In political vocabulary, the concept of conservatism has long been used with a negative connotation. It served, as a rule, to denote an inert adherence to everything that is unchangeable, outdated in public life and was defined only as a reactionary trend in politics, but recently it has been characterized by a steady interest in this political trend, a desire to rethink its ideological principles. This interest is connected, first of all, with the fact that the 80s were triumphant for political parties of a conservative orientation in all leading Western countries. The interest in conservatism for our socio-political science is also associated with the process of breaking the old paradigm and searching for a new one. It must be assumed that this process will lead to a rethinking of the tradition of the hierarchy of various ideological and political values that developed in previous years.
There are various definitions of political conservatism in the literature. In its most general form, it can be interpreted as a socio-political movement focused on preserving and strengthening existing forms of economic, social and political life, traditional spiritual values, the denial of revolutionary changes, distrust of popular movements, and a critical and negative attitude towards reformist projects. This socio-political orientation is inherent both in fairly broad social groups, organized political forces, and in individuals in a wide variety of countries.
All researchers of conservatism agree that this current of socio-political thought was formed after the Great French Revolution as a result of a critical assessment of its experience and results. Its fundamental postulates were born as a response, a reaction to the first experience of the French revolutionaries implementing the ideas of the Enlightenment. Of course, conservative thought did not remain unchanged; over 200 years it has undergone significant evolution, adapting to a changing world.
Conservatism is an ideology aimed at consciously maintaining identity and preserving the living continuity of evolutionary development.
Conservatism- ideological commitment to traditional values and orders, social or religious doctrines. The main value is the preservation of the traditions of society, its institutions and values. Conservatives in domestic policy emphasize the value of the existing state and social order and reject radical reforms, which they regard as extremism. In foreign policy Conservatives rely on strengthening security, allow the use of military force, try to support traditional allies, and defend protectionism in foreign economic relations.
Conservatism is a set of socio-philosophical ideas, as well as economic, political, and other values and ideals, which, revealing the nature of society, the state and the place of the individual in them, are focused on preserving established traditions and a cautious attitude towards radical changes. Conservatism as an ideology does not always coincide with the programs of political parties that call themselves conservative.
The most important feature of conservative ideology is that it is focused on protecting the existing foundations of social life and has a negative attitude towards popular movements and revolutionary changes. Conservatism is based on the priority of continuity over innovation, on the recognition of the inviolability of the established order naturally, as well as the paramount importance in the life of society of morality, family, religion and property.
The conservative reaction to change can be very different: it is open opposition, based on the idea of the modern model of society as justice for all times, and a reactionary focus on restoring the social order that existed in an earlier period. Conservatism does not recognize one once and for all chosen form of social order, paying attention mainly to the nature of changes and insisting that they should only be gradual, evolutionary.
Its characteristic feature is opposition to certain types of reforms, especially those that proceed from abstract ideas, and not from the objective course of development of activity. Ideologically, conservatism can take various shapes.
The following basic principles and position of the ideology of conservatism are highlighted:
- § The principle of the established order of things as the law of prescription (E. Burke). According to this principle, society is a product of natural historical development, and its institutions are not an artificial invention, because embody the wisdom of their ancestors.
- § The basis of society is religion, because Man is a religious being.
- § The basis of human behavior is experience, habits, prejudices, and not abstract theories, because Man is an instinctive, sensual and rational being.
- § Society (community of people) is a form of protection of a person from himself and therefore it should be valued above the individual, and human rights are a consequence of his duties.
- § The principle of anti-ethalitarianism, according to which people are not equal by nature and therefore differences, hierarchy and the right of those more worthy to rule over others are inevitable in society. The ideology of conservatism recognizes the equality of people only in the sphere of morality and ethics, relations before God and divine justice. Conservatism is consistent anti-ethalitarianism. This is justified by the fact that the social hierarchy, i.e. inequality of people is a necessary basis for order and social stability. People are not equal in their abilities, and the attitude of hierarchy is directed against the power of the inferior.
- § The principle of stability and immutability of the social system, according to which the existing social system must be protected, because attempts to radically change it, improve it, for example, eliminate existing evil, lead to even greater evil. According to this principle, there is a presumption in favor of any established system of government, against any unused project.
- § The principle of moral absolutism, according to which there are eternal and unshakable moral ideals and values, since human nature is unchangeable.
- § According to the principle of meritocracy, formulated by E. Burke, power should belong to the natural aristocracy, i.e. the most gifted, worthy people, people from different backgrounds social groups.
- § The principle of regionalism, according to which it is necessary to focus on local, regional, national values and traditions. Hence the importance of the ideas of local self-government.
Modern conservatism, which accepts political democracy, adheres not so much to the orientations of anti-etalitarianism, but rather to elitist democracy, which provides mechanisms for a professional political elite and the power of the worthy. At the same time, this ideology is characterized by a negative attitude towards the politicization of the property of wide public highways as a trend of the twentieth century, leading to the destabilization of society.
Conservatism as a socio-political phenomenon and ideology has undoubted political features and positive social significance, therefore, can and should be present within reasonable limits in the political life of every country. Without a conservative principle, it is impossible to ensure the stability of society and its evolutionary development. Conservatism defends and affirms many of the values that are necessary for society and any decent person. Very attractive in conservatism is the sacred respect for historically established traditions, customs, moral standards and ideals, as well as discretion. A balanced attitude towards all innovations and arbitrary transformations. Natural healthy and moderate conservatism is persistently present in the character of the Belarusian people, our national mentality.
Conservatism– an ideological and political doctrine and movement focused on preserving and maintaining historically established forms of state and social life, in particular, its value principles embodied in the family, nation, religion, and property. The ideological basis of conservatism was historically formed as an antipode to the idea of the Enlightenment and was based on the idea of E. Burke about the unnaturalness of the conscious reorganization of society. This approach gave preference to the ideas of continuity, tradition, and aristocracy over the values of freedom, democracy and progress.
Basic principles of conservatism: society is a system of norms, customs, traditions of institutions rooted in history; a really existing institution is preferable to any theoretical scheme; orientation towards state authority; pessimism in assessing human nature, skepticism regarding the human mind; private property– guarantor of personal freedom and social order; disbelief in the possibility of social equality between people.
The main political views of conservatism: the idea of tradition, which determines the social existence of the individual; the idea of national greatness; the idea of social inequality and political competition; the idea of refusing active political intervention in public life; disdain for parliamentarism and elected institutions of government.
Conservatism arose in late XVIII century as a reaction to the French Enlightenment and the Great French Revolution. Conservative ideology was a response to the challenge of liberalism and radicalism. Since conservatism arises precisely as a contrast to liberal views on human nature, freedom, equality and fraternity, it is not considered an independent, “pure” ideology. Conservatism is interpreted as a phenomenon accompanying liberalism. This birth of conservatism did not prevent it from turning into a fairly coherent system of views, which has undergone significant evolution, adapting to the modern world.
The intellectual conservative tradition was developed by the Englishman E. Burke (1729–1797) and the French J. de Maistre (1754–1821). L. de Bonald (1754 – 1840). They became the founders of the traditional conservative movement, which was distinguished by its rejection of the nihilistic nature of the French Revolution of the 18th century, bourgeois democracy and individual freedom. The “founding fathers” of the political ideology of conservatism expressed the interests of the aristocracy, those layers that capitalism deprived of a stable social status and class privileges.
To the optimistic view of liberals on human nature, whose mind and will are able to transform society on the basis of freedom, conservatives countered the idea of the original imperfection of human nature, due to which wonderful projects radical reconstruction of society are doomed to failure, since they violate the established order for centuries. Conservatives believed that the true “nature” of man is completely alien to the concept of “freedom.” Only concrete historical freedoms, obtained by ancestors, verified by traditions and accepted as historical heritage, have meaning.
The most important principle of conservative ideology is moral absolutism, the recognition of the existence of unshakable moral ideals and values. These moral ideals and personal values must be formed by all means of social and government influence and curb the “sinful” nature of man. Politics in this sense also cannot be free from morality.
Another important principle of conservatism is traditionalism. Traditional principles are, according to theorists of conservatism, the foundation of any healthy society. Social reforms must be based on the spiritual traditions and values created by all previous generations. E. Burke believed that in any society there is solidarity between generations. Every political figure A decision-maker must do so responsibly not only to his contemporaries, but also to his ancestors and descendants. E. Burke demonstratively contrasted the constructive rationalism of liberals with an apology for “prejudices.” It is in “ordinary prejudices”, in tradition, that wisdom inherited from ancestors is accumulated and the collective mind, including political intelligence, is reflected.
The traditionalism of conservative ideology is closely related to political realism. A doctrinaire approach is alien to conservatism. Political practice, as conservatives believe, should not be based on bare theoretical schemes. Reforms that are carried out in society should not be designed for an abstract person, but for real people, flesh and blood, whose lifestyle and established habits cannot be suddenly changed without great misfortunes. Conservatism returned a sense of historicity to political thought, defended, in turbulent revolutionary times, the continuity of historical development and the preservation of useful parts of the “old public building”, instead of the invention of abstract structures.
Neoconservatism. The objective basis for the emergence of neoconservatism was the structural crisis of the capitalist economy. Previous means used to overcome crisis situations and justified by the ideology of liberal reformism turned out to be insufficient. More radical means were required. The belief that scientific and technological progress, by virtue of its rational mechanism, will resolve social problems. It turned out that in order to stabilize society, strong moral reinforcement and additional means of legitimation were needed. Neoconservatism was a response to the “challenge” of the crisis state of scientific and technological civilization and the weakening of its spiritual and moral foundations. It has proven to be more effective than other ideologies. Neoconservative ideology more strongly stimulated individual achievement, and neoconservative policies found sufficient effective means solutions to economic and social problems.
In terms of worldview, neoconservatism advocates the priority of the principle of freedom over the principle of equality. Equality is possible only as equality of opportunity, but not as equality of conditions and results. Social order is realized primarily through social hierarchy, which arises organically, naturally. While defending the idea of freedom and human rights, neoconservatism focuses on a person’s responsibilities to himself and to society. Human rights only in combination with awareness of responsibilities and a developed sense of duty ennoble the individual.
In the economic field, neoconservatism advocates limiting government intervention in the market economy. The state is obliged to promote private initiative, and not stifle it. This assistance is possible through the provision of tax incentives, stimulation of private investment and market supply. Being opponents of patronage regulation of the economy, neoconservatives rely on personal initiative, personal interest, personal opportunities and personal responsibility.
The social policy of the neoconservatives is closely related to the economic policy. Three basic principles form the essence of neoconservative social doctrine: the principle of solidarity, based on the idea of the unity of labor and capital; the principle of justice, i.e. “fair distribution of income and property”, “fair wages”, “fair tax policy” and others; the principle of subsidiarity - assistance and assistance to private initiative. In accordance with these principles, individuals and small communities should solve their own socio-economic problems themselves, and entrust to the state only those issues that cannot be solved in a similar way. The essence of the socio-economic policy of the neoconservatives is to create conditions that allow workers to save, acquire property, gain financial independence and independence from state “social care”.
Neoconservatives believe that social benefits should be provided free of charge to those who need them and are not able to provide for themselves. All other citizens must pay for all the services that they need and use, but receive them in the form and quality that they desire and that their material wealth allows.
In the political sphere, neoconservatives are faithful to the old conservative tradition - democracy must be vertical, elitist. Political activity is not a privilege or a monopoly of one social group, but a profession available to everyone, but only if he has the appropriate abilities, vocation and special education. Everyone can and even should be interested in politics, since it concerns everyone, and everyone can participate in the political life of the country in one way or another, but only professionals should be politicians and work in politics in order to rid political decisions of amateurism, and politics itself from ochlocratic tendencies.
Neoconservatism absorbed the principles of classical liberalism, primarily the principle of individual freedom, but managed to link them with traditional values, such as religion, family, law and order, decentralization and self-government, and ethnocultural diversity. Thanks to this, society remains stable and ensures continuity of development, the connection of the past with the future.
Conservatism arose at the end of the 18th century as a reaction to the French Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Conservative ideology was a response to the challenge of liberalism and radicalism. Since conservatism arises precisely as a contrast to liberal views on human nature, freedom, equality and fraternity, it is not considered an independent, “pure” ideology. This birth of conservatism did not prevent it from turning into a fairly coherent system of views, which has undergone significant evolution, adapting to the modern world.
The intellectual conservative tradition was developed by the Englishman E. Burke (1729-1797) and the French J. de Maistre (1754-1821). L. de Bonald (1754-1840). They became the founders of the traditional conservative movement, which was distinguished by its rejection of the nihilistic nature of the French Revolution of the 18th century, bourgeois democracy and individual freedom. The “founding fathers” of the political ideology of conservatism expressed the interests of the aristocracy, those layers that capitalism deprived of a stable social status and class privileges.
To the optimistic view of liberals on the nature of man, whose mind and will are able to transform society on the basis of freedom, conservatives opposed the idea of the inherent imperfection of human nature, due to which excellent projects for the radical reorganization of society are doomed to failure, since they violate the established order for centuries. Conservatives believed that the true “nature” of man is completely alien to the concept of “freedom.” Only concrete historical freedoms, obtained by ancestors, verified by traditions and accepted as historical heritage, have meaning.
The most important principle of conservative ideology is moral absolutism, recognition of the existence of unshakable moral ideals and values. These moral ideals and personal values must be formed by all means of social and government influence and curb the “sinful” nature of man. Politics in this sense also cannot be free from morality.
Another important principle of conservatism is traditionalism. Traditional principles are, according to theorists of conservatism, the foundation of any healthy society. Social reforms must be based on the spiritual traditions and values created by all previous generations. E. Burke believed that in any society there is solidarity between generations. Every political figure who makes decisions must do so responsibly not only to his contemporaries, but also to his ancestors and descendants.
The traditionalism of conservative ideology is closely connected with political realism. The reforms that are carried out in society should not be designed for an abstract person, but for real people of flesh and blood, whose lifestyle and established habits cannot be suddenly changed without great misfortunes.
Conservatism, especially modern conservatism, has a positive attitude towards the idea of equality of people before God. Equality exists in the field of morality and virtue, perhaps even political equality. But all forms of conservative ideology do not accept social equality, are anti-egalitarian. No society is conceivable without hierarchy and, therefore, inequality. This is precisely the basis of the order corresponding to “nature”. Egalitarianism destroys the social hierarchy on which social stability is based. At the same time, anti-egalitarianism does not mean that conservatives advocate a rigid pyramidal structure of society. Social mobility vertically and horizontally is important for social development. Back at the end of the 18th century, E. Burke formulated principle of meritocracy, according to which power should be in the hands of worthy people, people from various social groups. Having accepted political democracy over time, conservatives became supporters of elitist democracy, when the democratic mechanism makes it possible to form a professional political elite and promote worthy people to power. What is worthy is worthy - this is the principle of conservatives in relation to social status personality.
Conservative ideology has a negative attitude towards the tendency to politicize people, which became especially clear in the 20th century. Private interests are more important to a person than politics. Politics is the sphere of activity of political elites. The participation of the masses in political life must be limited and controlled.
Conservatism is characteristic focus on local, regional, national values. Society is not scattered into separate grains of sand of individuals, but is focused on the general, the whole, on “we”. It is concentrated primarily at the local level: in the family, community, parish, craft corporation, local government institutions. The social “we” at the local level is a natural source of stability, education, preservation of traditions, and the formation of patriotism.
Conservatism in the 19th century gradually turns into a modification of ideology that accepts some of the values of liberalism, primarily political. The bourgeoisie, having survived revolutions and won political power, also sought support in new socio-political ideas. Particular attention in conservatism was drawn to the desire for the unity of society, to means of strengthening the authority of power, to hierarchy, and to emphasizing the connecting role of spiritual values.
In the 20th century, conservative theories developed under the significant influence of classical liberalism. In the United States, so-called market conservatism arose, which viewed trends towards state regulation of the economy as a dangerous break with the liberal traditions of Western civilization, as a “road to slavery” and totalitarianism.
Until the 70s of the 20th century, conservatism occupied a peripheral position and was on the defensive in relation to liberal reformism and social democratic theories. The rise of conservatism began in the second half of the 70s and especially from the beginning of the 80s, when political forces that adopted the ideology of conservatism came to power in many Western countries.
The objective basis for the appearance neoconservatism there was a structural crisis in the capitalist economy. Previous means used to overcome crisis situations and justified by the ideology of liberal reformism turned out to be insufficient. More radical means were required. The belief that scientific and technological progress, by virtue of its rational mechanism, will solve social problems has collapsed. It turned out that in order to stabilize society, strong moral reinforcement and additional means of legitimation were needed. Neoconservatism was a response to the “challenge” of the crisis state of scientific and technological civilization and the weakening of its spiritual and moral foundations. It has proven to be more effective than other ideologies. Neoconservative ideology more strongly stimulated individual achievements, and neoconservative policies found fairly effective means of solving economic and social problems.
In terms of worldview, neoconservatism advocates the priority of the principle of freedom over the principle of equality. Equality is possible only as equality of opportunity, but not as equality of conditions and results. Social order is realized, first of all, through the social hierarchy, which arises organically, naturally. While defending the idea of freedom and human rights, neoconservatism focuses on a person’s responsibilities to himself and to society. Human rights only in combination with awareness of responsibilities and a developed sense of duty ennoble the individual.
In the economic field, neoconservatism advocates limiting government intervention in the market economy. The state is obliged to promote private initiative, and not stifle it. This assistance is possible through the provision of tax incentives, stimulation of private investment and market supply. Being opponents of patronage regulation of the economy, neoconservatives rely on the personal factor: personal initiative, personal interest, personal opportunities and personal responsibility - these are the most important and unshakable values of an effectively functioning economy.
The social policy of the neoconservatives is closely related to the economic policy. Three basic principles constitute the essence of neoconservative social doctrine: the principle of solidarity, based on the idea of the unity of labor and capital, the principle of justice, i.e. “fair distribution of income and property”, “fair wages”, “fair tax policy” and others, the principle of subsidiarity - assistance to promote self-help and private initiative. In accordance with these principles, individuals and small communities should solve their own socio-economic problems themselves, and entrust to the state only those issues that cannot be solved in a similar way. The essence of the socio-economic policy of the neoconservatives is to create conditions that allow workers to save, acquire property, gain financial independence and independence from state “social care”.
Neoconservatives believe that social benefits should be provided free of charge to those who need them and are not able to provide for themselves. All other citizens must pay for all the services they need and use, but receive them in the form and quality that they desire and that their material wealth allows.
A social market economy is the formula of the neoconservatives. The social market economy, from the point of view of modern conservatives, is not only the most successful economic form, strengthening and expanding the class of owners. It is also best suited to people: it gives citizens tasks, but does not control them.
In the political sphere, neoconservatives are faithful to the old conservative tradition - democracy must be vertical, elitist. Political activity is not a privilege or a monopoly of one social group, but a profession available to everyone, but only if he has the appropriate abilities, vocation and special education. Everyone can and even should be interested in politics, since it concerns everyone, and everyone can participate in the political life of the country in one way or another, but only professionals should be politicians and work in politics in order to rid political decisions of amateurism, and politics itself from ochlocratic tendencies.
Neoconservatism absorbed the principles of classical liberalism, primarily the principle of individual freedom, but managed to link them with such traditional values as religion, family, law and order, decentralization and self-government, and ethnocultural diversity.
Conservatism (from Latin conservate - preserve, protect) is one of political and ideological currents political thoughts reflecting the commitment of its supporters to preserve the traditions and foundations of the state and society.
Conservatism is focused on preserving and maintaining historically established forms of state and public life, its value principles embodied in religion, family, property, etc.
Conservatism How political ideological the phenomenon initially took shape in the West, or more precisely, in the Anglo-Saxon cultural and historical space.
Basic principles:
- society is a system of norms, customs, traditions, social institutions that must be preserved and developed;
- existing social institutions preferable to any new programs aimed at transforming them;
- distrust of social innovations and complete denial of any revolutionary changes;
- strengthening the universal moral order sanctioned and supported by religion;
- pessimism in assessing human nature, disbelief in the power of reason and the abilities of the individual.
Basic political goals:
- protection of the traditional foundations of social life, the inviolability of established values;
- disdain for parliamentarism and elected institutions of government;
- a decisive rejection of state intervention in the economy, social sphere and private life;
- the idea of national greatness, support for a strong state, where power should belong to the aristocratic elite;
- the main right of an individual is the right to have property and freely dispose of it.
The crisis development of industrial powers in the 20th century caused the emergence diff's
reactionary conservative movements: anti-Semitism, racism, chauvinism, etc.,
cat. rejected the ideas of democracy and advocated social and ethnic
discrimination. New phenomena in economics, social. and watered. life (development
joint-stock television, democratization) contributed to the rapprochement of K. with liberal
ideas ( neoconservatism).
General installation K to preserve traditional values in
post-industrial society, orientation towards the evolutionary nature of changes and careful
attitude towards the established order of things, a sharp rejection of social
shocks and artificial reforms determine his authority and influence in the world.
Political ideology of liberalism.
Liberalism is a political system in which the principle of limited government intervention in social relations is implemented.
Liberal content public relations is manifested in the presence of a system of checks on pressure from political authorities, designed to guarantee individual freedom and ensure the protection of the rights of citizens. The basis of the system is a private enterprise economy, organized on market principles.
The combination of liberal and democratic principles of social relations allows us to distinguish a political system called “ liberal democracy" Modern Western political scientists believe that this concept denotes an ideal that has not yet been realized, therefore they propose to designate the regimes of democratically developed countries with the term “Western polyarchy” (rule of the many). In other political systems it is implemented liberal-authoritarian mode. Basically we're talking about only about the greater or lesser degree of manifestation of authoritarianism in all political systems.
Liberalism and neoliberalism
Liberalism emerged as an independent ideological movement (worldview) at the end of the 17th century. thanks to the works of such scientists as J. Locke, III. Montesquieu, J. Mill, A. Smith and others. The fundamental ideas and guidelines of classical liberalism were formulated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 and the French Constitution of 1791. The very concept of “liberalism” entered the socio-political lexicon at the beginning of the 19th century V. In the Spanish parliament (Cortes), a group of nationalist legate deputies were called “liberals”. Liberalism as an ideology was finally formed by the middle of the 19th century.
At the core liberal ideology lies the concept of the priority of personal rights and freedoms over all others (society, state). At the same time, of all freedoms, preference is given to economic freedoms (freedom of entrepreneurship, priority of private property).
The fundamental features of liberalism are:
§ individual freedom;
§ respect and observance of human rights;
§ freedom of private ownership and entrepreneurship;
§ priority of equality of opportunity over social equality;
§ legal equality of citizens;
§ contractual system of state education (separation of the state from civil society);
§ separation of powers, the idea of free elections of all institutions of power;
§ state non-interference in private life.
However, following the classical model of liberal ideology led to the polarization of society. Unlimited liberalism in economics and politics did not ensure social harmony and justice. Free, unrestricted competition contributed to the absorption of weaker competitors by stronger competitors. Monopolies dominated all sectors of the economy. A similar situation developed in politics. The ideas of liberalism began to experience a crisis. Some researchers even began to talk about the “decline” of liberal ideas.
As a result of lengthy discussions and theoretical searches in the first half of the 20th century. certain basic principles of classical liberalism were revised and an updated concept of “social liberalism” was developed - neoliberalism.
The neoliberal program was based on ideas such as:
§ consensus between managers and managed;
§ the need for mass participation in the political process;
§ democratization of the procedure for making political decisions (the principle of “political justice”);
§ limited government regulation of economic and social spheres;
§ state restrictions on the activities of monopolies;
§ guarantees of certain (limited) social rights (the right to work, to education, to benefits in old age, etc.).
In addition, neoliberalism involves protecting the individual from the abuses and negative consequences of the market system.
The core values of neoliberalism were borrowed by other ideological movements. It is attractive because it serves as the ideological basis for the legal equality of individuals and the rule of law.
Modern liberalism
]Short review(from Wikipedia)
Today, liberalism is one of the leading ideologies in the world. Liberal-democratic political systems include countries as different in culture and level of economic well-being as Finland, Spain, Estonia, Slovenia, Cyprus, Canada, Uruguay or Taiwan. In all these countries, liberal values play a key role in shaping the new goals of society, even despite the gap between ideals and reality.
Due to the fact that in Western Europe and North America most political movements express solidarity with the ideals of political liberalism, the need for a narrower classification arose. Right-wing liberals emphasize classical liberalism, but at the same time object to a number of provisions of social liberalism. They are joined by conservatives who share the political liberal values that have become traditional in these countries, but often condemn individual manifestations of cultural liberalism as contrary to moral standards. It should be noted that historically, conservatism was the ideological antagonist of liberalism, but after the end of World War II and the discredit of authoritarianism, moderate movements began to play a leading role in Western conservatism (liberal conservatism, Christian democracy). In the second half of the 20th century, conservatives were the most active defenders of private property and supporters of privatization.
Actually, “liberals” in the USA are called socialists and leftists in general, while in Western Europe this term refers to libertarians, and left-wing liberals are called social liberals.
Libertarians believe that the government should not interfere with personal life or business activities except to protect the freedom and property of some from the encroachments of others. They support economic and cultural liberalism and oppose social liberalism. Some libertarians believe that in order to implement the rule of law, the state must have sufficient power, others argue that ensuring the rule of law must be carried out by public and private organizations. In foreign policy, libertarians are generally opposed to any military aggression.
Liberal parties most often consider the strengthening of liberal democracy and the rule of law, and the independence of the judicial system to be the main goals of their policies; control over the transparency of government work; protection of civil rights and free competition. At the same time, the presence of the word “liberal” in the name of a party does not in itself allow one to determine whether its supporters are right-wing liberals, social liberals or libertarians.
Social liberal movements are also very diverse. Some movements support sexual freedom, the free sale of weapons or drugs, and the expansion of the functions of private security agencies and the transfer of some of the functions of the police to them. Economic liberals often advocate a flat income tax rate or even replacing the income tax with a capitation tax, the privatization of education, health care and the state pension system, and the transition of science to self-sustaining financing. In many countries liberals are in favor of abolishing death penalty, disarmament, abandonment of nuclear technology, environmental protection.
Conservatism is an ideological and political doctrine and movement focused on preserving and maintaining historically established forms of state and social life, especially its value principles embodied in the family, national characteristics, religion, and property. Conservatism arose at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries not as an ideology of new classes, but as a reaction to the new conditions of classes leaving the historical scene.
The system of views of the founders of conservatism was based on the priority of continuity over innovation, on the recognition of the inviolability of historically established forms of state and public life, embodied in the nation, religion, morality, family, and property. These principles rejected the liberal spirit of individual freedom, which, according to conservatives, destroyed the integrity of the human community.
The most meaningful and important definitions of conservatism were proposed by American political scientists D. Allen and S. Huntington. Thus, D. Allen defines conservatism as a certain system of ideas and values that certain sections of society strive to preserve as opposed to innovation. However, it turned out that since the set of conservative principles changed in different eras, there were only two such principles: rejection of revolution and rejection of any abstract and utopian theories suggesting a radical reorganization of society. These two ideas are common to conservatives of all times: from conservative critics of the Great French Revolution to modern “rightists.” Unlike Allen, S. Huntington proposed to understand conservatism more broadly - not as a set of ideas, but as a desire that arises every time in a situation of change to preserve and strengthen some of the most important institutions and principles of social life (they may be different in different eras).
Conservative political ideology is based on such socio-psychological attitudes as the priority of protective consciousness, the preference of the old to the new in social development, as well as the ideas of public order and socio-political stability, respect for national, historical, cultural and religious traditions.
The main task of conservatism is the protection of specific classes, social strata and states from social and political radicalism arising from the cult of reason and freedom.
The main ideas of classical conservatism boil down to the following:
Society is a system of norms, customs, traditions, institutions rooted in history. If any social phenomenon persists for centuries, despite any social transformations (including revolutionary ones), it has universal human value. Recency is an indicator of this value;
The existing institution is preferable to any theoretical scheme;
Society is a connection between people in space and time, from which no generation is free. Therefore, all innovation is imaginary;
Pessimism in assessing human nature, skepticism regarding the human mind. There is no point in believing that an individual, group, class, nation, generation or society at a certain stage of development is wiser than the entire human race. Such wisdom is contained in the heritage of the past;
Disbelief in the possibility of social equality between people; - private property is the guarantor of personal freedom and social order;
The limited capabilities of the human mind, which predetermines the impossibility of creating a new social system according to a pre-developed plan “from scratch”, without relying on historical traditions and institutions;
Any hasty and radical (revolutionary or forced reform) change in the social order is unreasonable and unnatural;
The inviolability of the established social order, the inviolability of the privileges of the upper strata of society, the inevitability of the presence of a social hierarchy in society, its division into higher and lower (i.e., the class system);
The inviolability of the institutions that underlie the “healthy and natural” social order - family, religion and private property;
Allowing only gradual, evolutionary and non-violent changes in the way of social life and political structure.
The main political ideas of conservatism:
The purpose of politics is to protect the status quo from any attempts by revolutionaries;
The goal of the policy is to develop a reformist type of social change;
The purpose of politics is to search in the past for ideals that are derived from order and continuity as main value, and their propaganda;
The idea of protecting family, religion and national greatness;
Disregard for parliamentarism and elected institutions of government.
After the Second World War, some provisions of conservatism were transformed and neoconservatism emerged.
The ideology of neoconservatism combines old values - family, religion, morality - with the values of post-industrial society - creative work, unique personality, education. The attitude towards state regulation of the economy and the participation of the population in governance has softened; it is proposed to supplement the electoral choice with the nomination of the most worthy (respected) citizens.
Neoconservatives attach great importance to involving personnel in the management of enterprises as a means of overcoming the alienation of labor and, consequently, stabilizing social life.-
In general, neoconservatism very successfully adapted traditional conservative values to the realities of the late industrial (post-industrial) stage of social development.
For neoconservatives, the state should be based on moral principles and preserving the integrity of society, provide the living conditions necessary for the individual on the basis of law and order, providing the opportunity to form political associations, developing the institutions of civil society, maintaining a balanced relationship between society and nature, etc.
The main political ideas of neoconservatism are:
Only market relations lead to real development of society and people;
Freedom and equality are incompatible; preference for freedom over equality;
Classical democracy is unfeasible or harmful; a combination of democracy and elite power is necessary;
The main right of an individual is the right to own property and freely dispose of it.
Despite innovations in content, neoconservative ideology retained a strong commitment to the following principles:
1) Respect for a strong state as a guarantor of public order and the integrity of society, ensuring the operation of laws in it and the preservation of moral principles;
2) Respect for the inviolable and unshakable public values- family, religion, private property;
3) While formally recognizing legal equality, he clearly opposes the economic and social equality of people;"
4) Recognition of the state’s duty to protect public order and maintain moral principles, but to prevent its interference in the market economy and hinder free competition;
5) The requirement for mutual trust and mutual assistance between citizens and the state, without which it is impossible to maintain social order.
Among the main varieties and directions of modern political conservatism, researchers usually distinguish:
1. National conservatism - within the framework of this ideology, the interests of the nation, people and national statehood, the preservation of the national spirit, are placed above all else. national culture and unity. The adherents of “national conservatism” can include a fairly wide range of political forces - from moderate nationalists and “enlightened patriots” to racists and even neo-fascists, as well as “intermediate” political trends.
2. Liberal conservatism is a direction of political and economic thought, whose adherents are:
a) against economic equality and the state’s desire for social “equalization”, as well as against the premature (before mastering the norms of civil political culture) extension of political rights to broad sections of society, since they can be obtained by socially irresponsible groups and subjects who are not ready for democracy ;
6) for the inviolability of private property, spontaneous “self-regulating” market and free competition;
c) against leftist, communist and social democratic ideology, because they believe that its spread and any attempts to implement the “socialist model” pose a threat to the basic values of Western society and civilization;
d) for creating conditions and guarantees under which democracy and the power of the majority should be limited by law, and the majority of society would not have the right and opportunity to encroach on private property, the rights and freedoms of individuals.
3. Technocratic conservatism is an ideological movement focused on protecting modern industrial society, modern achievements of science and technology, associated living standards and the rights of the technocratic elite from attacks by left-wing radicals, environmentalists (“greens”, “Greenpeace”) and other movements hostile to it :
4. Religious conservatism is an ideology that advocates the preservation of traditional Christian, Muslim and other religious norms and values in the cultural, economic and political life of society
Under the influence of neoconservatism, a dynamic model was formed social development, which is based on self-regulation and is very resistant to social disasters. It meets the needs of the transition of Western countries from an industrial society to a post-industrial society.
The social base of neoconservatism is the “new middle class”, interested in introducing the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution into the economy, and groups of so-called “young capital” formed in modern sectors of the economy - electronics, aerospace, aviation, etc.
Neoconservatism reflected such deep social processes as the need of the economy to weaken state regulation and encourage entrepreneurial initiative, to expand the scope of competitive market principles. As an ideology and, especially, as a politician, he synthesized the principles of liberalism (market, competition, free enterprise, etc.) with the traditional values of conservatism (family, culture, morality, order, etc.).
Despite its obvious progressiveness, neoconservatism was unable to develop adequate approaches to solving a number of key problems of the transition from industrialism to post-industrialism - deepening social differentiation in Western countries, potentially fraught with social conflicts; the widening gap in living conditions between North and South, which hinders the development of the international division of labor and the expansion of markets for knowledge-intensive products.
In the foreseeable future, neoconservatism will remain an influential ideological and political movement in Western countries, perhaps in combination with liberal socialist values (human rights and freedoms, democracy, social protection, etc.).
The main thing is that neoconservatism, having coordinated a rational attitude to reality with moral principles, gave people a clear formula for the relationship between a socially responsible individual and a politically stable state.
Neoconservatism has exposed those features of conservative ideology and way of thinking that today have proven capable of protecting people at a new technological stage of the industrial system, determining the priorities of individual and social life programs, and outlining the shape of a policy capable of leading society out of the crisis.
Moreover, on such an ideological basis, neoconservatism synthesized many humanistic ideas not only of liberalism, but also of socialism, as well as a number of other teachings. And although neoconservative ideology is adhered to only by some major political parties in Western countries(Republican in the USA, liberal-conservative in Japan, conservative in England), the circle of adherents of this ideological orientation is increasingly expanding throughout the world.
Social democratic ideology
The ideas of socialism have been known in the world since ancient times, but they received theoretical justification and ideological design only in the 19th century. In general, socialism underestimates, or even completely denies, the importance of individual economic freedom, competition and unequal remuneration for work as prerequisites for the growth of the material well-being of individuals and society. Non-labor redistribution of income, political regulation of economic and social processes, and the conscious establishment by the state of norms and principles of social equality (inequality) and justice are considered as replacing them. In other words, the main prerogatives in the socialist doctrine belong to the state, not the individual, conscious regulation, not evolutionary social processes, politics, not economics.
Socialist ideology today remains one of the most popular in the world, despite the fact that, due to differences in fundamental tactical provisions, it has existed since the beginning of the 20th century in two varieties: Marxism and social democracy.
Marxism pays special attention to revolutionary methods of transition to socialism, the justification of the dictatorship of the proletariat, and the development of strategy and tactics of revolutionary struggle. This is typical for all varieties of this ideology (Leninism, Maoism, Stalinism). None of these directions managed to go beyond forceful methods of achieving the goal. Attempts to practically implement this way of building socialism failed. Evidence is the collapse of the world socialist system.
Social democratic ideology proceeds from the priority of gradual evolutionary changes from capitalism to socialism through reforms while maintaining social peace. Socialism in their understanding is not a social system, but a continuous process of introducing social justice into the life of society. Therefore, Social Democrats do not perceive their defeat in parliamentary elections (for example, in Sweden in 1991) as a tragedy. According to their concept, socialism already really exists in the form of individual achievements, elements and institutions.
By the beginning of the 90s of the twentieth century. There were more than 80 social democratic parties in the world, about 30 of them were ruling (often in coalition with other parties), almost everywhere they were represented in the parliaments of their countries, 70 of the largest and most influential parties were united in the Socialist International.
Today, Social Democrats are closely studying the lessons of defeat in the practical implementation of their ideology. They believe that in the course of further development of the theory of socialism, a balance should be found between the collectivist and individual principles of social life. In general, the leaders of modern international social democracy are confident that socialism will become a significant force in the 21st century if it can overcome its ideology and policies, which have led socialism in a number of countries to a dead end. As various social systems democratize, radical, confrontational ideologies lose their adherents. In countries with a high level of class polarization of the population, disputes different ideologies is the basis for the evolution of political regimes.
The basic values of social democracy are freedom, justice, and solidarity. They are not feasible without the mechanism of democracy - political, economic, social, international. Political democracy is carried out within the framework of free elections and means “the possibility of changing the government peacefully based on the legitimate expression of the will of the people,” with “guarantees of respect for individual and minority rights.” Economic democracy is based on the idea of equality of different forms of ownership and the need for a mixed economy. Social democracy focuses on creating worthy person working and living conditions, fair redistribution of income in favor of the disabled, social assistance to people in need. International democracy ensures overcoming inequality on an international scale, eliminating totalitarian regimes and imbalances in the balance of military-political forces and weapons, strengthening global and collective security.
Social democratic ideology abandoned the fundamental provisions of Marxism - the class struggle, revolution, dictatorship of the proletariat, etc. It proceeded from the possibility of the evolution of capitalism into a socially just society, maintaining peace between classes and states. The gradual reform of bourgeois society was associated with the resolution of contradictions between the bourgeoisie and the working class on the basis of compromises, strengthening the social protection of workers, encouraging workers' self-government and cooperation, and the use of parliamentary democracy.
The basic principles of social democracy are:
1) attitude towards social justice as social ideal,
which cannot be achieved, but which should be strived for;
2) awareness of democracy as an imperfect, but the most promising form of social structure, ensuring the coordination of the interests of various social groups;
3) recognition of self-worth human personality and the need to protect her rights and freedoms from state institutions;
4) the desire to combine social justice with an effective market economy.
Characteristic features of social democracy:
Materialistic interpretation of social life;
An approach to the analysis of social phenomena from the standpoint of the interests of the working masses, the entire people;
Humanistic nature of current and ultimate goals, social collectivism;
Historical optimism.
Basic political ideas.
Rejection of any dictatorship as a form of political power;
Commitment to the principle of democratic parliamentarism;
Focus on political pluralism and consensus in solving critical problems;
Priority of peaceful, democratic means of achieving goals;
State regulation of the economy and development of market mechanisms;
Orientation towards the peaceful coexistence of different states and their sufficient security.
Other political ideologies of our time.
In addition to the above, the influential political ideologies of our time also include ethno-political, environmental-political, religious-political and various extremist ones.
Ethnopolitical ideologies have become noticeably widespread in the last decade not only among developing countries, but also in developed countries (Great Britain, Spain, Belgium). Ethnopolitical ideologies and movements acquired a particularly large scale in countries such as the USSR, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and post-Soviet republics, which contributed to the destruction of these states. The essence of the ideology and movement is the desire of peoples, especially small ones, to achieve their own statehood and thereby create favorable conditions for preserving their identity, that is, language, culture, traditions. Ethnopolitical ideologies and trends are opposed by the process of world integration and internationalization.
Ecological and political ideology arose in the post-war decades and received great development. The reason was the difficult environmental situation in developed countries, and therefore the main objective The goal that these ideological movements set for themselves was to protect the human environment, improve the environment through influencing their governments and legislative bodies to adopt appropriate legislation and government decisions. Currently, these movements have their representatives in the parliaments and governments of many countries.
Religious and political ideologies, unlike those listed above, arose a very long time ago. This type of ideology is based on religious dogmas. Their main goal is not only to influence the authorities, but also to establish their power where possible. In some countries, in particular the Middle East and Asia, religious movements have established themselves in power (Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia). The influence of religious ideologies has increased in a number of former Soviet republics, in Tajikistan, the North Caucasus, and Chechnya.
Extremist ideologies - neo-fascism, extremist terrorism. Their goal is to destabilize political power, seize it and achieve various goals.
3. Political culture of society: essence, functions, types.
The term itself first appeared in the 18th century. works of the German philosopher-educator I. Herder. The theory was formed only in the late 50s and early 60s. of the present century in line with the Western political science tradition. G. Almond, S. Verba, L. Pai, W. Rosenbaum and others made a great contribution to its development.
The concept of political culture is interpreted in the literature in many ways, just like the concept of politics. In particular, more than forty of its definitions were noted in the press.
The theory of political culture arose at the junction of various sciences - philosophy, sociology, psychology, whose representatives tried to overcome the formal methods of studying it. This largely explains the presence of different interpretations of the concept of political culture.
Psychological interpretations of this concept place emphasis in its content on a set of values, opinions, customs and traditions. For example, S. Verba considers political culture to be an element of the political system that provides “subjective orientation of politics,” and therefore includes a set of practical beliefs, symbols and values. Some concepts include in political culture both national character, the attitude of the state towards citizens, and political consciousness in general (L. Ditler).
In modern political science, the systematization of the concepts of political culture proposed by D. Kavanagh has been adopted.
1. Psychological interpretations of political culture, defining it as a set of internal orientations of a person (i.e., the sphere of political consciousness and psychology).
2. Technological interpretations that include attitudes and forms of political behavior into political culture.
3. Objectivist definitions of political culture through norms and patterns of behavior of citizens.
4. Normative interpretations of political culture as a model of desirable political behavior and thinking.
Despite the differences in all approaches to defining political culture, they clearly emphasize its focus on the subject of political activity.
This makes it possible to define political culture as a citizen’s code of conduct, the style of his activity in the political process, determined by value ideas about political phenomena.
Despite the wide difference of opinions in explaining the phenomenon of political culture, two most general conceptual approaches can be traced with sufficient clarity.
One of them was laid down by the founders of the study of modern political culture, American sociologists G. Almond and G. Powell. They introduced the concept of political culture and gave a definition that is considered foreign literature classic.
Political culture is a set of individual positions and orientations of participants in a given system; the subjective realm that underlies political action and gives it meaning.
As can be seen from the above, political culture in this understanding is an entirely subjective phenomenon and individual in nature. Political institutions and organizations, and in general the entire set of objectified elements, are excluded from its composition.
Another approach to defining political culture was formulated by Russian authors. Another approach to defining political culture is based on the understanding of political culture as a subjective-objective phenomenon, as a way of spiritual and practical activity and relations in the sphere of politics.
Here is one of the detailed definitions given in the literature within the framework of the approach under consideration.
Political culture is the implementation of political knowledge, value orientations, patterns of behavior of a social subject (individual, class, society) in a historically defined system of political relations and political activity. It includes the political experience of society, its classes, social groups, work collectives, individuals, recorded in customs and laws, the level of their ideas about political power and political relations, the ability to give a correct assessment of the phenomena of social life and take political position in it, expressed in specific social actions.
Political culture has its own spheres:
Sphere of consciousness;
Sphere of behavior;
Sphere of practical functioning.
The sphere of political consciousness manifests itself in a system of stable orientations of the subject (individual, group, class, nation), depending on whose political culture interests us in relation to the political system as a whole and its individual elements. One of these orientations is the attitude towards politics. This ratio can be different, wide in amplitude of oscillations.
For example, Americans, unlike Italians and French, have a weak interest in politics, their level political activity significantly lower than the level of participation in the social and economic life of society. For America, this is a historical norm. There are, however, short-term “explosions” when ordinary citizens join politics in the wake of mass movements. But the wave subsides, citizens return to private life, and professionals remain in the political arena, for whom politics is the same business as for another - selling soap. Another parameter of the culture of political consciousness is the attitude towards the state, political parties and organizations.
You can take a stable, critically alienated position in relation to the state as an institution, which is typical for Americans, or you can be loyal to it, like the Germans, or you can completely identify yourself with the state - a typical example is our society.
For a country like France, a one-party system is nonsense. We have
such a system was taken for granted. The same can be said regarding one or another political system. The culture of political consciousness is also manifested in the priority of orientations towards political values– freedom, equality, justice, social security, autonomy, tolerance, etc.
Some individuals tend to focus on equality, others on freedom. For some, social security is more important, even if it is achieved at the cost of totalitarian orders; for others, autonomy is more important.
Another parameter of the culture of political consciousness is models of ideological identification and self-identification.
Ordinary citizens, and especially politicians, are often divided into “left” and “right”, “liberals” and “conservatives”, “radicals”, “populists”, etc. Moreover, within each culture its own identification stereotypes develop. In the USA, for example, it is not customary to divide into left and right. They prefer to characterize the views of this or that person as “liberal”, “conservative”, “centrist”, “radical”. But the French, like many Europeans, will readily agree that these are “left” and these are “right”.
In the country of the Soviets, there was a stable model of political identification: a monolithic mass of “Soviet people” clearly focused on building a communist society and a “pathetic handful” of “anti-Soviet people.” In reality, the monolith was not monolithic; the “anti-Soviet” were not against the Soviet system, but against partyocracy and totalitarianism. Nevertheless, this scheme existed and was widely used by our ideological institutions and repressive bodies.
Another element of the culture of political consciousness is political language.
Political language is not some kind of specialized language, but a certain “organized” part of the general language (primarily terminological), which is most actively used in political texts. Its vocabulary, stylistics, semantics, and syntax encode the behavioral attitudes of its speakers.
It is enough to compare the speeches of Stalin, Khrushchev, Brezhnev, Gorbachev, Putin in their purely linguistic terms to trace the evolutionary curve of Soviet and Russian political culture. On the other hand, if you compare them with the speeches of Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Clinton and Bush, you will see the political and cultural contours of a completely different world - not necessarily hostile, but a different world. For example, political language in which great specific gravity concepts, terms, expressions borrowed from the military field or widely used in it - “struggle for”, “attack on”, etc. clearly belongs to a different political culture than the language that includes such phrases as “respect for interests”, “mutually beneficial relations”, “winning”, “ fair game" and so on.
Depending on the type of political culture and the characteristics of a particular language, political languages differ in the degree of their ideological content, emotional coloring, religious and moral intensity, the use of stylistic turns and vocabulary (metaphor, hiberbol), etc.
Political culture is not limited to the sphere of consciousness; it also extends to political activity, including the culture of political behavior, as the practical attitude of the subjects of the political process to the political system, to this process itself and to each other. Only, unlike the sphere of consciousness, political culture is manifested here not in ideas, beliefs and attitudes, but in relatively stable models of the subject’s behavior and his practical participation in political life.
There are 4 types of “conventional” (legitimate) participation in political life:
2- participation in the work of parties and other public organizations and their events;
3- participation in the political life of the community;
4- contacts with officials at different levels.
As for “unconventional” (illegitimate) behavior, this usually includes various forms of “protest”: participation in demonstrations, protest rallies (often in violation of the law) against “immoral actions of the authorities,” refusal to obey “unjust” laws.
Political culture extends to the sphere of practical functioning of the system as a whole and the institutions that form it. This includes:
1- electoral process (elections organized by the state, parties, public organizations);
2- culture of making political decisions at different levels;
3- culture of perception and regulation of social conflicts.
The patterns of these actions vary from country to country. Take, for example, the attitude towards conflicts. In the United States, for example, social conflicts are perceived as the norm, as a natural and even to some extent desirable phenomenon. At the same time, it is considered not as the final stage of development of a contradiction, followed by cataclysms, but as a clash of interests, which, being brought to the surface, can be settled faster and more painlessly than when it occurs underground. This helps politicians not to avoid conflicts, but to manage them without leading to a social explosion.
So, political culture extends to all spheres of political life of society and includes the culture of political consciousness, the culture of political behavior and the culture of functioning of institutions existing in a given system.
Summarizing the above, we can propose the following definition of political culture.
Political culture is a system of historically established, relatively stable, embodying the experience of previous generations of people, attitudes, beliefs, ideas, patterns of behavior, functioning, manifested in direct activities subjects of the political process, fixing the principles of their relationship to this process as a whole and its elements, to each other, to themselves and to the political system within which this process takes place, thereby ensuring the reproduction of the political life of society on the basis of continuity.
The structure of political culture consists of the following elements.
1. Generally significant political knowledge, which consists of theoretical (scientific) and practical, obtained through various media, and their combination is necessary: theoretical knowledge without information, like information without its scientific understanding, does not allow us to understand complex political phenomena.
2. The culture of political thinking includes the ability to analyze information and events, give them a correct assessment and form one’s attitude towards them, and make decisions about participation in political actions.
3. Culture of political feelings. It presupposes that political subjects have not only composure, perseverance, and endurance, but also cruelty and rudeness. In specific political activities, situations constantly arise in which such feelings serve as a mechanism of behavior, a regulator of the activities of groups and leaders.
4. The culture of political behavior is generally formed on the basis of the political traditions dominant in a given society. It, to a certain extent, depends on the culture of political thinking, political knowledge and feelings, as well as the characteristics of their embodiment in the individual in the form of political orientation.
Political culture has several levels of functioning of value relations.
1. Worldview, general cultural level - the development of general cultural orientations, attitudes towards power in general, attitudes towards ideology, violence and freedom, political phenomena.
2. The level of political culture, characterizing the attitude towards power as the center of domination and coercion, the attitude towards one’s own civil rights and the state.
3. The level of political culture, showing the specific attitude of a citizen to political phenomena and processes. For example, to the activities of the president, political parties, nations, etc.
In relation to each political culture, we can talk about its relatively stable “core” and “periphery”, which consists of either those losing their former significance or new elements that are just beginning to acquire cultural status. Individual elements of the “lower”, “archaic” layers that retain functional significance and are part of the “core” are able to continue moving along the vertical axis, entering a new political culture. This feature can be traced in societies that have experienced several revolutions and deep social upheavals (USSR, China, France). On the other hand, there are countries like England, where steps are being taken to artificially preserve elements of past culture, which are seen as a factor in stabilizing the existing political system. Even the most integrated of national political cultures contain autonomous, structured formations, called subcultures in sociology.
Subculture is a system (subsystem) of political orientations and models of political behavior that are characteristic of certain groups or regions and differ in their systemic integrity of orientations and models inherent in other groups, regions, and the nation as a whole.
A political subculture is generated only by those groups whose members are united by a common and specific experience of the reproduction of political life, which puts them in a special position in comparison with other groups and the nation as a whole.
Political subcultures are formed on different bases. The presence of opposing or simply opposing social classes and groups with more or less developed self-awareness leads to the formation of social-class subcultures, for example, the subculture of the working class. In developed countries, these subcultures are present in a more “erased” form than 50 or 100 years ago, but they exist.
Along with them, there are national-ethnic subcultures in many countries. They are typical for areas densely populated by national-ethnic minorities that preserve their cultural identity. Such minorities and their inherent identities can be found in India, China, Canada, Great Britain, the USA, and Russia. In addition to social and national subcultures, there are also regional political subcultures. In conditions of localization of national minorities, they coincide with national-ethnic subcultures. This type of subculture develops in countries whose territory has been formed over a long period of time, including increasingly culturally new regions (USA, Russia). Religious and political subcultures have formed in a number of countries. They have a powerful influence not only on political life, but also on the fate of the country as a whole (Ireland, Lebanon, Iran).
The growth of global political problems and the movement towards the integration of the peoples inhabiting the world into a qualitatively new planetary social community contribute to the formation of a general and political metaculture based on universal human values. But even in this case, the role of the political subculture as a factor in stabilizing socio-political life will be very great.
Functions of political culture.
The general function of political culture is determined by its very essence . This is the reproduction of a certain system of social relations. This can be done in several ways:
1 - Political socialization, i.e. involvement of the subject of the political process in a certain social community through the adoption of certain norms and values. So, for example, in the process of family and school education and training, participation in the work of children's and youth political organizations, a young person learns what the adherents of a given political culture want to instill in him: the existing political system in the country is the most democratic in the world; in resolving political issues, one must rely on the authorities in everything (or not); multi-party system - evil (or good); private property is evil (or good), etc. and so on. Then one’s own experience will correct one’s political beliefs, but initially only through political culture—a certain system of attitudes.
2 – Integration function – ensures, on the basis of the subject’s assimilation of political norms and values inherent in a given social community, the cohesion of this community. Political culture is a powerful factor in the vitality of a society, class, nation, group, individual. Even after the collapse of its material substrate, culture continues to have a powerful impact on the consciousness and behavior of its bearer.
3 – Ensuring historical continuity and continuity of the political process . Like common culture, it connects outgoing and incoming generations, gives them mutual language, offers a general view of things, provides savings in social time through the transfer of experience.
4 – Communication function – ensures the interaction of all subjects and institutions of power based on the use of generally accepted terms, symbols, stereotypes and other means of information and language of communication.
5 – Identification function, which reveals a person’s constant need to understand his group membership and determine acceptable ways for himself to participate in expressing and defending the interests of this community;
6 – Orientation function, which characterizes a person’s desire for a semantic reflection of political phenomena, an understanding of one’s own capabilities in the implementation of rights and freedoms in a specific political system;
7 – Adaptation function, expressing a person’s need to adapt to the changing political environment, the conditions for the exercise of his rights and powers of power;
In various historical conditions - most often with unstable political processes - some functions of political culture may fade and even cease to function. In particular, the communicative ability of political norms and traditions of public life may decrease significantly, as a result of which polemics between various social groups and especially those of them that hold opposing positions regarding the government course will inevitably intensify. On the other hand, in transition processes the ability of political culture to disintegrate systems of government based on goals and values that are unusual for the population often increases.
