father of the Christian preacher Hypatia, who was brutally murdered by a crowd of Christians in Alexandria in 415. Maybe someday, somewhere in the deserts of Egypt, scrolls from the collection of the Library of Alexandria will be found. Many archaeologists still believe that the buildings that formed Alexandria's legendary center of knowledge may have survived relatively intact somewhere in the northeastern part of the city beneath modern buildings.

2004 - news appeared regarding the great library. A Polish-Egyptian team of archaeologists has announced that part of the Library of Alexandria has been discovered during excavations in the Brucheion area. Archaeologists found 13 lecture halls with a raised platform in the center of each - a pulpit. The buildings date from the late Roman period (5th–6th centuries), which means they cannot be the famous Museion, or royal library. Research in this area continues.

1995 - not far from the place where the famous book depository was once located, the construction of a large library began and cultural center called "Alexandrina Library". 2002, October 16 - the official opening of this complex took place, created in memory of the disappeared Library of Alexandria, in order to partially revive the intellectual greatness, of which the real center of knowledge was personified. Let's hope that while there is a new one universal library, the spirit of the legendary library has not been lost.

There is an opinion that in ancient times people were uneducated and ignorant - there was no desire for knowledge, the main activities were constant wars, feasts with abundant food and drink. Almost everyone had an indifferent attitude towards health. As a result, life expectancy was very low. The fact that refutes this opinion is the Library of Alexandria. It is called the wisdom of ancient eras and the storehouse of all achievements throughout the existence of civilization.

The foundation date of the library is considered to be the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. The greatest repository of knowledge of the ancient ancient world contains thousands of different scrolls and manuscripts written in several languages: Egyptian, Greek and Hebrew. Among these treasures were many works of outstanding people of that time: Euripides, Aeschylus, Sophocles and many others.

An interesting fact is that the library was not hidden from human eyes, being accessible only to its crowned owners. Anyone who wanted and thirsted for knowledge could always enter its spacious, cool halls and read the priceless parchment scrolls offered by library employees. Any person could be a visitor here, regardless of his material wealth or religion. The Library of Alexandria was free, and its maintenance was paid for from the royal treasury. This is an important fact that proves that even in ancient times people placed knowledge at the highest level.

People with education in those eras were revered, everyone treated them with special respect, their advice and recommendations were asked and then followed. The great philosophers of that time are still known throughout the world; our contemporaries still quote them, amazed great wisdom. It is possible that most of these outstanding people might not have existed if it were not for the Library of Alexandria, in which they could then draw the necessary knowledge.

To whom do people owe, having received priceless masterpiece? The future of the Library of Alexandria was indirectly influenced by the great conqueror Alexander the Great, when in 332 BC. e. founded the city of Alexandria, appointing it as the capital. And, although it was not he who built and conceived the library, however, in fairness it is worth noting that if there were no city of Alexandria, the library would not exist.

After the death of the conqueror, parts of his empire went to his comrades. The Egyptian lands went to one of them - Ptolemy Lagus, who became the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty, which replaced the eras of the pharaohs and lasted three hundred years. Queen Cleopatra was the last representative of this dynasty. The Library of Alexandria owes its existence to the first Ptolemies.

King Ptolemy Lagus was sensitive to education and tried to provide it for his children, inviting famous philosophers of the time as teachers. At the school organized by them there was small library, containing few manuscripts. The philosophers Strato the Physicist and Demetrius of Phalerius, who at one time studied with the great men Aristotle and Plato, had a good understanding of the work and structure of such an institution. From them Plato Lagus received the idea of ​​​​creating a huge library in Alexandria.

The Tsar wanted to build a whole museum, which would have a botanical garden, anatomy classrooms and even an astronomical tower. The library was conceived as an addition to this museum. But the dreams of Ptolemy Lagus remained dreams; he soon died before he could bring this magnificent project to life.

The construction of the Alexandria Library and Museum, in accordance with the wishes of his father, was continued by his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, who inherited the throne. Historians have been unable to figure out where the library's original location was or the exact time it opened when the first visitors, thirsty for knowledge, walked through its doors. It is only known that the construction was completely completed in the second half of the 3rd century BC. e.

The replenishment of the Library of Alexandria was carried out using a unique method: all the scrolls and manuscripts that were available were taken from all ships that visited the port of Alexandria. If these scrolls were not important or useful, they were returned back to the ship. The reigning house also bought scrolls from the population, in philosophical schools and small libraries. There is even a legend that the ruler Ptolemy III made a huge deposit (15 talents) to Athens for the manuscripts of Euripides, Sophocles and Aeschylus, taking these tragedies to copy for the library. The scrolls subsequently never returned to Athens.

The museum and library together constituted the first university, thanks to which many people made their great discoveries outstanding people. Aristarchus expressed the idea of ​​the Earth rotating around the Sun, Euclid gave the world geometry, Herophilus proved that the human mind is not in the heart, as was then believed, but in the head. Eratosthenes named the exact circumference of our planet.

The first custodian of this unique university was Zenodotus of Ephesus. The ancient Greek philosopher gained the highest respect from King Ptolemy Philadelphus, which is why he was appointed to such a responsible post. He resolved all organizational issues, of which the newly opened library had a great many.

The keeper of the library personally examined all manuscripts entering the library and was the arbiter of their value and veracity. In addition, Zenodotus classified all the scrolls to make it easier for readers to find the material they were interested in. The philosopher also carefully ensured that the manuscripts were stored properly: moisture was not allowed in the premises, the scrolls were always checked for insects, and, if necessary, restored.

For three hundred years royal dynasty The Ptolemies maintained and developed the Library of Alexandria free of charge at their own expense. Under one of the kings, Ptolemy III Evergetes, the library even had its own branch in the Temple of Serapis. The guardian at this time was the famous scientist Eratosthenes of Cyrene. He translated the book “Old Testament” into Greek. His translation is still used today. Under this curator, the library received an “Astronomical Catalog”, in which the coordinates of more than one thousand stars were placed.

Alexandria became a source of knowledge and wisdom, so educated people from all over the world came here to improve in various scientific fields. At that time, in many countries there was a ban on the anatomy of the human body, and medical scientists did not have the opportunity to expand their knowledge. But in Egypt there was a completely different view of these things. Many ancient doctors were able to give the world their discoveries in medicine thanks to the amazing first university of Alexandria.

In 48 BC. e. great and unique educational institution suffered due to the struggle of Queen Cleopatra for the throne, which she tried to take from Ptolemy XIII. Then Julius Caesar intervened in this war and set fire to Ptolemy’s navy. The fire spread to the Library of Alexandria. There was chaos everywhere, people were trying to save their property, and there was no one to help the small number of curators remove priceless manuscripts from the fire. Scrolls about origin and existence were forever lost to humanity ancient civilization, great medical treatises and reference books on geography, geometry and astronomy. Everything died in a merciless fire. The Library of Alexandria, with its three-century knowledge, was completely burned down.

Subsequently, Queen Cleopatra, having received all power into her own hands, tried to restore the library by rebuilding it. But all the great unique knowledge stored under the arches of the old library-university could no longer be returned. Those few manuscripts that the queen herself and her next lover, Mark Antony, tried to deliver to the library, could not cover even a small fraction of the loss.

After the death of Cleopatra, the days of the Ptolemaic dynasty ended. The prosperity of Alexandria ceased, and it turned into one of the Roman provinces. There was no one left to take care of the library. The Library of Alexandria lived in a state of neglect and oblivion for another three hundred years. During another war between the Roman Empire and the Palmyran kingdom, the city of Alexandria was again set on fire. The Library of Alexandria burned down along with it, ending its existence forever.

The miracle of the revival of the Library of Alexandria occurred in our century, in 2002. The great historical world value soared into the sky with its original modern architecture, like a phoenix bird, rising from the ashes. Glass, granite and concrete became the basis of the new building. Dozens of countries, under the leadership of UNESCO, helped build a new library in Alexandria.

The main hall of the library is flooded most of the time sun rays, as it is located under a glass roof. The huge area of ​​the library includes not only many storage rooms and reading rooms, but also museums with priceless exhibits. About eight million books are stored under its vaults. Now future great scientists - modern students of many universities and institutes - come here for knowledge. The Library of Alexandria again hospitably welcomes its visitors.

The Library of Alexandria was one of the largest in the Ancient World. Founded by the successors of Alexander the Great, it maintained its status as an intellectual and educational center as early as the 5th century.

Chief Librarians

However, throughout its long history, time after time there were the powers that be who tried to destroy this beacon of culture. Let's ask ourselves: why?

The Library of Alexandria is believed to have been founded by Ptolemy I or Ptolemy II. The city itself, which is easy to understand by its name, was founded by Alexander the Great, and this happened in 332 BC. Alexandria of Egypt, which, according to the plan of the great conqueror, was destined to become a center of scientists and intellectuals, became, probably, the first city in the world built entirely of stone, without the use of wood. The library consisted of 10 large halls and rooms for researchers to work. There is still debate about the name of its founder. If we understand by this word the initiator and creator, and not the king who reigned at that time, the true founder of the library, most likely, should be recognized as a man named Demetrius of Phalerum.

Demetrius of Phalerum appeared in Athens in 324 BC as a tribune of the people and was elected governor seven years later. He ruled Athens for 10 years: from 317 to 307 BC. Demetrius issued quite a lot of laws. Among them was a law that limited the luxury of burials. In his time, Athens had 90 thousand citizens, 45 thousand admitted foreigners and 400 thousand slaves. As for the personality of Demetrius of Phalerum himself, he was considered a trendsetter in his country: he was the first Athenian to lighten his hair with hydrogen peroxide.

He was later removed from his position and went to Thebes. There, Demetrius wrote a huge number of works, one of which, which has a strange name - “On a beam of light in the sky,” is believed by ufologists to be the world’s first work about flying saucers. In 297 BC, Ptolemy I persuaded him to settle in Alexandria. That's when Demetrius founded the library. After the death of Ptolemy I, his son Ptolemy II exiled Demetrius to the Egyptian city of Busiris. There the creator of the library died from the bite of a poisonous snake.

Ptolemy II continued to work in the library and was interested in the sciences, mainly zoology. He appointed Zenodotus of Ephesus as the keeper of the library, who performed these functions until 234 BC. The surviving documents allow us to extend the list of the main custodians of the library: Eratosthenes of Cyrene, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samothrace. After this, the information becomes vague.

Over the centuries, librarians expanded the collection, adding papyri, parchments and even, according to legend, printed books. The library contained simply priceless documents. She began to have enemies, mainly in Ancient Rome.

The first plunder and secret books

Thomas Cole, The Way of Empire. Destruction" 1836

The first plunder of the Library of Alexandria was carried out in 47 BC by Julius Caesar. By that time, it was considered a repository of secret books that gave almost unlimited power. When Caesar arrived in Alexandria, the library contained at least 700 thousand manuscripts. But why did some of them begin to inspire fear? Of course, there were books in Greek, representing treasures of classical literature that we have lost forever. But there shouldn't have been any dangerous ones among them. But the entire legacy of the Babylonian priest Berossus, who fled to Greece, could well have alarmed him. Berossus was a contemporary of Alexander the Great and lived into the Ptolemaic era. In Babylon he was a priest of Bel. He was a historian, astrologer and astronomer. He invented the semicircular sundial and created theories on the addition of solar and lunar rays, foreshadowing modern work on the interference of light. But in some of his works Berossus wrote about something very strange. For example, about the civilization of giants and either about aliens, or about an underwater civilization.

The library of Alexandria also kept the complete works of Manetho. The Egyptian priest and historian, a contemporary of Ptolemy I and Ptolemy II, was initiated into all the secrets of Egypt. Even his name can be interpreted as “the favorite of Thoth” or “the one who knows the truth of Thoth.” This man maintained relations with the last Egyptian priests. He was the author of eight books and collected 40 carefully selected scrolls in Alexandria, which contained the hidden secrets of Egypt, including, probably, the Book of Thoth. The Library of Alexandria also contained the works of the Phoenician historian Mocus, who is credited with creating the atomic theory. There were also extremely rare and valuable Indian manuscripts.

Not a trace remains of all these manuscripts. It is known that before the destruction of the library: there were 532,800 scrolls. It is known that there were departments that could be called “Mathematical Sciences” and “Natural Sciences”. There was also a general directory, which was also destroyed. All these destructions are attributed to Julius Caesar. He took some of the books: he burned some, and kept others for himself. There is still no complete certainty about what exactly happened then. And two thousand years after the death of Caesar, he still has both supporters and opponents. Supporters say he did not burn anything in the library itself; Perhaps a number of books burned in the port warehouse in Alexandria, but it was not the Romans who set them on fire. Caesar's opponents, on the contrary, claim that a huge number of books were destroyed deliberately. Their number is not precisely determined and ranges from 40 to 70 thousand. There is also an intermediate opinion: the fire spread to the library from the quarter where the fighting was taking place, and it burned down by accident.

In any case, the library was not completely destroyed. Neither Caesar's opponents nor supporters talk about this, nor do their contemporaries; stories about the event that are closest to it in time are still two centuries away from it. Caesar himself does not touch upon this topic in his notes. Apparently, he “removed” individual books that seemed most interesting to him.

Coincidences or “men in black”?

Emperor Diocletian, who destroyed alchemical manuscripts

The most serious of the subsequent depredations of the library was most likely carried out by Zenobia Septimia, queen of Palmyra, and the Emperor Aurelian during their war for supremacy over Egypt. And again, fortunately, things did not come to complete destruction, but valuable books were lost. The reason why Emperor Diocletian took up arms against the library is well known. He wanted to destroy the books that contained the secrets of making gold and silver, that is, all works on alchemy. If the Egyptians were able to produce as much gold and silver as they wanted, then, the emperor reasoned, they were capable of arming a huge army and defeating the empire. The slave's grandson Diocletian was proclaimed emperor in 284. He seems to have been a born tyrant, and the last decree he signed before abdicating on May 1, 305 ordered the destruction of Christianity. A major rebellion broke out in Egypt against Diocletian, and in July 295 the emperor began the siege of Alexandria. He took Alexandria, however, according to legend, the emperor’s horse stumbled while entering the conquered city. Diocletian interpreted this incident as a sign from the gods commanding him to spare the city.

After the capture of Alexandria, a frantic search for alchemical manuscripts began, and all those found were destroyed. Perhaps they contained the main keys to alchemy, which are now missing to comprehend this science. We do not have a list of destroyed manuscripts, but legend attributes some of them to Pythagoras, Solomon, and even Hermes Trismegistus himself. Although this, of course, should be treated with a certain degree of skepticism.

The library continued to exist. Despite the fact that it was destroyed over and over again, the library continued to work until the Arabs completely destroyed it. And the Arabs knew what they were doing. They have already destroyed both in the Islamic Empire itself and in Persia many secret works on magic, alchemy and astrology. The conquerors acted according to their motto: “No other books are needed except the Koran.” In 646, the Library of Alexandria was set on fire. The following legend is known: Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab in 641 ordered the commander Amr ibn al-As to burn the Library of Alexandria, saying: “If these books say what is in the Koran, then they are useless.”

The French writer Jacques Bergier said that books perished in that fire, possibly dating back to a pre-civilization that existed before the current human one. Alchemical treatises, the study of which would have made it possible to truly achieve the transformation of elements, perished. Works on magic and evidence of the meeting with aliens that Berossus spoke of were destroyed. He believed that this whole series of pogroms could not have been accidental. It could have been carried out by an organization that Bergier conventionally calls “men in black.” This organization has existed for centuries and millennia and strives to destroy knowledge of a certain kind. The few remaining manuscripts may still be intact, but are carefully protected from the world by secret societies.

Of course, it may very well be that Bergier simply allowed himself to fantasize, but it is possible that behind all this there are some real, but difficult to rationally interpret, facts.

There is an opinion that our distant ancestors, for the most part, were ignorant and uneducated people. There were only a few smart people among them, while the rest were content not with the craving for knowledge, but with incessant wars, the seizure of foreign territories, the kidnapping of women and endless feasts with copious libations of alcoholic drinks and immeasurable eating of fatty and fried foods. All this did not contribute to health, and therefore life expectancy was at a very low level.

A weighty argument that completely refutes such a judgment is that it was founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. It can safely be called the greatest storehouse of human wisdom, having absorbed all the achievements of civilization of previous eras. Tens of thousands of manuscripts written in Greek, Egyptian and Hebrew were kept within its walls.

Naturally, all this priceless wealth did not lie as a dead weight, stroking the pride of its crowned owners. It was used for its intended purpose, that is, it served as a source of information for everyone. Any person seeking knowledge could easily obtain it by going under the cool arches of spacious halls, in the walls of which special shelves were built. Parchment scrolls were stored on them, and library employees carefully handed them over to numerous visitors.

Among the latter were people of different material incomes and religions. Everyone had every right absolutely free to get acquainted with the information that interested him. The Library of Alexandria was never a means of profit; on the contrary, it was maintained with money from the reigning dynasty. Doesn’t this serve as clear proof that our distant ancestors valued knowledge no lower than exploits on the battlefields and other similar actions of restless human nature?

An educated person, in those distant times, enjoyed great respect. He was treated with undisguised respect, and his advice was taken as a guide to action. The names of the great philosophers of antiquity are still on everyone’s lips, and their judgments evoke modern man genuine interest. For the sake of objectivity, it should be noted: many of these greatest minds might not have taken place if there had not been the Library of Alexandria.

So to whom does humanity owe such a great masterpiece? First of all, Alexander the Great. His participation here is indirect, but if there had not been this great conqueror, then there would have been no city of Alexandria. History, however, completely excludes subjunctive moods, but in this case you can deviate from the rule.

It was on the initiative of Alexander the Great that this city was founded in 332 BC. e. in the Nile Delta. It was named in honor of the invincible commander and laid the foundation for many similar Alexandrias in Asian lands. During the reign of the great conqueror, as many as seventy of them were built. All of them have sunk into the darkness of centuries, but the first Alexandria remains and today is one of largest cities Egypt.

Alexander the Great died in 323 BC. e. His huge empire split into several separate states. They were led by diadochi - comrades-in-arms of the great conqueror. All of them came from Greek lands and went through a long battle path from Asia Minor to India.

The lands of Ancient Egypt went to the diadochus Ptolemy Lagus (367-283 BC). He founded a new state - Hellenistic Egypt with its capital in Alexandria and marked the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty. The dynasty lasted for 300 long years and ended with the death of Cleopatra (69-30 BC) - the daughter of Ptolemy XII. The romantic image of this amazing woman is still the subject of much debate among historians and all those who are partial to ardent love passions mixed with cold political calculations.

Ptolemy Lag gave his children an excellent education. Following the example of the Macedonian kings, who entrusted their children to the leading philosophers of the time, the newly-minted ruler invited Demetrius of Foler (350-283 BC) and Strato the Physicist (340-268 BC) to Alexandria. These learned men were students of Theophrastus (370-287 BC). He, in turn, studied with Plato and Aristotle and continued the work of the latter.

This matter was expressed in the philosophical school. It was called the Lyceum, and its students were called Peripatetics. The Lyceum had a library. She did not contain large number manuscripts, but the very principle of organization and operation of such an institution was well known to both Demetrius of Foler and Strato the Physicist. It was at their suggestion that Ptolemy Lagus came up with the idea of ​​​​creating a magnificent library in Alexandria.

For the sake of objectivity and historical accuracy, it should be noted that the idea concerned not only the library. The first Greek king of Egypt intended to create museyon- museum. The library was considered as part of it - a necessary addition to the astronomical tower, botanical garden, and anatomical rooms. It was supposed to store information for those who would engage in medicine, astronomy, mathematics and other sciences necessary for society.

The idea, of course, is brilliant, once again emphasizing the high intellectual and spiritual level of the people who lived in that distant era. But Ptolemy Lagus was not destined to realize his dreams. He died in 283 BC. uh, without ever implementing such a global and necessary project.

The royal throne was taken by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309-246 BC). Already from the first year of his reign, in accordance with the will of his father, he began to work closely on both the founding of the Library of Alexandria and the museum.

History, unfortunately, does not know when this whole grandiose idea was brought to life. We do not know exact date, a specific day when the first visitors entered the spacious halls and picked up scrolls with invaluable information. We do not even know the specific place where the Library of Alexandria was located, and what it looked like.

What is known for certain is that the first custodian of this greatest public institution of antiquity was Zenodotus of Ephesus(325-260 BC). This respected ancient Greek philosopher came to Alexandria at the invitation of Ptolemy Lagus. He, like his colleagues, was involved in raising the children of the first Greek king of Egypt and apparently made an indelible impression on those around him with his knowledge and outlook.

It was to him that Ptolemy II Philadelphus entrusted the solution of all organizational issues related to the library that had just begun to operate. There were a great many of these questions. First and most important - assessment of the authenticity and quality of manuscripts.

Papyrus scrolls containing invaluable information were bought by the reigning house from different people, in small libraries belonging to private individuals or philosophical schools, and sometimes were simply confiscated during customs inspection on ships dropping anchor in the port of Alexandria. True, such confiscation was always compensated by monetary reward. Another matter is whether the amount paid corresponded to the true value of the manuscript.

Zenodotus of Ephesus was the main arbiter in this sensitive issue. He assessed the historical and informational value of the documents submitted to him for consideration. If the manuscripts met the strict standards set by the Library of Alexandria, they were immediately handed over to skilled craftsmen. The latter checked their condition, restored them, gave them a proper readable appearance, and after that the scrolls took their place on the shelves.

If manuscripts with some inaccuracies or incorrect data fell into the hands of the Greek philosopher, he marked the corresponding paragraphs with special signs. Subsequently, any reader, getting acquainted with this material, saw what can be believed unconditionally, and what is subject to doubt and is not truthful and accurate information.

Sometimes the first keeper of the Library of Alexandria was delivered an obvious fake, purchased from unscrupulous people. There were many who wanted to make money from the sale of scrolls at that time. This shows that human nature has changed little over the past 25 centuries.

Zenodotus of Ephesus also worked on the classification of manuscripts. He divided them into various topics so that library employees could easily find the material the reader needed. There were a great variety of topics: medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, biology, architecture, zoology, art, poetry and many, many others. All this was entered into special catalogs and provided with appropriate links.

Manuscripts were also divided by language. Almost 99% of all material was written in Egyptian and Greek. Very few scrolls were written in Hebrew and some other languages Ancient World. The preferences of the readers were also taken into account here, so some valuable materials written in a rare language were translated into Greek and Egyptian.

The Library of Alexandria paid great attention to the conditions for storing priceless manuscripts.. The premises were thoroughly ventilated, and employees made sure that there was no dampness in them. Periodically, all scrolls were checked for the presence of insects, and damaged documents were immediately restored.

All this work was very difficult and time-consuming. There were a great many manuscripts. Different sources give different numbers. Most likely there were at least 300 thousand scrolls on the shelves in the halls and in the storage room. This is a huge number, and accordingly the staff of the Library of Alexandria was a large team. All these people were supported at the expense of the royal treasury.

Under the arches of the Library of Alexandria

For 300 years, the Ptolemies spent enormous amounts of money on the maintenance of the museum and library absolutely free of charge. From generation to generation, the Greek kings of Egypt not only did not lose interest in this brainchild, but, on the contrary, tried in every possible way to expand it and improve its work.

Under Ptolemy III Euergetes (282-222 BC), a branch of the Library of Alexandria appeared. It was founded at the temple of Serapis - the Babylonian god used by the Ptolemies as the highest deity equal to Osiris (king the afterlife among the ancient Egyptians). There were many such temples in the lands subordinate to the Greek dynasty. Each of them bore the same name - Serapeum.

It was in the Serapeum of Alexandria that a branch of the library was located. This once again emphasizes the importance of this public institution, since the Serapeums were given enormous political significance. Their function was to smooth out religious differences between the original inhabitants of these lands, the Egyptians and the Greeks, who came to Ancient Egypt in large numbers for permanent residence after the Ptolemies came to power.

Under Ptolemy III, the Library of Alexandria was led by a third custodian for 40 years (the second custodian was Callimachus, a scientist and poet) - Eratosthenes of Cyrene(276-194 BC). This venerable husband was a mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He was also fond of poetry and had a good understanding of architecture. Contemporaries considered him not inferior in intelligence to Plato himself.

At the urgent request of the king, Eratosthenes of Cyrene arrived in Alexandria and plunged headlong into diverse, interesting and complex work. Under him, the Old Testament was completely translated from Hebrew into Greek. This translation of the biblical commandments, which guide modern humanity, is called the Septuagint.

It was under this man that the “Astronomical Catalog” appeared in the Library of Alexandria. It included the coordinates of more than 1000 stars. Many works also appeared on mathematics, in which Eratosthenes was a great expert. All this further enriched the greatest public institution of the Ancient World.

Systematized sources of knowledge, selected with special care, contributed to the fact that many people came to Alexandria educated people seeking to improve and deepen their knowledge of different areas Sciences.

The ancient Greek mathematician Euclid (died 273 BC), Archimedes (287-212 BC), philosophers worked within the walls of the library: Plotinus (203-270 BC) - the founder of Neoplatonism, Chrysipus (279- 207 BC), Gelesius (322-278 BC) and many, many others. The Library of Alexandria was very popular among the doctors of Ancient Greece.

The point was that, according to the laws then existing, it was impossible to engage in surgical practice on the lands of the Balkan Peninsula. Cutting the human body was strictly prohibited. IN Ancient Egypt this issue was looked at completely differently. The centuries-old history of the creation of mummies itself presupposed the intervention of cutting tools. Without them, mummification would have been impossible. Accordingly, surgical operations were viewed as commonplace and commonplace.

The Greek aesculapians used every opportunity to go to Alexandria and it was within the walls of the museum that they improved their skills and became familiar with the internal structure of the human body. Necessary theoretical material they drew within the walls of the Library of Alexandria. There was a wealth of information here. All of it was presented on ancient Egyptian scrolls, carefully restored and sorted.

The work of Eratosthenes of Cyrene was continued by other guardians. Many of them were invited from the Greek lands as teachers for the crowned offspring.

This was an established practice. The keeper of the library was also the mentor of the next heir to the throne. From a young age, the child absorbed the very atmosphere, the spirit of the greatest public institution of antiquity. Growing up and gaining power, he already considered the Library of Alexandria as something dear and painfully close. The best childhood memories were associated with these walls, and therefore they were always cherished and cherished.

The decline of the Library of Alexandria falls on last decades I millennium BC uh. The growing influence of the Roman Republic and the struggle for power between Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII led to a serious political cataclysm. The intervention of the Roman commander Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) helped Cleopatra in her quest for sole and undivided reign, but had a negative impact on cultural heritage great city.

By order of Julius Caesar, the naval fleet, which acted on the side of Ptolemy XIII, was set on fire. The fire began to mercilessly devour the ships. The flames spread to city buildings. Fires started in the city. They soon reached the walls of the Library of Alexandria.

People busy saving their lives and property did not come to the aid of those servants who were trying to save the priceless information captured on the scrolls for future generations. The manuscripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were lost in the fire. The manuscripts of the ancient Egyptians, containing data about the origins of human civilization, have sunk into eternity forever. The fire mercilessly consumed medical treatises, astronomical and geographical reference books.

Everything that had been collected with great difficulty throughout the Mediterranean for centuries perished in a fire in a few hours. The three-century history of the Library of Alexandria is over. It was 48 BC. e.

Naturally, when the fire went out and the passions subsided, people looked at what they had done and were horrified. Cleopatra, who received undivided power from the hands of Caesar, tried to restore the former greatness and pride of her ancestors. By her order, the library was rebuilt, but the soulless walls could not replace what was supposed to be stored behind them.

Another admirer of the queen, the Roman military leader Mark Antony (83-30 BC), tried to help stock the library with new manuscripts. They were delivered from different places controlled by the Roman Republic, but these were far from the same manuscripts on which the great philosophers of antiquity studied.

In 30 BC. e. Cleopatra committed suicide. With her death, the Ptolemaic dynasty ended. Alexandria turned into a Roman province with all the ensuing consequences.

The Library of Alexandria continued to exist, but no one made any serious investments into it. It existed for another three hundred years. The last mention of the library was in 273. This is the time of the reign of the Roman emperor Aurelian (214-275), the crisis of the Roman Empire and the war with the Palmyra kingdom.

The latter was a province that broke away from the empire and declared its independence. This is new public education very quickly gained strength under Queen Zenobia Septimius (240-274). The city of Alexandria ended up on the lands of this kingdom, so the anger of the Roman emperor Aurelian was reflected in it.

Alexandria was stormed and burned. This time nothing could save the Library of Alexandria. She died in the fire and ceased to exist forever. There is, however, a version that even after this fire the library was partially restored, and it existed for another 120 years, finally falling into oblivion only at the end of the 4th century.

Those were endless years civil wars and reign last emperor unified Roman Empire Theodosius I (346-395). It was he who gave the order to destroy all pagan temples. The library was located in Alexandria at the Serapeum (temple of Serapis). According to the order of the emperor, it was burned along with many other similar structures. The pitiful remnants of what was once the greatest storehouse of human knowledge also perished completely.

This could put an end to this sad story. Fortunately, miracles happen on earth, although rarely. The Library of Alexandria was reborn like a Phoenix from the ashes. This miracle happened in 2002 in the city of Alexandria.

Library
Alexandrina

The greatest building with original architecture made of glass, concrete and granite appeared before people's eyes. It's called "". Dozens of states took part in the construction of this building. Managed the work of UNESCO.

The revived library has huge areas, many reading rooms, and storage facilities designed to hold 8 million books. The main reading room is located under a glass roof and is flooded with sun most of the day.

Modern people paid tribute distant ancestors. Great traditions buried under a pile of ashes almost 1000 years ago were revived. This once again proves that human civilization does not degrade, but continues its spiritual growth. Let this process go slowly, but it is inevitable in the flow of time, and the thirst for knowledge does not fade away over generations, but continues to dominate human minds and forces us to do such noble deeds.

The article was written by ridar-shakin

Based on materials from foreign publications