A collection of effective staff training methods. The most effective ways to learn An effective approach to learning

The term "method" comes from the Greek word methodos that means “a path, a way of moving towards the truth, towards the expected result”

The teaching method is characterized by three features. It means:

• 1) the purpose of training,
• 2) method of assimilation,
• 3) the nature of interaction between learning subjects.

Therefore, the concept of “teaching method” reflects

• 1) methods of teaching work of the teacher and methods of educational work of students in their interrelation;
• 2) the specifics of their work to achieve various learning goals.

Teaching methods- these are ways of joint activities of teachers and students aimed at solving learning problems, i.e. didactic tasks.

Recently, in the theory of learning, a step has been taken in the development of this concept, in its concretization. An attempt has been made to separate the concepts of “method” and “method” and thereby avoid tautology in defining a method through a method and, on the basis of this, to concretize the very concept of “teaching method”. “The teaching method,” says Yu.G. Fokin, “a system of joint actions of the teacher and the subjects of the study, necessary for the emergence of specific changes in the psyche, in the actions of the subjects of the study, ensuring that the subjects of the study master the elements and substructures of activity, which can be included by them as mastered objects in real activity.” As for the teaching method, it is “an ordered set of actions selected on the basis of the use of available means that implement the teaching method or methods necessary to solve a didactic problem in the classroom.”

Methods are implemented in pedagogical reality in various forms: in specific actions, techniques, organizational forms, etc. At the same time, methods and techniques are not strictly tied to each other. For example, different teaching methods can be embodied in techniques such as conversation or working with a book. The conversation can be heuristic and implement a partial search method, or it can be reproductive in nature, implement the appropriate method and be aimed at memorization and consolidation. The same can be said about working with a book, and about an excursion, etc. It is necessary to stipulate that according to the logic inherent in different classifications of methods (they will be discussed further), the same types of activities can be classified into different didactic categories. For example, the same conversation and work with a book can be classified as techniques according to one classification, and methods according to another. At the same time, the number of teaching methods can endlessly increase depending on the content of the educational material, new goals and, of course, on the creativity of the teacher, his pedagogical skill and thereby give individuality to the manner of his pedagogical activity.

Reception of training - the concept of the operational level, it can be defined as a type of performing a didactic operation (Yu.G. Fokin). Teaching methods are varied in their structure and individualized in the nature of execution, since each teacher can bring his own characteristics to the implementation of the same operation.

In real pedagogical reality, teaching methods, as well as techniques, are carried out by various means of teaching, which include both material and ideal objects placed between the teacher and the student and used for the effective organization of students' educational activities. These means are various types of activities (educational, play, work), objects, works of material and spiritual culture, words, speech, etc.

Each individual teaching method has a certain logical structure - inductive, deductive or inductive-deductive. This is evidenced by the results of fundamental research by I.Ya. Lerner in this area. The logical structure of the teaching method depends on the construction of the content of the educational material and the learning activities of students.

One of the acute problems of modern didactics is the problem of classifying teaching methods. Currently there is no single point of view on this issue. Due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different criteria, there are a number of classifications.

The earliest classification is the division of teaching methods on teacher's working methods(story, explanation, conversation) and methods of student work (exercises, independent work).

by source of knowledge. In accordance with this approach, the following are distinguished:

• a) verbal methods (the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word);
• b) visual methods (the source of knowledge is observed objects, phenomena, visual aids);
• c) practical methods (students gain knowledge and develop skills by performing practical actions).

Let's look at this classification in more detail.

Verbal methods. They occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Progressive teachers - Ya. A. Komensky, K.D. Ushinsky and others - opposed the absolutization of the meaning of verbal methods, argued for the need to supplement them with visual and practical methods. Currently, verbal methods are often called outdated, “inactive.” Meanwhile, verbal methods make it possible to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems to students and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of words, a teacher can evoke in the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future of humanity. The word activates the imagination, memory, and feelings of students.

Verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

Story. The story method involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of educational material. This method is used at all stages of training. Only the nature of the story, its volume, and duration change.

Explanation. Explanation should be understood as the interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, and phenomena. An explanation is a monologue form of presentation. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying the theoretical material of various sciences, solving chemical, physical, and mathematical problems, theorems, and revealing the root causes and consequences in natural phenomena and social life.

Conversation. This is a didactic teaching method in which the teacher, by asking a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what they have already learned. Depending on the specific tasks, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, the place of conversation in the didactic process, various types of conversations are distinguished: introductory, or introductory, organizing conversations; conversations - messages or identification and formation of new knowledge (Socratic, heuristic); synthesizing, systematizing, or consolidating conversations.

The success of the conversation largely depends on the correctness of the questions. Questions should be short, clear, meaningful, and formulated in such a way as to awaken the student’s thoughts. You should not pose double, suggestive questions or suggest guessing the answer, as well as formulate alternative questions that require unambiguous answers like “yes” or “no”.

Discussion. A significant place among verbal teaching methods is given to educational discussion. Its main purpose in the learning process is to stimulate cognitive interest, to involve students in an active discussion of different scientific points of view on a particular problem, to encourage them to comprehend various approaches to the argumentation of someone else’s and their own positions.

Educational discussion can be partially used in senior classes of primary school and fully in classes of secondary school, colleges, and universities. A well-conducted discussion has great educational and educational value: it teaches a deeper understanding of the problem, the ability to defend one’s position, and take into account the opinions of others.

Lecture. This is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material. The lecture is used, as a rule, in high schools, colleges, universities and takes up the entire or almost the entire lesson or training session. The advantage of a lecture is the ability to ensure the completeness and integrity of students’ perception of educational material in its logical mediation and relationships on the topic as a whole. The relevance of using lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new educational material on topics or large sections.

The lecture can also be used to review the material covered. Such lectures are called review lectures. They are conducted on one or several topics to summarize and systematize the material studied.

The use of lectures as a teaching method in a modern school allows one to significantly intensify the cognitive activity of students, involve them in independent searches for additional scientific information to solve problematic educational and cognitive tasks, complete thematic assignments, conduct independent experiments and experiments bordering on research activities. This explains the fact that the share of lectures in high schools has recently begun to increase.

Working with a book. This is the most important teaching method. In primary school, work with books is carried out mainly in lessons under the guidance of a teacher. In the future, schoolchildren increasingly learn to work with the book independently. There are a number of techniques for working independently with printed sources. The main ones:

• - note-taking- a summary, a brief record of the content of what was read. Note-taking is done in the first (oneself) or third person. Taking notes in the first person better develops independent thinking;
• - drawing up a text plan. The plan can be simple or complex. To draw up a plan, after reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each part;
• - thesis - a summary of the main ideas of what was read;
• - citation- verbatim excerpt from the text. The output data must be indicated (author, title of the work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page);
• - annotation - a brief, condensed summary of the content of what was read without loss of essential meaning;
• - review - writing a short review expressing your attitude about what you read;
• - preparation of a certificate - information about something obtained after searching. Certificates can be statistical, biographical, terminological, geographical, etc.;
• - drawing up a formal logical model- verbal-schematic representation of what was read;
• - compiling a thematic thesaurus- an ordered set of basic concepts by section, topic;
• - creating a matrix of ideas- comparative characteristics of homogeneous objects and phenomena in the works of different authors.

Visual methods. Visual teaching methods are understood as those in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods and are intended to visually and sensorially familiarize students with phenomena, processes, objects in their natural form or in a symbolic representation using all kinds of drawings, reproductions, diagrams, etc. In a modern school with Screen technology is widely used for this purpose.

Visual teaching methods can be divided into two large groups: the illustration method and the demonstration method.

Illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids, posters, tables, paintings, maps, sketches on the board, flat models, etc.

Demonstration method usually associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, etc.

The division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstrative is conditional. It does not exclude the possibility of classifying certain visual aids as both illustrative and demonstrative (for example, showing illustrations through a multimedia projector). The introduction of new technical means into the educational process expands the possibilities of visual teaching methods.

In modern conditions, special attention is paid to the use of such a visual aid as a personal computer. Currently, the task of creating computer rooms in schools and introducing computers into the educational process is being solved. Computers allow students to visually see in dynamics many processes that were previously learned from the text of a textbook, make it possible to simulate certain processes and situations, and choose from a number of possible solutions the most optimal ones according to certain criteria, i.e. significantly expand the possibilities of visual methods in the educational process.

Practical methods. These teaching methods are based on practical activities of students. These include exercises, laboratory and practical work.

Exercises. Exercises are understood as repeated (multiple) performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality. Exercises are used in the study of all subjects and at various stages of the educational process. The nature and methodology of the exercises depend on the characteristics of the subject, the specific material, the issue being studied and the age of the students.

Exercises by their nature are divided into oral, written, graphic and educational. When performing each of them, students perform mental and practical work.

According to the degree of independence of students when performing exercises, they are distinguished:

• a) exercises to reproduce what is known for the purpose of consolidation - reproducing exercises;
• b) exercises to apply knowledge in new conditions - training exercises.

If, while performing actions, a student speaks to himself or out loud and comments on upcoming operations, such exercises are called commented exercises. Commenting on actions helps the teacher detect common mistakes and make adjustments to students’ actions.

Laboratory works . This is the conduct by students, on the instructions of the teacher, of experiments using instruments, using tools and other technical devices, i.e. This is the study by students of any phenomena with the help of special equipment. Laboratory work is carried out in an illustrative or research manner.

A type of research laboratory work can be long-term observations of students over individual phenomena, such as: plant growth and animal development, weather, wind, cloudiness, changes in rivers and lakes depending on the weather, etc. In some schools, as part of laboratory work, they practice collecting antiques and adding them to the exhibitions of local history or school museums, studying the folklore of their region, etc. In any case, the teacher draws up instructions, and the students record the results of the work in the form of reports, numerical indicators, graphs, diagrams, tables.

Practical work. They are carried out after studying large sections, the topics are general in nature. Practical work can be carried out not only in the classroom, but also outside the school (measurements on the ground, work on the school site). A special type of practical teaching methods consists of classes with teaching machines, simulator machines and tutors.

We have given a brief description of teaching methods classified by sources of knowledge. This classification has been repeatedly and quite reasonably criticized in the pedagogical literature. The main disadvantage of this classification is that it does not reflect the nature of students’ cognitive activity in learning or the degree of their independence in academic work.

The merit of the authors of the classification of teaching methods by sources of knowledge is that, instead of trying to universalize one teaching method, they substantiated the need to use a variety of teaching methods in school - systematic presentation of knowledge by the teacher, working with a book, textbook, written work, etc. However, having taken the external forms of activity of the teacher and student as the basis for justifying the teaching method, they missed the main thing that is essential in the educational process - the nature of the cognitive activity of students, on which both the quality of knowledge acquisition and the mental development of schoolchildren depend.

Data from theoretical studies by teachers and psychologists over the past few decades indicate that the assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity occurs at three levels: at the level of conscious perception and memorization, which outwardly manifests itself in an accurate and close to the original reproduction of educational material; at the level of applying knowledge and methods of activity according to a model or in a similar situation; at the level of creative application of knowledge and methods of activity. Teaching methods are designed to ensure all levels of learning.

Based on this, scientists-teachers from the middle of the 20th century. More and more attention began to be paid to the development of the problem of classifying teaching methods, taking into account the above-mentioned levels of students’ assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity.

So, in the 1960s. have become increasingly popular in education methods of didactic games. Some scientists classify them as practical teaching methods, while others classify them as a special group. In favor of distinguishing the method of didactic games into a special group is, firstly, the fact that they go beyond the limits of visual, verbal and practical, absorbing their elements, and secondly, the fact that they have features inherent only to them.

A didactic game is an active educational activity involving simulation of the systems, phenomena, and processes being studied. The main difference between a game and other activities is that its subject is human activity itself. In a didactic game, the main type of activity is educational activity, which is woven into the gaming activity and acquires the features of joint gaming educational activity. A didactic game is a collective, purposeful educational activity when each participant and the team as a whole are united in solving the main problem and focus their behavior on winning.

A game organized for educational purposes can be called an educational game. Its main structural elements are:

• - simulated object of educational activity;
• - joint activities of game participants;
• - rules of the game;
• - decision making in changing conditions;
• - effectiveness of the applied solution.

Didactic game technology is a specific problem-based learning technology. At the same time, game-based educational activity has an important property: in it, the cognitive activity of students is self-movement, since information does not come from the outside, but is an internal product, the result of the activity itself. Information obtained in this way gives rise to new information, which, in turn, entails the next link until the final learning result is achieved.

The cycle of a didactic game is a continuous sequence of educational actions in the process of solving problems. This process is divided into the following stages:

• - preparation for independent studies;
• - setting the main task;
• - selection of a simulation model of the object;
• - solving a problem based on it;
• - checking, correction;
• - implementation of the decision;
• - evaluation of its results;
• - analysis of the results obtained and synthesis with existing experience;
• - feedback on a closed technological cycle.

Didactic games as a teaching method contain great potential for activating the learning process. At the same time, school practice and the results of experiments have shown that didactic games can play a positive role in learning only when they are used as a factor that generalizes a wide arsenal of traditional methods, and not as a substitute for them.

A common classification of teaching methods is depending on the nature of students’ cognitive activity, proposed by M.N. Skatkin and I.Ya. Lerner. According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, problem presentation, partially search (heuristic) and research.

The essence explanatory-illustrative method teaching consists in the fact that the teacher communicates ready-made information through various means, and students perceive it, realize it and record it in memory. The explanatory and illustrative method is one of the most economical ways to convey information. However, when using this teaching method, the skills and abilities to use the acquired knowledge are not formed.

To acquire these skills and abilities, students use reproductive method training. Its essence is to repeat (multiple times) a method of activity as instructed by the teacher. The teacher’s activity is to develop and communicate a model, and the student’s activity is to carry out actions according to the model.

The essence problematic method presentation is that the teacher poses a problem to the students and himself shows the way to solve it, revealing the contradictions that arise. The purpose of this method is to show examples of scientific knowledge and scientific problem solving. At the same time, students follow the logic of solving a problem, receiving a standard of scientific thinking and knowledge, an example of a culture of deploying cognitive actions.

In order to gradually bring students closer to independently solving cognitive problems, it is used partially search, or heuristic, method training. Its essence is that the teacher breaks down a problematic problem into subproblems, and students carry out individual steps to find its solution. Each step involves creative activity, but there is no holistic solution to the problem yet.

Serves this purpose research method training. It is designed to provide creative application of knowledge. Students master the methods of scientific knowledge and develop experience in research activities.

In a generalized form, the content of the activities of teachers and students using various teaching methods, classified according to levels of cognitive activity, is presented in Table. 2.

Table 2. Content of teacher and student activities when using various teaching methods

This didactic system of teaching methods, being part of a holistic didactic theory, covers all the goals of educational and developmental education, all forms of teaching methods, reflects a systematic consideration of all aspects of teaching methods, the correlation of each act of teaching with the needs and motives of students.

Thus, according to this classification, teaching methods differ from each other in the nature of the cognitive activity carried out by students when mastering various types of material content, and in the nature of the activity of the teacher who organizes this diverse activity of the students.

Yu.K. Babansky, based on the methodology of a holistic approach to the learning process, identifies three groups of methods:

• 1) methods of organizing and carrying out educational and cognitive activities - verbal methods, inductive and deductive, reproductive and problem-search, independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher;
• 2) methods of stimulation and motivation - stimulation and motivation of interest in learning; stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning;
• 3) methods of control and self-control in teaching - oral control and self-control, written control and self-control, laboratory and practical control and self-control.

There are other classifications of teaching methods. The large number of approaches to the classification of teaching methods is explained by the complexity of the object of research and the seriousness of the tasks posed by society to the modern school.

In pedagogical science, based on the study and generalization of the practical experience of teachers, certain approaches to the choice of teaching methods have developed depending on various combinations of specific circumstances and conditions of the educational process.

The choice of teaching methods depends on the following factors:

• - from the general goals of education, training, upbringing and development of students and the leading principles of modern didactics;
• - features of the content and methods of this science and the subject or topic being studied;
• - features of the teaching methodology of a specific academic discipline and the requirements for the selection of general didactic methods determined by its specificity;
• - goals, objectives and content of the material of a specific training session;
• - on the time allocated for studying this or that material;
• - age characteristics of students, the level of their real cognitive capabilities;
• - level of preparedness of students (education, good manners and development);
• - material equipment of the educational institution, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means;
• - the capabilities and characteristics of the teacher, the level of theoretical and practical preparedness, methodological skills, his personal qualities.

When using a set of these circumstances and conditions, the teacher makes a number of decisions in one order or another: on the choice of verbal, visual or practical methods, reproductive or search methods for managing independent work, methods of control and self-control.

Thus, depending on the didactic goal, when the task of students acquiring new knowledge comes to the fore, the teacher decides whether in this case he will present this knowledge himself; does he organize their acquisition by students by organizing independent work, etc. In the first case, it may be necessary to prepare students to listen to the teacher’s presentation, and then he gives the students a task either to carry out certain preliminary observations, or to preliminary read the required material. During the presentation itself, the teacher can use either an informational presentation-message or a problematic presentation (reasoning, dialogical). At the same time, when presenting new material, the teacher systematically refers to the material that students received in their preliminary independent work. The teacher's presentation is accompanied by a demonstration of natural objects, their images, experiments, experiments, etc. At the same time, students make certain notes, build graphs, diagrams, etc. The totality of these intermediate decisions constitutes one holistic decision on the choice of a certain combination of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are organically connected and mutually determined by the forms of organizing students' educational activities in the classroom or any other form of teaching. In relation to training form- special design of the learning process. The nature of this design is determined by the content of the learning process, methods, techniques, means, and types of activities of students. This design of teaching represents the internal organization of content, which in real pedagogical activity is the process of interaction and communication between the teacher and students when working on certain educational material. This content is the basis for the development of the learning process itself, the way of its existence has its own movement and contains the possibilities of unlimited development, which determines its leading role in the development of learning.

Consequently, the form of teaching must be understood as a design of segments, cycles of the learning process, implemented in a combination of the teacher’s control activity and the controlled learning activity of students in mastering certain content of educational material and mastering methods of activity. Representing the external appearance, the external outline of segments - learning cycles, the form reflects the system of their stable connections and connections of components within each learning cycle and, as a didactic category, denotes the external side of the organization of the educational press, which is associated with the number of students being trained, the time and place of training, as well as the order of its implementation. At the same time, some scientist-teachers, in particular M.I. Makhmutov, believe that there is a need to point out the difference between two terms that include the word “form” - “form of training” and “form of organization of training”. In its first meaning, “form of teaching” means the collective, frontal and individual work of students in a lesson or any educational session. In this meaning, the term “form of training” differs from the term “form of organization of training,” which denotes any type of lesson - lesson, lecture, seminar, practical and laboratory classes, debate, conference, test, subject group, etc.

What is meant by the term “organization” in general and what is the essence of the pedagogical interpretation of this term?

According to the explanatory dictionary of V.I. Dahl, “organize or orchestrate” means “to arrange, establish, put in order, compose, form, establish harmoniously.” The “Philosophical Encyclopedia” explains that organization is “ordering, establishing, bringing into a system some material or spiritual object, arrangement, correlation of parts of some object.”

It is further emphasized that it is these “two meanings of the concept of organization that relate to both natural objects and social activities and characterize the organization as the arrangement and interrelation of the elements of some whole (the objective part of the organization), their actions and interactions (the functional part)” that are important.” Based on this interpretation of the term “organization”, I.M. Cheredov rightly states that the form of organization of teaching involves “ordering, establishing, bringing into a system” the interaction of the teacher with students when working on a certain content of the material. The organization of training has the goal of ensuring the optimal functioning of the process of managing educational activities on the part of the teacher. Built on the optimal combination of process components as an integral dynamic system, it contributes to its effectiveness. Organization of training involves the design of specific forms that would provide conditions for effective educational work of students under the guidance of a teacher.

In this regard, scientists have identified the following grounds for classifying forms of educational organization: the number and composition of students, place of study, duration of educational work. For these reasons, forms of training are divided accordingly into individual, individual-group, collective, classroom and extracurricular. Let us note that this classification is not strictly scientific and is not recognized by all teaching scientists. At the same time, it must be recognized that this approach to the classification of forms of educational organization makes it possible to somewhat streamline their diversity.

An epoch-making phenomenon not only in the history of the development of pedagogical thought, but also in the history of the development of society as a whole was the justification in the 16th century. Ya.A. Comenius class-lesson education system, the main unit of training in which he spoke lesson.

Its advantages: a clear organizational structure that ensures orderliness of the entire educational process; simple management; the opportunity for children to interact with each other in the process of collective discussion of problems, collective search for solutions to problems; constant emotional impact of the teacher’s personality on students, their upbringing in the learning process; the economy of teaching, since the teacher works simultaneously with a fairly large group of students, creates conditions for introducing a competitive spirit into the educational activities of schoolchildren and at the same time ensures systematicity and consistency in their movement from ignorance to knowledge.

Noting these advantages, one cannot help but see a number of significant disadvantages in this system, namely: the class-lesson system is focused mainly on the average student, creates unbearable difficulties for the weak and delays the development of abilities in the stronger ones; creates difficulties for teachers in taking into account the individual characteristics of students in organizationally individual work with them, both in content and in the pace and methods of teaching; does not provide organized communication between older and younger students, etc.

Along with the lesson, the system of general forms of organizing students’ educational activities includes a whole range of forms of organizing the educational process: lecture, seminar, practical and laboratory classes, debate, conference, test, exam, elective classes, consultations; forms of extracurricular extracurricular work (subject clubs, studios, scientific societies, olympiads, competitions), etc.

Let us only note that lecture- this is the organic unity of the teaching method and organizational form, which consists in a systematic, consistent, monologue presentation by the teacher (teacher, lecturer) of educational material, which, as a rule, is of a pronounced theoretical nature, and a seminar is one of the main forms of organizing practical classes, the specifics of which consists of a collective discussion by students of messages, reports, abstracts, completed by them independently under the guidance of a teacher. Target seminar- in-depth study of a topic or section of the course. Laboratory and practical classes- one of the forms of interaction between a teacher and students, which consists of students conducting experiments on the instructions of the teacher using instruments, using tools and other technical devices. In the process of laboratory and practical classes, observations, analysis and comparison of observation data, and formulation of conclusions take place. Mental operations are combined with physical actions, with moral acts, since students, using technical means, influence the substances and materials being studied, cause phenomena and processes that interest them, which significantly increases the productivity of cognitive interest. Optional classes are one of the types of differentiation of learning based on interests. Elective- an optional academic subject studied by students of higher and secondary educational institutions at their request to expand their general cultural and theoretical horizons or obtain an additional specialty. Dispute- collective discussion of current problems in the sphere of life of the participants and their social experience. The debate gives its participants the opportunity to apply their existing knowledge and experience in understanding and resolving the problem under discussion.

Note that within the framework of these forms of training, collective, group, individual, frontal work of students of both a differentiated and undifferentiated nature can be organized. When the same task is given to the whole class, the entire educational group (written work, laboratory or even practical task in workshops) - this is undifferentiated individual work of a frontal nature; and when a class, a study group as a whole, or each subgroup individually collectively solves one problem, jointly masters a common topic - this is collective, frontal or group work.

The most important feature of the above forms of organizing educational activities is that the student learns to work in any of them: listen, discuss issues, concentrate and organize his work, express his opinions, listen to others, refute their arguments or agree with them, argue his evidence , supplement others, make notes, compose the texts of reports, compile a bibliography, work with sources of knowledge, organize your workplace, plan your actions, meet the allotted time, etc.

During group work, students learn elements of the organizational activities of a leader, employee, subordinate, form the experience of entering into contacts with adults - into natural business, industrial and social relationships, adapting to the production and life rhythm. Organizational forms of education also play a major role in the education of students, where the main thing is individual self-government.

What is each of the above forms of organizing students' educational work in the classroom and in other forms of educational activities at school and university? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? How to combine these forms of student work with each other in the specific pedagogical activities of the teacher?

Frontal form of organizing educational activities Students are called this type of activity between the teacher and students, when all students simultaneously perform the same work, common to all, discuss, compare and generalize its results. The teacher works with everyone at the same time, communicates with students directly during his story, explanation, demonstration, involving students in the discussion of the issues under consideration, etc. This contributes to the establishment of especially trusting relationships and communication between the teacher and students, as well as students among themselves, fosters a sense of collectivism in children, allows them to teach them to reason and find errors in the reasoning of their classmates, group, course of study, to form stable cognitive interests, to activate their activities.

Naturally, the teacher is required to have great ability to find feasible thought work for all students, to design in advance, and then create learning situations that meet the objectives of the lesson; the ability and patience to listen to everyone who wants to speak, tactfully support and at the same time make the necessary corrections during the discussion. Due to their real capabilities, students, of course, can at the same time make generalizations and conclusions, reason during a lesson or other form of lesson at different levels of depth. This the teacher must take into account and question them according to their capabilities. This teacher’s approach to frontal work allows students to actively listen and share their opinions and knowledge with others, listen carefully to other people’s opinions, compare them with their own, find errors in other people’s opinions, and reveal their incompleteness. In this case, the spirit of collective thinking reigns in the lesson. Students do not just work side by side, each one solving a learning problem alone, but actively participate together in a collective discussion. As for the teacher, he, using the frontal form of organizing the work of students, gets the opportunity to freely influence the entire staff of the class, study group, present educational material to the whole class, achieve a certain rhythm in the activities of students based on taking into account their individual characteristics. All these are the undoubted advantages of the frontal form of organizing students' learning activities in the classroom. That is why, in conditions of mass education, this form of organizing students’ educational work is irreplaceable and the most common in the work of a modern school.

The frontal form of teaching organization can be implemented in the form of a problem-based, informational and explanatory-illustrative presentation and be accompanied by reproductive and creative tasks. In this case, the creative task can be divided into a number of relatively simple tasks, which will allow all students to be involved in active work. This gives the teacher the opportunity to correlate the complexity of tasks with the real learning capabilities of each student, take into account the individual capabilities of students, create an atmosphere of friendly relations between the teacher and students in the classroom, and evoke in them a sense of belonging to the general achievements of the class or group.

The frontal form of educational work, as noted by scientist-teachers I.M. Cheredov, Yu.B. Zotov et al., has a number of significant disadvantages. By its nature, it is aimed at a certain abstract student, due to which in school practice there are often tendencies towards leveling students, encouraging them to a uniform pace of work, to which students, due to their different levels of performance, preparedness, real fund of knowledge, skills and abilities not ready. Students with low learning abilities work slowly, learn the material less well, they need more attention from the teacher, more time to complete assignments, and more different exercises than students with high learning abilities. Strong students do not need to increase the number of tasks, but to complicate their content, tasks of a search, creative type, work on which contributes to the development of students and the acquisition of knowledge at a higher level. Therefore, for maximum efficiency of students’ educational activities, it is necessary to use, along with this form of organizing educational activities in the classroom, other forms of educational work. Thus, when studying new material and consolidating it, notes Yu.B. Zotov, the most effective is the frontal form of organizing educational activities, but the application of acquired knowledge in changed situations is best organized by making maximum use of individual work. Laboratory work is organized frontally, however, here too it is necessary to look for opportunities for maximum development of each student. You can, for example, end the work by answering questions and tasks of varying degrees of complexity. In this way, it is possible to optimally combine the best aspects of different forms of teaching in one lesson.

Individual form of organizing student work assumes that each student receives a task for independent completion, specially selected for him in accordance with his preparation and educational capabilities. Such tasks may include working with a textbook, other educational and scientific literature, various sources (reference books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, anthologies, etc.); solving problems, examples; writing summaries, essays, abstracts, reports; carrying out all kinds of observations, etc. Individual work is widely used in programmed training.

In the pedagogical literature, there are two types of individual forms of organizing tasks: individual And individualized. The first is characterized by the fact that the student’s activity in completing tasks common to the entire class is carried out without contact with other students, but at the same pace for everyone; the second involves the educational and cognitive activity of students to complete specific tasks. It is this that allows you to regulate the pace of progress in the learning of each student in accordance with his preparation and capabilities.

Thus, one of the most effective ways to implement an individual form of organizing educational activities is differentiated individual tasks, especially tasks with a printed basis, which free students from mechanical work and allow, with less time, to significantly increase the amount of effective independent work. However, this is not enough. Equally important is the teacher’s monitoring of the progress of assignments and his timely assistance in resolving students’ difficulties. Moreover, for low-performing students, differentiation should manifest itself not so much in the differentiation of tasks, but in the amount of help provided by the teacher. He observes the work, makes sure that the students use the correct techniques, gives advice, asks leading questions, and if many students do not cope with the task, the teacher can interrupt individual work and give additional clarification to the whole class.

It is advisable to carry out individual work at all stages of a training session, when solving various didactic tasks, to assimilate new knowledge and consolidate it, to form and consolidate skills and abilities, to generalize and repeat what has been learned, for control, to master the research method, etc. Of course, the easiest way to use this form of organizing educational work is to consolidate, repeat, and organize various exercises. However, it is no less effective when studying new material on your own, especially when you study it at home first. For example, when studying a literary work, you can give individual assignments to each or a group of students in advance. What is common to all is reading a work of fiction, but in the process of reading, students prepare an answer to “their” question or “their” questions. Two circumstances are important here: 1) everyone works to the limit of their capabilities; 2) everyone performs the necessary part of the analysis of a literary work. During class, students explain their part of the new material.

The degree of independence of individual work of students in these cases is different. “Initially, students complete tasks with preliminary and frontal analysis, imitating a model, or using detailed instruction cards. As they master educational skills, the degree of independence increases: students can work on more general, non-detailed tasks, without the direct intervention of the teacher. For example, in high school, having received such an assignment, each student draws up a work plan, selects materials, equipment, instruments, performs the necessary actions in the intended sequence, and records the results of the work. “Research work is gradually gaining more and more importance.”

For low-performing students, it is necessary to draw up a system of tasks that would contain: sample solutions and problems to be solved based on studying the sample; various algorithmic instructions that allow the student to solve a certain problem step by step, various theoretical information that explains the theory, phenomenon, process, mechanism of processes, etc., allowing them to answer a number of questions, as well as various requirements to compare, contrast, classify, generalize and etc. Such an organization of students’ educational work in the classroom gives each student the opportunity, due to their capabilities, abilities, composure, to gradually but steadily deepen and consolidate the acquired and acquired knowledge, to develop the necessary abilities, skills, experience of cognitive activity, and to form the needs for self-education. These are the advantages of the individual form of organizing students' educational work, these are its strengths. But this form of organization also contains a serious drawback. While promoting students' independence, organization, and perseverance in achieving success, the individualized form of educational work somewhat limits their communication with each other, the desire to transfer their knowledge to others, and participate in collective achievements. This shortcoming can be compensated for in the teacher’s practical work by combining an individual form of organizing students’ educational work with such forms of collective work as frontal and group work.

The main signs of group work of students in the lesson:

• - the class is divided into groups to solve specific educational problems;
• - each group receives a specific task (either the same or differentiated) and performs it together under the direct guidance of the group leader or teacher;
• - tasks in the group are carried out in a way that allows the individual contribution of each group member to be taken into account and assessed;
• - the composition of the group is not permanent, it is selected taking into account that the educational capabilities of each group member can be realized with maximum efficiency for the team.

The size of the groups varies. It ranges from 3 to 6 people. The composition of the group is not constant. It varies depending on the content and nature of the work ahead. At the same time, at least half should be students who can successfully engage in independent work. Group leaders and their composition may be different for different academic subjects - they are selected on the principle of uniting students of different levels of training, extracurricular awareness of a given subject, and compatibility of students, which allows them to mutually complement and compensate for each other’s strengths and weaknesses. There should be no students in the group who are negatively disposed towards each other.

Homogeneous group work involves small groups of students completing the same task for everyone, and differentiated work involves performing different tasks in different groups. During the work, group members are allowed to jointly discuss the progress and results of the work and seek advice from each other.

The results of students working together in groups, as a rule, are always significantly higher compared to each student performing the same task individually. And this is because group members help each other, are collectively responsible for the results of individual group members, and also because the work of each student in the group is especially individualized when regulating the pace of progress when studying any issue.

When students work in a group during the lesson, individual assistance to each student who needs it, both from the teacher and student consultants, increases significantly. This is explained by the fact that with frontal and individual forms of the lesson, it is more difficult for the teacher to help all students. While he works with one or two schoolchildren, the rest of those in need of help are forced to wait their turn. The position of such students in the group is completely different. They receive help from the teacher, from strong student consultants in their group, and from other groups. Moreover, the helping student receives no less help than the weak student, since his knowledge is updated, specified, becomes flexible, and consolidated precisely when explaining to his classmate. The consultant leads the group's work on a specific subject. He is an ordinary member of the group, working under the guidance of his more trained, knowledgeable, informed classmate-consultant. The rotation of consultants prevents the danger of arrogance in individual students.

The group form of student work is most applicable and appropriate when conducting practical work, laboratory work and workshops in natural science subjects; when practicing speaking skills in foreign language lessons (work in pairs); in labor and industrial training classes when solving structural and technical problems; when studying texts, copies of historical documents, etc. In the course of such work, maximum use is made of discussion of results, mutual consultations when performing complex measurements or calculations, when studying historical documents, etc. And all this is accompanied by intensive independent work.

The group organization of students' educational activities is extremely effective in preparing thematic educational conferences, debates, reports on the topic, additional classes for the whole group that go beyond the curriculum, beyond the lesson. In these conditions, as in the conditions of a lesson, the degree of effectiveness depends, of course, on the very organization of work within the group (unit). Such an organization assumes that all group members actively participate in the work, the weak do not hide behind the stronger ones, and the strong do not suppress the initiative and independence of weaker students. Properly organized group work is a type of collective activity; it can proceed successfully with a clear distribution of work between all group members, mutual verification of the results of each person’s work, constant support from the teacher, and his prompt assistance. Without careful direction, group teachers cannot work effectively. The content of this activity comes down primarily to teaching students the ability to work independently and consult with classmates.

Without disturbing the general silence in the lesson, create a system of tasks for separate groups of students, teaching them the ability to distribute these tasks among group members so that the pace of work and the capabilities of each are taken into account. As T.A. rightly writes. Ilyin, the teacher is required to have the necessary and sufficient attention to each group, and therefore certain labor costs, but in the end, this helps him solve such important tasks as instilling in students independence, activity, the ability to cooperate with others when performing a common task, the formation social qualities of the individual.

The success of students’ group work depends primarily on the skill of the teacher, on his ability to distribute his attention in such a way that each group and each of its participants individually feel the teacher’s care, his interest in their success, in normal, fruitful interpersonal relationships. With all his behavior, the teacher expresses interest in the success of both strong and weak students, instills in them confidence in success, and shows respect for weak students.

So, the advantages of group organization of students’ learning activities in the classroom are obvious. The results of students’ joint work are very noticeable both in accustoming them to collective methods of work and in the formation of positive moral qualities of the individual. However, this does not mean that this form of organizing educational work is ideal. It cannot be absolutized and opposed to other forms: each of the considered forms of educational organization solves its own specific educational tasks and they complement each other.

The group form also has a number of disadvantages. Let's name the most significant ones: firstly, it is difficult to properly assemble a group and organize work in it; secondly, students in groups are not always able to independently understand complex educational material and choose the most economical way to study it; as a result, weak students have difficulty mastering the material, and strong students need more difficult, original assignments and tasks. Only in combination with other forms of student learning in the classroom - frontal and individual - does the group form of organizing student work bring the expected positive results. The combination of these forms, the choice of the most optimal options for this combination are determined by the teacher depending on the educational tasks being solved in the lesson, on the educational subject, the specifics of the content, its volume and complexity, on the specifics of the class and individual students, the level of their educational capabilities and, of course, on the style of relations between the teacher and students, the relations between students, on the trusting atmosphere that has been established in the class, and the constant readiness to help each other.

Among the variable components of the structure of learning as a system, a significant place is given to the teaching aid as a subject support for the educational process. Naturally, a particular remedy can be positive or negative. The decisive point is not its direct logic, but the logic and action of systemic means, harmoniously organized.

Usually, to assimilate knowledge, a number of means of organizing and activating in learning the processes of perception, understanding, generalization, memorization and application of educational information are used. Teaching aids are used by the teacher and students as tools for cognitive (learning) activity. They participate in learning twice: first as a subject of learning, and then as a means of acquiring new knowledge. Teaching tools are combined with methods, but if methods answer the question “how to teach?”, then the means answer the question “how to teach?”, “with what to teach?”.

Means of education represent material or spiritual values ​​chosen to achieve educational goals. Traditional teaching aids include textbooks, teaching aids, drawings, tables, speech, equipment for classrooms, workshops, laboratories, information, communication and computer tools, as well as means for organizing and managing the learning process. Pedagogical means are the tools with which pedagogical goals are achieved. Education, focused on the knowledge and practical experience of the student, adapted pedagogical means to various types of subject activities in which relevant experience was gained. The variety of pedagogical goals has always given rise to a variety of means to achieve them. The history of teaching and upbringing (education) shows that over the course of the long pedagogical practice of mankind, pedagogical goals and means of achieving them have changed and been supplemented in accordance with the dominant social goals and worldview, and have been transformed into qualitatively new pedagogical systems.

Note that sometimes the concept of “means” is given a very broad meaning - everything that stands between the subject and the product of activity: the concept, material objects, as well as methods of this activity. S.L. Rubinstein noted that since the final goal of activity is achieved in a whole series of actions, the result of each of these actions, being a means in relation to the final goal, is at the same time the goal for this particular action. Being objectively both a means and a goal, a private goal and a means, the result of an individual action can be subjectively experienced or perceived by the subject in different ways.

In pedagogical science, various approaches to the classification of teaching aids have been developed. So, T.V. Gabay classifies teaching aids on the following three grounds: 1) in relation to the means to the subject using them and the completeness of coverage of their functions; 2) by type of subject of mediated activities; 3) by the nature of the objects used as means.

I.A. Winter identifies teaching aids and means of educational activities. She believes that the means of educational activity should be considered in three levels: firstly, these are the intellectual actions underlying the cognitive and research function of educational activity: analysis, synthesis, classification, generalization, etc., without which no mental activity is possible; secondly, these are symbolic, linguistic, verbal means, in the form of which knowledge is acquired, reflected and individual experience is produced; thirdly, this is background knowledge, through the inclusion of new knowledge into which individual experience, the student’s thesaurus, is structured.

E.A. Klimov believes that means can be not only material, but also procedural and functional. Classification by E.A. Klimova takes into account the specifics of future professional activity and looks like this:

• - material means of cognition (devices, machines);
• - material means of influence used in social, natural and technical systems;
• - functional external means inherent to the subject;
• - functional internal means of labor (non-verbal and verbal-logical).

A.F. Menyaev, defining teaching aids as material and ideal objects that are used by the teacher and students to acquire new knowledge, gives the following classification on various grounds:

• - by subject of activity;
• - according to the composition of the objects of their functions in the educational process;
• - in relation to educational information.

These are the most well-known approaches to the classification of teaching aids in the theory of pedagogy. Some of them are only indicated, others are accompanied by characteristics, description and analysis, but the vast majority of them have not yet been fully disclosed.

Apparently, this explains the fact that the following teaching aids are traditionally used in the educational process:

• a) ideal: linguistic sign systems used in oral and written speech; works of art and other cultural achievements (painting, music, literature); visual aids (diagrams, drawings, drawings, diagrams, photos, etc.), educational computer programs; organizing and coordinating activities of the teacher; forms of educational activities in the classroom;
• b) material: individual texts from textbooks, manuals and books, individual tasks, exercises, tasks from textbooks, problem books, didactic materials; text material; visual aids (objects, working models, exhibits); technical training aids; laboratory equipment.

Material and ideal means do not oppose, but complement each other. The influence of all teaching aids on the quality of students’ knowledge is multifaceted: material means are associated mainly with arousing interest and attention, carrying out practical actions, and mastering significant new knowledge; ideal means - with understanding of the material, logic of reasoning, memorization, speech culture, development of intelligence.

There are no clear boundaries between the spheres of influence of material and ideal means: often they collectively influence the development of certain personality traits of students.

Edgar Dale in 1969 identified the most effective ways of learning.

Edgar Dale concluded that:
- listening to lectures on a topic or reading materials on a subject is the least effective way to learn something;
— teaching others and using the material you learn in your own life is the most effective way to learn something.

Edgar Dale taught students the same educational material, but in different ways. And then he analyzed their ability to recall the learned information after completing the training.

Although the cone is indeed based on Dale's research, the percentages were not calculated by Dale, but by his followers as a result of their own research.

Even though the much-acclaimed Cone of Learning does not contain precise data, it is a guide to the most effective learning techniques the human brain can comprehend.

The cone of learning clearly explains why parts of a movie are remembered better than reading a book on the same topic. The film uses audio and visual aspects that the human brain is more prone to remember.

How to effectively study and remember any topic:
Give lectures
While listening to lectures is one of the worst ways to learn material, lecturing on your topic (as a teacher) is one of the most effective.

Write articles
If you have a blog or web page, you can compile articles on your topic.

Create video programs
Even if you don’t have your own blog or web page, there are now a lot of video portals, for example, Youtube, where you can upload your video materials for free viewing. This is a very effective method, since you are preparing lecture material that is accessible not to a narrow circle of lecture listeners, but to a potential global audience.

Discuss with friends
One of the simplest and most accessible technical techniques is communication with people in your social circle. At any appropriate moment, bring up a topic that interests you for discussion and convey to your friends all the wealth of knowledge you have on this topic. The more people you discuss it with, the more likely you are to remember this material in the future. In addition, there are literally hundreds of ways to conduct such discussions online, taking part in interest forums, chat rooms or on social networks.

Do it yourself
Whatever you teach others, you must be sure that you do it yourself.

Just remember that the data given in the Cone of Learning is not dogma. Everyone may have their own approach to learning.

Here I will put together some practical tips (most of them tested from personal experience), backed by scientific facts, that will help make the learning process effective. It can be used both for self-study and for teaching someone else. If you are studying somewhere, check how many of the listed points are actually applied in the educational process - this will help you correctly evaluate the effectiveness of your educational process and change anything in it so that it meets your needs.

1. Strive to ensure that information gets into long-term memory.
When new information comes to us through certain sensors, it is first loaded into instant memory, in which the data can be stored, if my memory serves me correctly, for up to 1 minute. An example here would be the phone number for ordering a pizza, which we remember only for the duration of the dialing.

Further, if the information is of any interest, it ends up in short-term memory, which can remain in it for no more than a day. An example here is the preparation of a typical Russian student for an exam - he learns the material overnight, passes the exam and then forgets most of the subject. Some, therefore, say that as a positive aspect of studying at a university, it teaches you to assimilate a large amount of information in a short time. In reality, this is not what you should strive for. In order for information to be used and to build judgments and conclusions based on it, it is necessary that it enters long-term memory and acquires various neural connections (that is, it is connected with other information learned earlier or later). By the way, the more such connections there are, the faster the brain finds its way to such information.

It follows from this point that various tests and examinations of students should not be carried out the next day after the submission of new material. You also shouldn't warn them about the upcoming test if you want to test long-term memory (i.e., you don't want students to review the material before the test).

2. Try to find meaning and meaning for new information.
When the brain receives new information, it decides whether or not to store it into long-term memory based on the number of existing neural connections that relate to that information. Under meaning refers to previously acquired information, meaning- something that can have an impact on a person in the future. For example: a designer reads on LJ that Artemy Lebedev has banned smoking in his studio. Because the designer is not a smoker, but knows who Tyoma is, then the new information contains meaning, but lacks meaning. If the designer were a smoker, then there would be meaning and significance for him, and the information would have a much greater chance of getting into long-term memory.

3. The first third of the lesson is the most effective for learning new knowledge.
Any activity, be it a lecture, lesson or seminar, has so-called prime times and down times. During prime time, any information is absorbed best, so you should not check your homework, ask questions, express false hypotheses, etc. at this time. - all information, even if it is incorrect, will be learned. The best option for prime time is to present new information clearly. If necessary, all issues can be discussed later.

Prime times occur at the beginning and end of the lesson and constitute approximately 1/3 of the total lesson time. Moreover, the share of prime time is inversely proportional to the duration of the lesson - the most optimal duration is considered to be a lesson of 20-30 minutes. Secondly, the second prime time (at the end of the lesson) should summarize and review what has been learned in order to consolidate the material.

In downtime, when the brain practically does not absorb information, you should change your activity - discuss what you have learned, exchange opinions, check your homework, etc.

4. Sleep is an important part of the learning process.
Regular and sufficient (at least 7.5 hours) sleep is required for the assimilation of new information and its further processing. When we sleep, the brain continues to access the same areas and neurons that were used when it first received information. According to one assumption, this becomes possible by turning off (or reducing sensitivity) the corresponding sensors (eyes closed, hearing disabled, etc.). By working with these areas, the brain reorganizes them and strengthens neural connections. In this way, not only does access to new information become easier, but it is also processed and new solutions to problems are found. The experiments confirmed that people who had had enough sleep remembered new material from the previous day much better and were more effective in finding solutions to new problems.

5. Learn new material only when necessary.
I most accurately defined this point for myself in English: learn on demand (I don’t know if anyone has used such a term). It means that in order to assimilate the material as effectively as possible, you need a practical problem that you are interested in solving. Moreover, not something like “solve a quadratic equation”, which is usually offered in school, but precisely a problem that needs to be solved to you in the real world. At first glance, it may seem that such tasks cannot always be selected, because Some knowledge is too "low level" (like knowing the alphabet), but that's not really the case. It’s just that lower-level knowledge requires less important tasks and imagination, that’s all.

If you're afraid that you're missing out on something by studying this way, ask yourself: How much time would you spend studying material that you don't currently need or want to learn? And this is instead of already solving, albeit not a large, but very specific task and, thus, motivating yourself to study further.

6. Change the environment and stimulate the emergence of emotions.
The brain responds most effectively to changes, so new material is remembered successfully if something around changes. I bet most of you don’t remember where you were and what you were doing on September 10, 2001, but everyone remembers perfectly well what they were doing on September 11 of the same year. Of course, the example should not be taken literally, but even small positive changes in the environment where training takes place will contribute to increased effectiveness.

If it is an audience with a certain number of students - sometimes invite other lecturers or interesting personalities to give all or part of the lecture, show up to the lecture in shorts or a striped swimsuit - I can bet that your students will remember this lecture for the rest of their lives. The idea, I think, is clear.

If you study on your own (for example, read a manual or a book) - having reached the knowledge you need, play a pleasant song, eat a chocolate bar, do 20 push-ups, call a friend and share your joy, watch porn, pinch yourself for something - all this can play a role to your advantage.

Additionally, monitor natural conditions in the learning environment. Too high a temperature, dehydration of the body and extraneous noise greatly weaken the brain’s ability to perceive information. Moderate sunlight and oxygen, on the contrary, add confidence to the brain.

7. Avoid carrots and sticks.
Too many carrots, like too many sticks, can completely destroy the brain's ability to learn anything. Trying to learn material in order to pass an exam and not end up in the army is just an example of improper stimulation of the brain due to some kind of threat. For the learning process to be effective, teachers should use exams and tests not as a way to weed out people (at best this happens - at worst they either don’t care or are trying to assert themselves), but as a way to identify gaps and weaknesses and try to close them in future. It is especially important that the student understands the meaning of such checks, is not afraid to make mistakes, and prepares correctly for such events (in particular, without resorting to the use of short-term memory).

8. Use the method of obtaining information that suits you best.
Not all people are the same and not everyone prefers to receive information in the same way. Some people learn material better when they read it themselves, some remember speech better, others remember diagrams on the board and pictures. Determine what is most effective for you and try to resort to this method.

Remember that a lecture is one of the most ineffective ways of teaching due to its average length, monotony and, often, the only way to present information (speech).

That's it folks.

An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students.

In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus regarding the role and definition of the concept of “teaching method”. So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that “a teaching method is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems.” T.A. Ilyina understands teaching method as “a way of organizing students’ cognitive activity.”

• In the history of didactics, various classifications of teaching methods have developed, the most common of which are:

  by external signs of the activity of the teacher and students:

  briefing;

  demonstration;

  exercises;

problem solving;

• working with a book;

  by source of knowledge:

  • verbal;

    visual:

    demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;

use of technical means;

• watching films and television programs;

  practical:

  practical tasks;

  trainings;

business games;

• analysis and resolution of conflict situations, etc.;

  according to the degree of activity of students’ cognitive activity:

  explanatory;

  illustrative;

  problem;

partial search;

• research;

  according to the logic of the approach:

  inductive;

  deductive;

analytical;

synthetic.

Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training depends to a decisive extent on the orientation and internal activity of the students, on the nature of their activity, it is precisely the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:

explanatory and illustrative method;

reproductive method;

problem presentation method;

In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory and illustrative teaching method - a method in which students gain knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a “ready” form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. At universities, this method is widely used for transmitting a large amount of information. Reproductive teaching method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a sample or rule. Here, the activities of the students are algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, regulations, rules in situations similar to those shown in the example. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing a system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students become witnesses and participants in scientific research. This approach has been widely used both in the past and in the present. Partial search , or heuristic, teaching method consists in organizing an active search for solutions to cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated) either under the guidance of a teacher or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The thinking process becomes productive, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves based on work on programs (including computer ones) and textbooks. Research method of teaching - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and brief oral or written instructions, students independently study literature, sources, make observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, and creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Techniques and teaching aids

In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing the educational and cognitive activities of students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and tools. Wherein reception of training acts only as an element, an integral part of the teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out the teaching effect (educational process).

Pedagogical tools did not immediately become an obligatory component of the pedagogical process. For a long time, traditional teaching methods were based on the word, but “the era of chalk and conversation is over,” due to the growth of information and the technologization of society, there is a need to use other means of teaching, for example technical ones. Pedagogical means include:

educational and laboratory equipment;

training and production equipment;

didactic technology;

educational visual aids;

technical training aids and automated training systems;

computer classes;

organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam papers, task cards, teaching aids, etc.).

Classification of teaching methods

In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional formation”, has many characteristics, they act as the basis for classifications. Different authors use different bases for classifying teaching methods. K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, work activities, etc.) .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the entire arsenal of methods for organizing and carrying out educational activities is used for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation to learn), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didactician L. Klingberg. a) Monologue methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogical methods: – conversations. 9. Classification of methods by K. Sosnicki (Poland) assumes the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: a) methods of acquiring knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature (conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book); b) methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, called problem-based, based on creative cognitive activity in the process of solving problems: - the classic problem-based method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: the creation of a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; organizing and applying the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the chance method (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on the consideration by a small group of students of a description of a case: students formulate questions to explain this case, search for an answer, a number of possible solutions, compare solutions, detect errors in reasoning, etc. ; - the situational method is based on introducing students into a difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, anticipate the consequences of this decision, and find other possible solutions; - a bank of ideas is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, testing, evaluation and selection of the right ideas; - micro-teaching - a method of creative teaching of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; For example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in the educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect for accepted norms, promotes cooperation, accustoms both winning and losing. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they are not widely used in Polish schools); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting methods with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for implementing creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us and create new forms: they are associated with the performance of various types of work (for example, wood, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics and etc.), development of work models (drawings), formation of approaches to solutions and selection of the best options, construction of a model and testing of its functioning, design of specified parameters, individual and group assessment of task completion. The basis for this typology of methods is V. Okon’s idea of ​​​​the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely to understand the structure of reality, the way of the natural world around us, society, and culture. Structural thinking is the kind of thinking that combines the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is connected with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student’s mind - from the simplest structures of the most general nature to complex ones. Understanding the basic structures that take place in living and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of connections between them.” 11. Based on the fact that the holistic pedagogical process is ensured by a unified classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B.T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications as if constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the material being studied and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, “influence on the formation of children’s consciousness, internal motives” and behavioral incentives. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational-cognitive process (methods of the perception stage - primary assimilation; methods of the assimilation-reproduction stage; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. To the number of named classifications of teaching methods one could add two or three more. All of them are not without shortcomings, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and there cannot be. The learning process is a dynamic construct, this should be understood. In the living pedagogical process, methods develop and take on new properties. Uniting them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, since this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve a high degree of adequacy to the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, while others occupy a subordinate position. Some methods provide solutions to educational problems to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. We also note that failure to include at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition of the drug (this reduces or completely changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, nurturing, stimulating (motivational), control and correction functions. Knowledge of the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.

"Modern teaching methods"

Plan

1. Teaching methods: concept, essence, classification.

1. Teaching methods: concept, essence, classification.

The Federal State Educational Standard (hereinafter referred to as the Federal State Educational Standard) has significantly changed the vector of education, giving priority to the student’s activities.

• connection with the change in the direction, goals and objectives of training and education, the methods of constructing a lesson and the content of the educational process must also change. However, the role of traditional teaching methods and techniques should not be downplayed.

Teaching method is a very complex and ambiguous concept. Until now, scientists have not come to a common understanding and interpretation of the essence of this pedagogical category. Despite the different definitions, something in common can be noted that brings points of view together. The point is that recently most authors are inclined to consider the teaching method as

way of organizing educational and cognitive activities of students.

I.F. Kharlamov, along with organizing the educational activities of students, singles out the teaching work of the teacher in his methods and puts the teacher’s activities in first place. In his opinion, the teaching method organically includes the teaching work of the teacher (presentation, explanation of the material being studied) and the organization of active educational and cognitive activity of students.

Other authors rightly note that the methods of teaching activities of the teacher (teaching) and the methods of educational activities of students (learning) are closely related to each other. In their opinion, the method in the learning process acts as a way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain pedagogical goals. Highlighting this relationship, Yu.K. Babansky gave the following definition: “The teaching method is the method of orderly interconnected activity of the teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems.”

A definition has become widespread, which not only highlights the relationship between the activities of the teacher and the student, but emphasizes equality and

the equivalence of both parties in organized activities. So, according to N.V. Savina, “teaching methods are ways of joint activity between teacher and students aimed at solving learning problems.”

The fourth group of authors believes that both the teaching activities of the teacher in organizing and supporting the educational activities of students, and the joint activities of the teacher and students themselves are only means in teaching. The main task of the teacher is

• to include the student in the educational process and help organize learning activities. That is why T. A. Ilyina considers the teaching method as “a way of organizing the cognitive activity of students.”

Thus, teaching methods are ways of organizing the student’s educational and cognitive activity with predetermined tasks, levels of cognitive activity, learning activities and expected results to achieve didactic teaching.

ical goals.

There are also various classifications of teaching methods, the diversity of which depends on the principle of classification (Table 1).

1. Traditional and modern teaching methods.

The most popular teaching methods used in the educational process, as well as their main characteristics, are included in Table 2.

1. Specifics of modern teaching methods.

Thus, as part of the implementation of the Federal State Educational Standard, the following teaching methods can be used. Passive, when the teacher dominates and the students are passive. Such methods within the framework of the Federal State Educational Standard are recognized as the least effective, although they are used in individual educational lessons. The most common technique of passive methods is a lecture. Active methods, in which the teacher and student act as equal participants in the lesson, have

vector teacher student. Interactive methods are recognized as the most effective, in which students interact not only with the teacher, but also with each other. Vector: teacher student student.

Within the framework of the Federal State Educational Standard, it is proposed to use active and interactive methods, as more effective and efficient, including:

Case method. A situation is specified (real or as close to reality as possible). Students must explore the situation, propose options for resolving it, and choose the best possible solutions.

The project method involves independent analysis of a given situation and the ability to find a solution to the problem. The project method combines research, search, creative methods and teaching techniques according to the Federal State Educational Standard.

The problem-based method involves posing a problem (problem situation, problematic issue) and searching for solutions to this problem through the analysis of similar situations (issues, phenomena).

The method of developing critical thinking through reading and writing is a method aimed at developing critical (independent, creative, logical) thinking.

The heuristic method combines a variety of gaming techniques in the form of competitions, business and role-playing games, competitions, and research.

The research method has something in common with the problem-based teaching method. Only here the teacher himself formulates the problem. The students’ task is to organize research work to study the problem.

Modular teaching method - the training content is distributed into didactic blocks-modules. The size of each module is determined by the topic, learning goals, profile differentiation of students, and their choice.

We invite you to get acquainted with a group of interesting proprietary methods that can be used both in elementary school and at other levels of education.

The method of advanced learning, developed by S. N. Lysenkova, has been producing positive results in elementary school for many years. One of its most important components is commentary management, which is an important point in organizing students’ work in the classroom. “Teaching children to think out loud” is one of the principles of S.N.’s lessons. Lysenkova and one of the feedback elements. The activities of the class during the lesson are led not only by the teacher, but also by the student, thinking out loud and leading the whole class. Commented control begins from the first day of school, from the first steps (writing elements of letters, numbers, pronouncing words, solving simple examples, problems). A clear rhythm, brief description, and argumentation of elements when commenting ensure that every student in the class can complete the task. The term “lead” was included in the lesson instead of the traditional and very scary for little ones “answer.”

Another important factor in the proactive teaching method is the teacher's use of scaffolding. The diagram is the support of the student’s thoughts, his practical activities, the connecting link between the teacher and the student. Supporting diagrams are conclusions drawn up in the form of tables, cards, typesetting, drawings, drawings, which are born at the moment of explanation. Supporting diagrams differ from traditional visualization, being supports of thought and action.

Another point of the advanced learning method is the implementation of the principle of prospective learning. The material for advanced preparation is taken from the textbook, and additional micro-exercises are used that specify and develop the topic.

The study of difficult topics is carried out in three stages sequentially, from simple to complex with all the necessary transitions, and ends with the development of the skill of practical action. So, at the first stage there is an acquaintance with new concepts and the disclosure of the topic. On the basis of supporting schemes, evidentiary speech is developed, various exercises are performed using commented control. At this stage, as a rule, strong students show activity. At the second stage, concepts are clarified and material on the topic is summarized. Children navigate the generalization scheme, master proofs, and successfully complete tasks that are offered as independent tasks for the first time at this time. It is at this stage that advance occurs. The third stage uses the saved time. During this period, supporting patterns are removed, the skill of practical action is formed, and the opportunity for further perspective appears.

• The micro-discovery method developed by E. S. Sinitsyn is based on a heuristic conversation script. The next microproblem is put forward in front of the class or audience, formulated in the form of a question that students are asked to answer.

The difficulty of the question is carefully measured in compliance with the wave principle - easy questions are replaced by questions of medium difficulty, and the latter by very difficult ones. Easy questions contain more leading information than questions of average difficulty; difficult questions contain even less. In order to correctly answer a difficult question, the student must mobilize all his creative potential. The main condition is compliance with the interconnection of neighboring issues, i.e. each subsequent question must take into account not only the content of the previous one, but also those questions and answers that formed the essence of the dialogue much earlier. When using this teaching method, new knowledge is formed as a set of small discoveries made by the student himself, and the teaching technology consists of directing all these small discoveries. The micro-discovery method harmoniously combines all methods of inventive creativity: brainstorming, collective discussion, synectics and inducing psycho-intellectual activity.

The synectics method is based on the use of analogies and associations to find the required solution. Method of intensifying psycho-intellectual activity

is intended to have an emotional impact on the group with the help of certain techniques of the presenter: his charm, artistry and the “sporting” form of his logic. A teacher who uses the oral technology of the micro-discovery method in his activities expresses two functions. On the one hand, he acts as a brainstorming conductor, on the other, as an improviser.

Thus, the arsenal of traditional and modern teaching methods is very large, which provides the teacher with ample opportunities to achieve the goals of the educational process.