Chinese view of the creation of the world author. History of China

Good afternoon, dear readers – seekers of knowledge and truth!

Chinese culture is perhaps one of the oldest in the world, and myths and legends are where it began. Legends were formed about folk heroes and passed on from mouth to mouth; they also became characters in the first written works, masterpieces of fine art, and were reflected in religion.

So, the topic of our conversation today is Chinese mythology. In the article below we will examine in detail its basics, mythical heroes - both people and animals, spirits, demons. You will also learn how the mythology of the Celestial Empire developed and how it was reflected in art. And, of course, a lot of interesting Chinese myths await you.

The material turned out to be so extensive that it simply did not fit into the framework of one article, so there will be two of them - don’t miss the continuation.

Well, let's begin our immersion into the atmosphere of Ancient China, filled with myths and legends!

Basics of Mythology

Mythology is an entire branch of science that studies various legends, myths, stories that tell about folk heroes, gods, spirits, that explain the vision of the world, the creation of the Universe and the appearance of many phenomena. The Chinese originated in the 3-2 millennium BC, when civilization appeared in the territory between the famous Yellow River and Yangtze Rivers.

China remained isolated for a long time, lived in some isolation from the rest of the world, and therefore managed to preserve its originality and color. So, for example, if the ancient Greek or Roman gods are known to us as incredibly handsome, then the ancient Chinese are hardly similar to them: they are bright, colorful, diverse and often do not look like people at all, but they have remarkable strength, supernatural abilities and powerful energy.

In general, the mythology of the Celestial Empire is heterogeneous; it has a certain syncretism: the myths of antiquity, Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and later folklore are combined here. In addition to religious movements, its formation was influenced by real historical figures, totemic ideas of local residents, as well as numerous philosophical treatises.

The latter, preserved in fragments, make it possible to piece together various myths and form a general idea. These include the following works (all dates are indicated BC):

• "Shu Jing", or "Historical Book", period from the 14th to the 11th centuries.
• “I Ching”, also known as the “Book of Changes”, the turn of the 8th and 7th centuries.
• "Zhuang Tzu", 4th century.
• "Le Zi", the interval between the 4th century BC and the 4th century AD.
• "Shan Hai Jing", which translates as "Book of Mountains and Seas", from the 4th to the 2nd centuries.
• Numerous works and poems of the poet Qu Yuan, 4th century.
• "Huainanzi", dating back to the 2nd century.
• Treatise by the philosopher Wang Chong entitled "Critical Judgments", 1st century.

One of the main distinguishing features of local mythology is the so-called euhemerization. In other words, often the characters in myths were real people who died and went down in history as certain deities, their stories were distorted and acquired mythical features.

Fusi is the mythical first emperor of the Celestial Empire, a deity - the ruler of the East. According to the accepted Confucian model of chronology, Fuxi ruled from 2852 to 2737. BC.

Most often this happened to rulers, kings, emperors, as well as high-ranking officials and valiant warriors. In this case, the deities took on the form of a person. Because of this, it is often difficult to draw the line between real historical events and fictional ones.

Often divine beings took the form of various animals. Also, according to Chinese beliefs, many natural phenomena, as well as hills, rivers, and mountains, had their own spirits.

Creation of the Universe

One of the basic myths tells about the appearance of the world. It is known as the "myth of chaos", or in Chinese - "hun dun".

This legend claims that before there was nothing but emptiness, absolute darkness and chaos, where vague images wandered, like fused paintings. There was no heaven, earth, or water. This is also evidenced by the treatise “Huainanzi”.

Then water arose, or rather, water chaos, from which later two creatures of divine nature appeared, two ancient gods - Pan-gu and Nyu-wa. This event marked the beginning of the world, it was then that the earth and sky were divided.

Many researchers argue that initially Pan-gu and Nyu-wa were heroes of legends of different nationalities - Pan-gu originated in the southern lands, and Nyu-wa - in the southeast of Ancient China or in the southwest of modern Sichuan province.

Pan-gu was a powerful being and the ancestor of everything on earth. As he grew, the heavens and earth became more and more separated from each other, and natural phenomena and objects also appeared.

Image of the deity Pangu

And if Pan-gu was not a direct creator, because the world changed along with his growth, unconsciously, then another creature, the goddess Nu-wa, was a demiurge - a creator. She was endowed with the face of a woman, but the lower part of the body was depicted as a snake or dragon.

It is believed that it was Nuwa who created everything around, and later saved the world from the flood. She created people from rocks and clay. And when, as a result of a fierce battle of the gods, the sky partially collapsed, she independently repaired it: she tore off all four legs of a giant turtle and propped up the sky with them.

Another character in ancient Chinese myth is Fuxi. He has the appearance of both a bird and a man. Fusi taught the ancient tribes important activities: hunting, preparing meat, fishing, making nets and other fishing gear.

One of the legends brings Nyu-wu and Fusi together, as a result of which they create a strong family. Since then, among other things, Nyu-wa has become the patroness of family, marriage and marriage.

Fusi and Nuiva

Main mythical animals

The main character of the legends of the Celestial Empire is, of course, a dragon. Archaeologists are raising a lot of ancient artifacts from the ground, on which you can see this mythical beast. However, his images are still found everywhere today: on the facades of houses, in the form of bas-reliefs on temples, as small household figurines, in paintings by famous Chinese artists and even on imperial attire.

Ancient Chinese seal with dragon

Folklore also contains many sayings about dragons. Such love for these animals is not surprising - they carry a huge number of symbols, personifying:

• the power of the elements;
• virtue;
• prosperous and rich life;
• harmony, peace;
• imperial power;
• heaven.

The ancient Chinese believed that dragons were endowed with special magic and absorbed all the qualities of other animals. According to legends, they could descend to the ground, but they preferred to soar into the sky and plunge into rivers, lakes and the sea. Knowing how to maneuver between heaven and earth, they were guides between two worlds - human and divine.

Lantern Festival in China

What is even more surprising is that imperial power was considered to be given by heaven, bestowed precisely by the dragon envoys. Therefore, the rulers were relatives of dragons.

In modern China, a whole festival with processions and dances is dedicated to the dragon. It is usually celebrated every year on May 5th.

By the way, if you are interested in learning more about the Chinese dragon, then we have a special article for you here.

The Myth of the Dragon Mother

The legend tells the story of the mother of dragons, or in Chinese - Long Mu (“long” translates as “dragon”, “mu” means “mother”). Once upon a time there lived an ordinary earthly woman. One day she noticed a large white stone near the river bank.

Looking closer, she realized that there was an egg in front of her. She took it home with her, where the egg warmed and five small lizard-like snakes hatched. The woman decided that she would raise these creatures herself.

Mother of Dragons Long Mu

Time passed, the lizards grew into large dragons, and she still took care of them, fed them, gave her best, although she herself lived in poverty. When the dragons grew up, they also began to take care of their earthly mother and help her in every possible way. Thus, dragons became the personification of filial love and respect, and women - maternal care.

Her five sons turned out to be water spirits who knew how to rebuke the elements and change the weather. One very dry year, all the peasants suffered from crop failure, and at the request of their mother, the sons sent rain from heaven. It was then that the locals named the woman Long Mu.

When she died, the animals turned into people and buried her. Today, you can often find temples built in honor of Long Mu in the Celestial Empire.

Types of moons

Dragons are so revered in the Celestial Empire that there are more than a hundred species of them. In addition, there are several classifications.

The first divides them by color, with dragons of a certain color responsible for a specific part of the world:

• Qinglong is azure, responsible for the eastern sector, and has compassion.
• Zhulong is red, protects the southern side, patronizes bodies of water, as well as family ties and the birth of children.
• Bailong is snow-white, responsible for the western direction and endowed with honesty and virtue.
• Huanglong is golden; requests for forgiveness can be addressed to him, prayers that he will convey to the gods.
• Xuanlong is black, the guardian of the northern part, who lives in magical reservoirs.

White Dragon Bailong

In addition, there are four main moons:

• Shanlong - controls the elements, winds, thunderstorms, lightning and thunder. Appears in the form of a creature with a human face, the body of a dragon and a huge belly. And although Shanlong almost does not fly, it can ascend to the heavens and float through them, often merging due to its similar color. Peasants and ordinary people try not to anger him, since he is capable of sending prolonged downpours or, conversely, drought.
• Tianlong is the guardian of the sky and the peace of the gods, has a white or azure body, and is rarely depicted with wings. Its main distinguishing feature is its five toes, while other dragons have three or four.
• Fitzanlun is the keeper of treasures hidden underground. He lives in underground caves and has special wisdom, as evidenced by the pearl decoration on the lower part of his face.
• Dilong - is responsible for the water element, all reservoirs and deep rivers, as well as for productivity. He himself lives underwater, at depth, in incredibly beautiful palace complexes. According to legend, when someone gets there, he receives gifts from Dilong and returns home.

Green Dragon Qinglong

Conclusion

This was the first part of our material, which introduces readers to the mythology of the Celestial Empire. Don’t miss the continuation of this article - it will tell you about other, no less interesting myths, introduce you to other mythical animals of China, negative characters, and also tell you about the further history of legends and traditions.

And to stay in touch with us, subscribe to the blog, and we will discover new facets of mysterious Asia together.

See you soon!

The season of “Xiaoxue” - “Small Snows” 小雪 has begun. This is the 20th season in the 24-season traditional Chinese agricultural calendar. This year it started on November 22 and will last until December 12. In China they say: “Severe frost during the Lesser Cold Period - wait for a warm spring.” Often, it is during this season that the first snow falls, reminiscent of […]

The season of "Shuangjiang" 霜降 - "fall of frost" - is the 18th of the 24 seasons of the Chinese agricultural lunar calendar. This year it began on October 23 and will last until November 7. At the end of October or beginning of November, it gets colder every day. In southern China, the last harvests are still being harvested, and the first frost is falling in the Yellow River. The air clears, the sky becomes high and transparent blue. Trees and grasses turn yellow and wither, everything is preparing for winter, and some for hibernation.

According to the Chinese lunar calendar, 2017 is the Year of the Rooster. If you look closely at the zodiac series, it is easy to notice that the rooster is the only bird among the 12 signs of the Chinese zodiac. The Chinese have long viewed the rooster as a bird of the sun and treat it with respect. The rooster is called the “virtuous bird.” The pronunciation of the word “rooster” 鸡 (“ji” - rooster) is similar to 吉 (“ji” - happiness), therefore, the rooster symbolizes happiness. The drawing on the door in the form of a rooster symbolically protects from troubles; the hidden meaning of this image is the wish for happiness and fulfillment of desires, therefore the rooster received the status of “guardian of the hearth.”

In ancient times, the Lord of Heaven, the god Tian Li, saw how much evil had increased among people, and sent a Great Flood against them. Endless torrential rains began, rivers overflowed their banks, rice fields and houses were flooded. Almost the entire earth disappeared under water, and it seemed that there was no hope for the human race to survive.
In the end, the young god Da Yu took pity on the people and asked Tian Li to let him save humanity from destruction.

There is also a well-known myth about how Nuiva single-handedly gave rise to the human race. In this myth, she is described as a creature that had the head of a man and the body of a snake. She was endowed with exceptional divine power, which allowed her to perform seventy reincarnations a day.

There was a time when the earth and sky had not yet separated from each other, and when fused together they formed something vaguely reminiscent of a chicken egg. Here the first man, Pan-gu, was born, like a chicken in an yolk. Eighteen thousand years passed before he awakened. There was impenetrable sticky darkness all around, and the man’s heart was numb with fear. But then his hands found some object. It was an ax that came from nowhere. Pan-gu swung as hard as he could and hit in front of him. There was a deafening roar, as if a mountain had split in two. The motionless world in which Pan-gu was located began to move. Everything light and clean floated up, while everything heavy and dirty sank to the bottom. This is how heaven and earth came into being.

In the beginning, in the Universe there was only the primeval water chaos of Hun-tun, shaped like a chicken egg, and formless images wandered in the pitch darkness. In this World Egg Pan-gu arose spontaneously.

For a long time Pan-gu slept soundly. And when he woke up, he saw darkness around him, and this saddened him. Then Pan-gu broke the egg shell and went outside. Everything that was light and pure in the egg rose up and became the sky - Yang, and everything heavy and rough sank down and became the earth - Yin.

After his birth, Pan-gu created the entire Universe from the five primary elements: Water, Earth, Fire, Wood and Metal. Pan-gu took a breath, and winds and rains were born, exhaled - thunder rumbled and lightning flashed; if he opened his eyes, then day came, when he closed them, night reigned.

Pan-gu liked what was created, and he was afraid that heaven and earth would mix again into primeval chaos. Therefore, Pan-gu firmly rested his feet on the ground and his hands on the sky, not allowing them to touch. Eighteen thousand years have passed. Every day the sky rose higher and higher, the earth became stronger and larger, and Pan-gu grew, continuing to hold the sky at outstretched arms. Finally, the sky became so high and the earth so solid that they could no longer merge together. Then Pan-gu dropped his hands, lay down on the ground, and died.

His breath became wind and clouds, his voice became thunder, his eyes became the sun and the moon, his blood became rivers, his hair became trees, his bones became metals and stones. From Pangu's seed pearls arose, and from bone marrow - jade. From the same insects that crawled on Pan-gu’s body, people turned out.

But there is another legend that is no worse

The ancestors of people are also called the pair of divine twins Fu-si and Nui-wu, who lived on the sacred mountain Kun-lun. They were children of the sea, the Great God Shen-nun, who took on the guise of half-humans, half-snakes: the twins had human heads and the bodies of sea dragon snakes.

There are different stories about how Nyu-wa became the ancestor of humanity. Some say that she first gave birth to a shapeless lump, cut it into small pieces and scattered it all over the earth. Where they fell, people appeared. Others claim that one day Nyu-wa, sitting on the shore of a pond, began to sculpt a small figurine from clay - a likeness of herself. The clay creature turned out to be very joyful and friendly, and Nui-we liked it so much that she sculpted many more of the same little men. She wanted to populate the whole earth with people. To make her work easier, she took a long vine, dipped it into the liquid clay and shook it. The scattered lumps of clay immediately turned into people.

But it is difficult to sculpt clay without bending, and Nyu-wa was tired. Then she divided people into men and women, commanded them to live in families and give birth to children.

Fu-si taught his children to hunt and fish, make fire and cook food, and invented “se” - a musical instrument such as a gusli, a fishing net, snares and other useful things. In addition, he drew eight trigrams - symbolic signs reflecting various phenomena and concepts, which we now call the “Book of Changes”.

People lived a happy, serene life, knowing neither hostility nor envy. The land bore fruit in abundance, and people did not have to work to feed themselves. Born children were placed in bird's nests, as if in a cradle, and the birds amused them with their chirping. Lions and tigers were as affectionate as cats, and snakes were not poisonous.

But one day the spirit of water Gun-gun and the spirit of fire Zhu-zhong quarreled among themselves and started a war. The spirit of fire won, and the defeated spirit of water, in despair, hit its head and Mount Buzhou, which supported the sky, so hard that the mountain split. Having lost its support, part of the sky fell to the ground, breaking it in several places. Underground waters gushed out of the breaches, sweeping away everything in its path.

Nuwa rushed to save the world. She collected stones of five different colors, melted them over the fire and repaired the hole in the sky. In China, there is a belief that if you look closely, you can see a patch in the sky that differs in color. In another version of the myth, Nyu-wa repaired the sky with the help of small shiny stones, which turned into stars. Then Nyu-wa burned a lot of reeds, collected the resulting ashes in a heap and dammed the water streams.

Order was restored. But after the repair, the world became slightly askew. The sky inclined to the west, and the sun and moon began to roll there every day, and in the southeast a depression formed into which all the rivers on earth rushed. Now Nyu-wa could rest. According to some versions of the myth, she died, according to others, she ascended to heaven, where she still lives in complete solitude.

And accordingly, their civilization as the original culture of the local region, let us dwell on the migration hypothesis.

Research by modern Sinologists points to two areas from which the Chinese could have come: East Turkestan (more precisely, the Tarim Valley) or the Kunlun Mountains (this region is more often indicated).

Another theory is based on the more or less long residence of the Chinese in the most remote settlement located in Chinese territory on the way from Akkadia. This hypothesis is consistent with recent evidence that the Khotanese civilization came from the Punjab in the 3rd century BC. e.

Some scholars dispute the Akkadian origin on the grounds that the first Chinese rulers were identified with the Babylonian rulers, and the Chinese Po-Bzings (Cantonese Bak-Zings) with the Bak-Sings, or Bak tribes, but the hypothesis does not exclude their Akkadian origin.

It is obvious that in any case, migration to China occurred gradually in the direction from Western or Central Asia directly to the banks of the Yellow River. The Chinese may have traveled southwest through Burma and then northwest through what is now China.

The settlement of these lands, therefore, occurred from southwest to northeast or in a northeasterly direction along the Yangtze River and further north, and not at all from north to south, as was usually believed.

Objections to the Southern Origins Theory

The last route we have outlined raises a number of objections; most likely, the hypothesis associated with it appeared in order to provide additional evidence to support the theory that the Chinese came from the Indochinese Peninsula.

The hypothesis is based on the fact that among the ancient Chinese ideograms there are images of tropical animals and plants, and also on the fact that the most archaic language forms were found in the south, and that both the Chinese and Indo-Chinese groups of languages ​​are tonal.

However, these and similar facts are refuted by the assumption that the Chinese arrived from the north or northwest gradually, group by group, and those who came later pushed those who had arrived earlier to the south, so that the most ancient and homogeneous tribes of the Chinese were found precisely in the places we indicated .

It then turns out that the tonal languages ​​of the Indochinese Peninsula should be considered as the languages ​​of the first migratory groups. As for ideograms, animals and plants of the temperate zone are more often found in them, rather than of the tropical zone.

But even if it were possible to prove that these particular animals and plants today are found mainly in the tropics, this statement cannot serve as proof that the Chinese came from the tropics - after all, the climate of Northern China was once much milder than it is now, and animals such as tigers and elephants lived in dense jungles; later they actually began to be found only in southern latitudes.

Advancement of peoples from north to south

The theory of the southern origin of the Chinese, which we will discuss below, assumes a gradual spread of Chinese tribes from the southern or central regions to the north, but there is no doubt that movement in the opposite direction also occurred at the same time.

Linguistic research data shows that the areas of modern Western Gansu and Sichuan provinces were inhabited by people who were ethnic Chinese. Over time, they advanced into modern Tibet and are now known as Tibetans.

In the territory of modern Yunnan province lived representatives of the Shan, or Lao (modern Lao) people; under the threat of the Mongol invasion, they had to move to the peninsula located in the south and become Siamese. In Indochina, without entering into family ties with the Chinese, lived the Vietnamese, Khmers, Mons, Khazis, Colorians (some of them scattered across the mountains of Central India) and other tribes that inhabited Southern China in prehistoric times. As they moved south, the Chinese were forced out and went in the opposite direction.

The emergence of the Chinese

Thus, it seems unlikely that the Chinese could have come from East Turkestan to the banks of the Yellow River, where the first traces of their settlements were discovered. This is the area where the provinces of Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan meet.

Then, that is, around 2500 or 3000 BC. e., the arriving tribes were distinguished by a relatively more developed culture. The lands located to the east and west of this territory were inhabited by local tribes, with whom the Chinese waged continuous wars, as well as with dangerous animals and dense thickets. But the Chinese still mixed with the local population through interethnic marriages and gradually began to establish permanent settlements - centers of the emerging civilization.

Kunlun Mountains

In Chinese mythology, these places were considered the abode of the gods - the ancestors of the Chinese nation. It should be noted that they do not at all coincide with the real Kunlun ridge - a range of mountains separating Tibet from Chinese Turkestan, as well as with the Hindu Kush. The above gave grounds to correlate the Kunlun Mountains with Babylon. This uncertainty became the reason for combining the Central Asian and East Asian theories of the origin of the Chinese.

One of the myths tells that the god Nyu-wa (Nyu-gua) lived in the Kunlun Mountains - presumably one of the creators of people, according to another myth - and the first ancestors of people themselves - Nyu and Kua. At first glance, this point of view seems very encouraging. However, this legend is actually of Taoist origin.

Reaching a height of 4800 meters, Mount Kunlun is the center of the world. The source of immortality is located on it, and the four main world rivers originate here. This plot is presented not only in Chinese, but also in Hindu, as well as in Sumerian mythologies, so the information does not seem particularly valuable to us.

Unfortunately, it would take too much time to discuss in detail such interesting problems as the origin of the Chinese and the rise of their civilization, or the similarities between China and Western Asia in pre-Babylonian times and other issues, but we are forced to confine ourselves to the most general considerations.

Preliminary conclusions

Anticipating the emergence of more reliable information in the future, we will express preliminary considerations, or rather even a hypothesis: the ancestors of the Chinese people came from the west, from Akkad, Elam or Khotan, but most likely from Akkad or Elam through Khotan.

The ancestors of the Chinese moved towards the territory that modern China occupies continuously over a long period of time. They first settled around the bend of the Yellow River, and then began to spread to the northwest, west and south. They conquered, absorbed, or displaced the indigenous people from their lands, gradually spreading throughout the area known today as South and Southwest China.

Local peoples came from Western Asia during the Neolithic period, that is, much earlier than the tribes who arrived around the 25th or 26th centuries BC. e. Having assimilated among the Chinese living in the south, they left a deep mark on the culture of Japan. Let us note that even today they differ from the northern Chinese in appearance, in language, and in their entire spiritual and psychological make-up, material culture and economic structure.

Natural conditions

China lies within the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones. The southwestern part of the territory is occupied by the Tibetan Plateau (average altitude about 4500 m), framed by the mountain systems of the Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun, Nanshan and the Sino-Tibetan mountains; in the west and northwest lie the plains (Tarim, Dzhungar, Alashan) and the mountains of the Eastern Tien Shan. The eastern part of the country is lower; in the northeast - the Manchurian-Korean Mountains, the Greater and Lesser Khingan, the plains in the Sungari River basin; to the south - the Loess Plateau, the Great Chinese Plain; in the south - the Nanling Mountains, the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.

The climate in the west is continental, in the east it is predominantly monsoonal. Average January temperatures range from minus 24 °C in the north and in the Tibetan Plateau to plus 18 °C in the south, and in July on the plains from plus 20 to 28 °C. Annual precipitation ranges from 2000–2500 millimeters (in the south and east) to 50–100 millimeters (in the north and west). Typhoons are common in autumn. Western regions - area of ​​internal drainage; in the east there is an extensive network of rivers, the main ones being the Yangtze, Yellow River, Songhua, and Zhujiang. The most significant lakes: Kukunor, Dongting, Poyang. To the west is the Taklamakan Desert, to the north is part of the Gobi Desert. Forest occupies about 8 percent of the area.

At first, the Chinese occupied a relatively small area of ​​their future country. It was an oblong area located between the 34th and 40th degrees north latitude and the 107th and 114th parallels. It was located around a bend of the Yellow River and covered an area of ​​approximately 5 million square miles, gradually extending to the sea coast in the northeast.

About a million people lived here; after the invasion of foreigners, the population doubled. This territory can be called the place where China was born. The first, feudal, period of its existence lasted approximately two thousand years, from the 24th to the 13th centuries BC. e.

In the first centuries of the monarchical period, which lasted from 221 BC. e. until 1912 of our time, the territory of China expanded to the south - it included all eighteen provinces, making up the formation known as the Celestial Empire, or True China (the part of the territory located east of Gansu and most of Sichuan were not included).

By the time of the Manchu conquest, at the beginning of the 17th century, China occupied the entire territory located between 18 and 40 degrees north latitude and 98 and 112 degrees east longitude (it consisted of eighteen provinces and was called the Middle Kingdom), which included the vast remote territories of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, Kukunar, Tibet and Korea, as well as Vietnam and Burma, whose rulers were Chinese vassals. The territory of China thus extended over more than 13 million square kilometers, including 5 million square kilometers occupied by eighteen provinces.

In general, the land turned out to be mountainous in the west and east, but as it approached the sea it became smoother. The country's topography was defined by three mountain systems and huge alluvial plateaus, with soils in the northern, western and southern parts. The entire territory of China was crossed by three huge and about thirty large rivers with many tributaries that reached the most remote corners.

In terms of geological features, the large alluvial soils of the plateau were located over bases of granite, red sandstone or limestone. In the north, the plateau consisted of loess, a rock resulting from the petrification of sand blown by winds from the Mongolian plateau.

The oldest mountains were in the north; as they moved south, they became younger, and sometimes there were traces of volcanic activity. They are rich in minerals: coal and iron are mined here, as well as gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and jadeite.

Of course, the climate of such a vast territory is heterogeneous. In the north, winters are long and harsh, summers are hot and dry, and there is a short rainy period in July and August. In the south, summers are long, hot and humid, and winters are short. Temperatures vary accordingly: from forty-degree heat in the south to almost the same frost in the northern part of the country.

The lowest level of precipitation (40 millimeters) is in the north, in the south it is five times higher, and in other parts of the country the amount of precipitation also varies. In the south, typhoons rage from July to October.

Vegetation, fauna and agriculture

The flora of China is abundant and surprisingly diverse. The main agricultural crop is rice, and its cultivation area covers the northern half of the country. A large area of ​​its cultivation is located south of the Yangtze River, east of Dongting and the great Xijiang River, in the northern part of Guangdong Province. Other main crops include wheat, barley, maize, millet, legumes, yams, sweet and regular potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, zucchini, ginseng, bamboo, indigo, pepper, tobacco, groundnuts, poppy, melon, cotton.

In 350, tea began to be cultivated in the southern and central provinces. However, there are also plantations in the far north, say in Shandong, the main region for cultivating this crop in modern China.

A variety of fruits were also grown there: dates, mulberries, oranges, lemons, pomelo, persimmons, pomegranates, pineapples, figs, coconuts, mangoes, bananas and other fruits traditional for Eastern countries.

China's fauna is no less rich: tigers, panthers, leopards, bears, sables, otters, monkeys, wolves, 27 species of ruminants and many rodents. Rhinoceroses, elephants and tapirs still live in Yunnan Province. There were also about 700 species of birds and numerous varieties of fish and insects. Among domestic animals, we note the camel and buffalo.

Social structure

As noted above, the Chinese fought for territory with the locals. As the incoming tribes spread, the autochthonous population was simply destroyed, assimilated with them, or pushed south.

In the end, non-Chinese tribes had no choice but to develop swampy places, forests of the south, or inaccessible mountainous areas that were unsuitable for living. So much labor was required to clear the land of forest that new settlements often looked like islands in the thicket, just as the displaced people lived in enclaves surrounded by the Chinese who dominated around them.

In the 3rd century BC. e. Clashes between the Chinese and northern nomadic tribes begin, which continued for many centuries. In the first six centuries AD there was communication with the Parthian kingdom, Turkey, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, India and Indochina, and in the 8th century - with the Arab world. Europe became acquainted with the life of the Chinese thanks to tireless Christian travelers.

From the 10th to the 13th centuries, the north of the country was occupied by the Khitans, and soon the entire empire at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries was under the rule of the Mongols for 88 years. Over the next four centuries, trade and cultural ties remained between them.

Permanent diplomatic relations with its western neighbors were established after a series of wars that were fought in the 18th-19th centuries. At the same time, the Chinese rulers always refrained from any alliances, because they were completely confident in their own invincibility. Since 1537, as a result of wars or agreements, foreign powers gained control over Chinese territories and established their settlements there. Under pressure from Western countries and the Japanese, China lost a number of border territories and extensive possessions on the islands.

As an agricultural country, China constantly felt the need for a single national idea that could unite the country, so any outside intervention was seen as a tragedy and a violation of general peace.

Anthropological characteristics of the population

The first tribes that came to Northern China, without exception, belonged to the white race, but in the appearance of modern residents practically nothing has been preserved from the appearance of their distant ancestors. They were distinguished by wide-set, almond-shaped eyes, a fold of skin above the inner corner of the eye socket.

The hair is black, straight, coarse, facial hair is sparse, beards are rare. The skin of residents of the southern regions is darker than that of northerners.

The volume and weight of the brain are slightly below average. Emotionally, the Chinese are calm, hardworking, unusually resilient, courteous and even ceremonious. They are characterized by a high sense of duty, at the same time they can be both timid and fearful, and cruel.

Until recently, the Chinese were relatively conservative, prone to stereotypical thinking, a special adherence to traditions, sometimes unimaginative, apathetic, suspicious and superstitious.

As a result of mixing with other races, the character traits of the Chinese have largely changed in the process of natural physical and intellectual development.

Family relationships

The individual elements of the marriage ceremony that have survived to this day indicate that the original form of marriage was borrowed, and the Book of Songs testifies to the same. Most likely, marriage existed as a stable form (as opposed to relationships based on the purchase of slaves) already in ancient historical times. Although formally his monogamous form was legalized in China, in fact a man could have several concubines in addition to his wife, their number depended only on his material capabilities. The higher his social status, the more concubines and maids there were in the house. Up to several hundred women lived in the palaces of rulers and princes.

In earlier times, and throughout the history of China, polyandry (polyandry) occurred, which, however, did not spread as widely as polygamy.

Usually a man got married at twenty, a girl got married at fifteen, and celibacy after thirty was officially condemned for men and women over twenty.

In Shandong province, wives were usually older than their husbands. Marriages were concluded with the assistance of a matchmaker, who received the consent of the parents for the betrothal; the opinion of the young people was not taken into account. There was no official registration of marriage.

After the agreement was concluded, parents on both sides blessed the newlyweds. Sometimes the bride came to the groom's house, where special rituals were performed in order to receive the protection of family spirits.

After a short stay at the groom's house, they came to the house of the bride's parents, where similar rituals were performed. The marriage was not considered valid until a return visit took place.

The woman had practically no rights in society, while the husband became the absolute master and could even kill his wife for treason. Divorce was common, and the right was always considered to be the husband, who could reject his wife simply for disobedience or even for chatter.

The widower could not bear the mourning period and almost immediately married again. If a widow did this, it could be regarded as a violation of fidelity to her deceased husband. Often a widow would mutilate herself or even commit suicide to avoid remarriage - then after her death she would be honored for this act. After all, a woman continued to be considered married both in this world and in the next, so remarriage was perceived as a violation of fidelity. This did not apply to a man who, after remarriage, added another family member to his clan without violating anyone’s rights.

Marriage during the monarchy and during the republic

The matrimonial system of early classical times, which we have already written about, remained virtually unchanged over the long period of the monarchy - from 221 BC. e. to 1912. As before, the main thing was considered to be to give birth to a boy who would inherit power and continue the veneration of ancestors.

It seemed that no one entered into a forced marriage, but bachelors and spinsters were rare. Concubines were subordinate to the wife, who was considered the mother of both her own and their children. However, this did not mean her supremacy at all: unconditional obedience was also required from her; she could not own property, and her husband could force her into anything, including prostitution.

The latter was widespread, although marriage was entered into at a fairly early age and a man could have concubines. In fact, the institution of concubines turned out to be nothing more than legalized prostitution.

Since the establishment of the republic in 1912, Western trends have been observed in Chinese family relationships. The essence of the family contract remained practically the same; the most noticeable changes were felt in the conduct of the marriage ceremony.

Now she has approximately equally combined old and new traditions, for example, marriage contracts were concluded regulating the property rights of the parties in a subsequent divorce. Behavior in the family has also changed, more so for women than for men. The bride's national dress allowed her to wear a European-style hat. Having gained greater freedom, women began to leave their own homes, sit at the table with their husbands, attend public events, and began to dress and have fun in a European way.

Let us note one of the completely unexpected consequences of women's liberation, which even the most far-sighted sociologists did not foresee. Most of those Chinese who did not object to the Europeanization of their family structure, appearing with their wives in society, often discovered that they were inferior to their sociable and active companions, and even more so to European women.

Women from families that steadily followed the behests of their ancestors, still doing hard housework and completely powerless, as throughout the history of the country, could not compete with the graceful, European-educated wives of their neighbors, and only these women could be taken out by their husbands. light without losing your dignity. True, we add that the number of marriages of Chinese men with European women in percentage terms turned out to be insignificant.

Parents and children

The power of parents over children was the same as the power of men over their wives. Infanticide caused by poverty often occurred: first of all, girls who were not really needed “on the farm” were killed. This happened mainly in three or four provinces, but in other places it was not so widespread.

Although punishment for infanticide was introduced under the Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799), it only concerned the killing of children for the purpose of using their bodies for medical purposes; Thus, it can be argued that infanticide was practically not officially prohibited.

In cases where child abuse became too scandalous, local officials issued decrees condemning such acts.

By making a purchase or entering into a contract, a man could adopt or adopt the "acquisition" as a member of his clan with all the corresponding rights, regardless of origin; The sons of all wives and mistresses had equal rights, regardless of seniority. Illegitimate children received half of the inherited share. During the lifetime of parents or grandfathers, the estates were not divided.

The head of the family was considered only a lifelong tenant of the family property, endowed with certain rights. Personal inclinations were not taken into account. All that mattered was honoring parents. Usually the heir was established by oral or written order.

In the absence of a father, any man from this family could become the head of the family, but most often the younger brother. The guardian had full power and could dispose of income from the estate under his care, but did not have the right to alienate property.

History contains many examples of the extraordinary devotion of children to their parents, sometimes manifested in self-mutilation or even suicide - this was done when this was a condition for healing their parents from incurable diseases or to save their lives.

Political history

As already noted, coming from the west, the Chinese limited their settlements to the territory where the modern provinces of Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan connect. It extended eastward to the shores of Haizhouwan Bay. Between one and two million people lived in an area approximately 1,200 kilometers long and 600 kilometers wide.

During the first two thousand years of recorded history, the region's boundaries changed significantly. At the same time, beyond the undescribed and practically unidentified borders of the south were the Zhou, or colonies, mainly inhabited by the Chinese. During the period we are considering, they significantly expanded their lands by capturing neighboring territories.

In the XIV century BC. e. In ancient China, the early slave state of Yin emerged, conquered in the 11th century BC. e. Zhou tribe. Zhou state by the 7th century BC. e. divided into a number of independent kingdoms. At the end of the 3rd century BC. e. the centralized Qin Empire arose in China, which was replaced by the Han Empire (206 BC - 220 AD). In the III-VI centuries AD. e. China broke up into a number of independent states. At the end of the 6th century, the country was unified under the rule of the Sui dynasty. During the reign of the Tang dynasty (618–907), a long peasant war took place from 874–901. In the 12th century, Northern China was conquered by tribes of nomadic Jurchens, and in the 13th century, China was conquered by the Mongols, whose yoke was overthrown in 1368. At the end of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the Peasants' War of 1628–1645 broke out. To suppress it, the Manchus were called in to help; they quelled the unrest and established their dominance in China (their Qing dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911).

In the middle of the 19th century, aggression by European states began against China, as a result of which, according to the treaty, enslaving conditions were imposed on China, and the country was divided into spheres of influence of the USA, France and Great Britain. They helped the Qing government suppress the Taiping Peasant War (1850–1864). By the beginning of the 20th century, China had become a semi-colony, and a liberation movement began in the country under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen.

In 1911, a popular revolution took place, as a result of which the Qing dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was formed. In 1912, Sun Yat-sen created the Kuomintang party, and in 1921 the Communist Party of China was founded. Until 1927, China experienced a civil war between provincial rulers. In 1927-1928, the territorial integrity of China was restored. Chiang Kai-shek became the chairman of the national government in Nanjing. In 1931, Japan captured Manchuria and created the state of Manchukuo on its territory. In 1937, Japan began an open war to conquer all of China. After Japan surrendered in 1945, civil war began again in China. The Chinese People's Liberation Army occupied all of mainland China and forced Chiang Kai-shek to flee to Taiwan; On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed, led by Mao Zedong.

Government

In the most general form, the structure of the Middle Kingdom can be represented as follows: the emperor and his subjects. The Emperor was considered the Son of Heaven, embodying the will of the almighty Heavenly Lord. He not only ruled the state, but was also the chief legislator, commander-in-chief, high priest and master of ceremonies.

The entire population was divided into four groups. The first, shi, included officials (later scientists), they were divided into shen - officials (titled nobility) and shen shi - small nobility; the second group, the Nun, included farmers; in the third, kun, - artisans, artisans; the fourth group, the Shan, are traders.

The entire territory of the country was divided into provinces, the number of which varied from nine in early times to thirty-six under the first emperor (221 BC). At first they were separate states, the governance structure of which repeated the central government of the Middle Kingdom (Zhongguo). The origin of this self-name dates back to the period of the Zhou dynasty (XI century BC - 221).

The location of the central government and, accordingly, the capital of the empire changed several times. Initially, the capital was in Pingyang (modern Shanxi province). During the feudal period, the capital was moved eleven times, and finally it became the city of Yin.

The provincial administration was in the hands of twelve governors. They led the provincial nobility. Civil and military power were not separated. Family nobility and large landowners were often at the ruler's court, and courtiers were often sent to govern other regions with the rank of princes.

The emperor was considered the guarantor of the legislative and administrative powers. Each ruler had the same rights within his province. The income received by the treasury consisted of land and poll taxes, which were levied on farmers, as well as tithes, which were paid by artisans, merchants, fishermen, and lumberjacks. Separate taxes were taken from tribes conquered by the Chinese.

Throughout the imperial period, the structure and operating principles of the administrative system changed little, with some changes only occurring towards the end of the monarchical period. However, even in 1912 they continued to believe in the divine origin of the emperor, who united in his person the highest civil, legislative, military and spiritual power; the same division of the nation into classes was preserved.

The main ministries were located in the capital - Beijing. Most of them existed in feudal times. All affairs in the provinces were managed by a small group of officials, which included the governor, military commander, local treasurer, and judge. In addition, there was also the position of governor, to whom two or three provinces were subordinate at once. He controlled the collection of duties, was in charge of the armed forces, and relations with foreign states.

At first, appointment to a position was carried out by inheritance or by choosing a successor. Later, state examinations were introduced to test the professional suitability of candidates. Usually the examinee took part in public competitive written examinations on knowledge of the legal system. The formation of the examination procedure was completely completed by the 17th century and was abolished in 1903, when official positions were opened to graduates of colleges organized on modern principles.

In 1912, after the overthrow of the Qing monarchy, China became a republic with an elected president and a parliament consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Various government departments were reorganized along Western lines, and a huge number of new government institutions were established. However, a general constitution was never adopted.

Legislation

As in other feudal and monarchical states, Chinese legislation consolidated a system of subordination, subordination to the ruler, and did not contribute to the establishment of justice in society. The laws were aimed at blaming and punishing, not reforming, those convicted.

For an offense or a crime, they were punished very severely: they burned the brand, cut off the nose, cut off the legs to the knees, some were castrated; For serious crimes they were sentenced to death. Sometimes the entire family, clan, and even neighbors of the condemned person were punished. We can say that the punishing sword of the law knew no mercy and no restrictions.

However, despite the cruelty of punishments characteristic of all states of the Ancient World, the Chinese created an excellent legislative system. This activity began with the update of the “Code of Punishments”, adopted under the ruler My in 950 BC. e. The first permanent code of laws was published in 650 BC. e., and the last one - in 1647 AD. e. entitled “Laws and Regulations of the Great Qing Dynasty.”

The largest legislative monument is the “Classical Laws,” compiled by Li Gui, a statesman who was in the service of the first ruler of the state of Wei (IV century BC).

Initially, it established only two types of punishment - the death penalty and caning. A variation of the first was “painful death,” or transformation into a “pig man,” when the condemned man’s tongue was torn out and then his arms and legs were cut off. It was introduced around 1000 AD. e. and banned in 1905. Traitors, women who killed their husbands, and murderers of an entire family (at least three people) were sentenced to this punishment. Although the most cruel forms of punishment were prohibited by law, they were still used in many places until the end of the monarchy. From antiquity until the mid-19th century, the tradition of blood feud for murder was preserved.

Torture of the accused began already in the courts. To obtain a confession, without which a sentence was never passed, the accused were placed in stocks, hung by their bound fingers and toes, shackled in chains, or tied in a contorted position. I note that even after the fall of the monarchy, as well as 4000 years ago, the true meaning of the concept of “due punishment” had a special meaning for the Chinese.

Towards the end of Manchu rule, the judicial system began to undergo significant reform, which was facilitated by pressure from foreign powers. As a result, a new criminal code was adopted. It is noteworthy that even after the proclamation of the republic, a significant part of the population still supported the harsh laws, fearing that their repeal would lead to disruptions in public peace and the loss of “Chinese characteristics.” The new code prohibited excessively cruel punishments and torture, retaining only beheading, hanging or strangulation.

A careful reading shows that it was modeled on Japanese laws; and at the same time, it was an imitation of the Western criminal code, and therefore completely incompatible with living conditions in China. The republican authorities quickly realized that it should be modernized so that it would become a convenient, precise legislative instrument that meets the Chinese mentality.

The practical application of the law was in the hands of police officials, who interpreted it in accordance with their interests. Even someone acquitted by the Supreme Court could be kept in prison until they were stripped dry. It should also be noted that the underlying idea of ​​the criminal code of a “fair trial”, which is subject only to the law, has remained a pipe dream.

Local government

The main unit of local government was the county. All orders of senior officials were carried out by district commanders, who were sovereign local rulers. His duties were quite varied: he was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing imperial decrees, in charge of public works, religious rites, was a judge of first instance in criminal and civil cases, and the head of a prison and police.

The lowest administrative unit was considered whether - a community led by an elder - lizhan. It included at least one hundred households. The community was divided into smaller ones - jia, which united ten courtyards; the head of the jia was the headman - Jiazhang. On the wall of each house there was a sign with the names of all adult men. Every ten jia was bao and obeyed the foreman. Since the 17th century AD. e. there was a system of mutual responsibility - baojia. Each family member was responsible for everyone else. In 1873, a man was sentenced to death for digging up the grave of a member of the imperial family. His entire family of eleven people was sentenced to death.

Army structure

In the pre-state period, China had no army at all. If necessary, everyone who could hold a weapon in their hands exchanged the plow and hoe for sabers, bows and arrows and went to fight. Each village had its own militia. When the fields were cleared after the harvest, the peasants practiced martial arts.

The ruler personally led the troops; under his command there were six armies, controlled by the six highest representatives of the nobility - this was the basis of the government army. On campaigns, the ruler took with him tablets with the names of his ancestors, as well as the gods of his land and fertility.

The main part of the army were chariots drawn by four horses. They housed warriors with spears, javelin throwers and archers. In order not to interfere with each other, the archers stood on buskins. In total there were about a thousand chariots in the army. During battles, the chariots were located in the center, the archers on the left, and the spearmen on the right flank. War elephants, which also carried archers, were used as striking forces. Flags and kites were used for signaling, and troops advanced to the sound of gongs, drums and pipes. After the victory, the army commander presented the emperor with the ears of the leader of the defeated warriors.

After the establishment of the absolute monarchy, the army became regular. All men aged 23 to 56 were recruited for military service, although in other years even twenty-year-olds could be recruited. If necessary, for example, when war was declared or when repelling external aggression, men were called up again.

Military service lasted two years. First, the recruits were trained, after which they were sent to garrisons stationed throughout China. Some of them, after training, were sent to remote garrisons located in fortresses that stood along all the borders of the empire. There the service conditions were the most difficult. We do not know whether this duty was part of the compulsory two-year service, or whether hired soldiers served on the border.

In the 6th century AD e. in China there was a huge army of about a million and a quarter, but it changed depending on the circumstances. In 627 AD. e. In the permanent combat units there were 900 thousand people aged from 20 to 60 years.

During the Mongol dynasty (1280-1368), there was also a fleet of 5 thousand ships, commanded by 70 thousand trained warriors. The Mongols completely changed the tactics of warfare and clearly improved the fighting skills of the Chinese.

In 1614, the Manchus, who conquered China, established an army consisting of "eight banners", which included units of the Mongols, Manchus and Chinese. The local population organized a "Green Standard Army", divided into land and sea forces, replacing regular troops with "courageous" ones. Jung - warriors who were included in the lists and called up depending on the circumstances.

After the war with Japan in 1894, the army was reformed along European lines; changes concerned uniforms, weapons, and the procedure for conducting military operations. The fleet was similarly reformed and became more modern. The army began to be treated with respect, as in other countries. For a long time, the soldier, like the priest, was considered a person who did not produce useful products, and was therefore treated with disrespect.

Simultaneously with the recognition of the need to defend the country, it became clear that the army must protect the country not only from obvious enemies who threatened it from land or sea, but also from their secret collaborators who could seize command of the army, thereby gaining control over the entire military system.

Professional associations

During the feudal period, there were professions of healers, musicians, poets, teachers, prayer writers, architects, scribes, artists, fortune-tellers, ceremony organizers, orators and many others. All of them were in one way or another connected with religious cults, which predetermined their close relationship. And then the author of a historical work could simultaneously be a statesman, a scientist and even a general. One person combined the talents of a writer and a teacher, a musician and a poet. Priests usually served as healers. At the same time, there were also experienced doctors, but there were few of them, and there were no female doctors at all.

Veterinarians also practiced, treating domestic animals, and there were also musicians, usually belonging to the poorest segments of the population. The greatest respect was enjoyed by literate people who knew how to draw up business papers and mastered the art of calligraphy.

Educational institutions

Schools, academies and universities were located in villages, counties, regions and provinces. Education was divided into stages: “primary” and “higher, or major, education.” There were special schools for teaching dance and music; it is known that there were libraries. Not only in the capital, but also in other cities there were associations of literature lovers.

Regardless of what form and direction education took, it was standard and constituted the first step for an official climbing the career ladder. Mandatory for the applicant was not only knowledge of the Buddhist canon, but also the works of Confucius, Mencius, as well as the ability to write poetry and prose works. Mastery of the art of calligraphy was also required, because the text should not contain a single incorrectly or carelessly written hieroglyph.

Learning to read and write began in childhood, and at the same time literary preferences were formed. Education was expensive, so often only one or two family members could receive a full education. As a rule, they sought to occupy a certain position in order to improve the situation of their family. In Western countries, primary education was universal and anyone could receive it.

The path to knowledge, as mentioned above, began at an early age, and this tradition was preserved for many centuries. At first, students mechanically memorized not only simple texts, but also the works of Confucius and other classical authors.

This state of affairs continued until the old competitive examination system was abolished in 1905, and was replaced by a modern one introduced in schools, colleges and universities throughout the country. The new system is reviving the Chinese spiritually, and its results will eventually become obvious to the entire world community.

The bulk of the population were farmers, artisans and traders. Among them, professional skills were passed on from fathers and grandfathers to sons and grandsons. Deviation from tradition was considered an insult to one's ancestors. The elders showed how to work and developed the appropriate skills and natural abilities in the children.

There were also charitable institutions in China: hospitals, almshouses, orphanages; Banking associations engaged in insurance and loans, tourist clubs, trading communities, anti-opium associations, funeral parlors, and many other institutions modeled on Western organizations developed throughout the country.

Deliberate mutilation of the body

Like some other ancient peoples, such as the Mayans, the Chinese have known, albeit few, cases of deliberate mutilation of the body. They should be distinguished from injuries of natural origin, received during war or as a result of punishment for a crime.

Their application was prescribed by custom and was deliberate, and in some cases even dictated by law. Traditionally, infants' skulls have been reshaped using bandages to narrow the skull at the top. Foot binding for girls is widely known. It came into use around 934, although some believe it was much earlier, around 583. However, the custom did not become widespread immediately; most likely, at least a century passed before footbinding became a tradition.

An unusually painful operation was performed at the age of six or seven: the girls were bent to the sole of all the toes, except the big one, pressing them with bandages. Every week the bandages were tightened tighter.

Gradually, the sole took on an arched shape, reminiscent of a lotus flower. Such a foot almost prevented the woman from moving.

It is not known exactly where this custom came from. It is believed that the basis was the desire to copy the small legs of the imperial concubines. They were especially admired by Emperor Li Houzhu of the Tang Dynasty. He had a concubine, Yao Nian, whose feet resembled lotuses.

In addition, at the age of 12-14, the girl’s breasts were tightened, since it was believed that her figure should “shine with the harmony of straight lines.” A thin waist and small legs were considered signs of grace.

Wearing braids and shaving the front of the head was a symbol for men of slavish dependence on the Manchus. This tradition was introduced in 1645 when they conquered China. The absence of a braid was considered a violation of the imperial decree. Foot binding and braiding were only abolished in 1912, when the monarchy fell and China became a republic.

Funeral rites

Over the long period of their civilization, the Chinese created an elaborate system of funeral rites. As Li Zhi notes, “rituals are the greatest achievement of people, for which life is worth living.”

The Chinese believed that death was just a state of suspended activity, when the soul leaves the body, but can return there even after a long period of time, so the Chinese were in no hurry with burial: they fed the corpse; Having climbed to the roof, they loudly called out to the soul, begging it to return. Finally convinced that the soul could not be persuaded to return to the body, they placed the deceased in a coffin and buried him. At the same time, he was provided with everything necessary for ordinary life (food, clothing, wife, servants). From the Chinese point of view, the life of the deceased continued in the next world.

Having forced or convinced the spirit to enter the memorial tablet, which was used during the burial ceremony, it was brought back to the house, installed in the tomb, in the main hall, and a hieroglyph was drawn shu, meaning "lord", and they worshiped her. It was believed that this would appease the spirit of the deceased. If the offerings were made constantly, then the spirit that left the body did not harm those living in the house whom it left.

Parting with the deceased was accompanied by shrill screams, screams, stomping, and beating one's chest. In ancient times, even clothes, housing and personal belongings were given to the deceased. Relatives moved to shelters made of clay, fasted or ate only brown rice, and slept on straw. All conversations were conducted only about death and burial; The performance of official and public duties and marriage ceremonies were postponed; it was not allowed to play music or leave the family clan.

During the long period of the monarchy, funeral rites became more and more refined and majestic. Although after the establishment of the republic the customs were no longer observed so carefully, they were still preserved in their main features.

The death of a family member became a very heavy burden for many, and this was not only due to the postponement of marriage ceremonies.

Notifications were sent to friends about the unfortunate event. After receiving it on specified days, the addressee was obliged to send gifts, money, and slaves. He had to come himself and join the lamentations of the hired mourners, and also attend the prayers read by the priests. It was believed that the funeral rite would not be completed and would lead to harm for loved ones if all the ceremonies were not performed at the right time or if the family neglected its individual elements. The same applied to the marriage ceremony.

While in the West cemeteries were an arrangement of graves, in China a cemetery belonged to a family or clan. Usually these were picturesque places with neatly planted trees, between which there were grave mounds and plaques.

The cemeteries looked like villages, and the graves looked like houses. Usually, a huge marble turtle was built to the north of the grave, on the back of which was placed a tablet with an inscription that a European would consider a tombstone.

The burial grounds of the last two imperial dynasties, the Ming and Qing, are majestic structures stretching across a vast territory. Traditionally, these types of buildings were located on hillsides and faced natural or artificial lakes or seas.

In Egypt, the burial structures of many rulers have been preserved, but in China only those discussed above have survived to this day. Typically, rival dynasties destroyed the graves of their predecessors. Despite such vandalism, China has the most magnificent ensemble of imperial tombs.

The originality of social relations

There were special regulations that defined all types of relationships between people: the relationships of juniors to seniors, seniors to juniors and to their equals.

Officials differed in the shape of their headdress, the cut of their clothing, emblems, weapons, writing tablets, the number of servants, the number of horses, and the height of their houses. Both everyday life and the activities of officials were regulated to the smallest detail. Visits, forms of address, and presentation of gifts were carried out in strict accordance with certain rules that were known to everyone and strictly observed by all members of society. Any Chinese child memorized these rules, like the tercets from the book “Ashi Jing”, and followed them strictly.

The etiquette accepted in China was not just different from the Western, but was diametrically opposed, which is why misunderstandings, excesses and, as a result, alienation constantly arose. In this regard, people most often remember the procedure for removing one's hat before the emperor and the nature of ancestor worship.

As a rule, the stranger was not aware of the traditions of China. In particular, it is not customary to take off your hat when entering a house or a temple, shake hands with your owner, or express approval by clapping your hands - after all, in old China they clapped their hands to ward off sha-shi - deadly influence of evil spirits. It is impossible to clap your hands, approving the statement of a Chinese, as Europeans who are not aware of national customs do, because this can be regarded as an insult.

If our diplomats knew and followed these subtleties, perhaps they would be able to avoid many complications, and sometimes even wars.

Habits and customs

Several times a year the Chinese held holidays. One of them is the beginning of the New Year. On this occasion, an incredible number of fireworks were displayed, people had fun in their homes, drank and ate delicious food. For several days we went to visit friends and relatives. It was believed that on the eve of the holiday, the kitchen god Tuan Nien descended from Heaven to learn about the sins of people and then report to the Heavenly Lord. To keep Tuan Nien's lips sealed and prevent him from talking too much about what he saw on earth, he was fed honey and other sticky foods.

The plots and houses were cleaned, new paper images of guardian gods were pasted on the entrance doors, strips of red paper with hieroglyphs containing wishes for happiness, wealth, good luck, and long life were hung. They were placed on tables covered with a red tablecloth. There were flowers and decorations everywhere: garlands, holiday flags.

Business life ceased, celebrations continued during the first half of the first lunar month.

The holidays ended after the three-day Lantern Festival. He was born during the Han Dynasty, two thousand years ago. In front of all the buildings, countless lanterns of all sizes, shapes and colors were lit, except white or a shade of undyed matter, for these colors were considered mourning.

About 800 years later, that is, about 1200 years ago, innovations were introduced: paper dragons several hundred meters long slowly moved along the street. They were carried on the heads of many men so that only their legs were visible, so it seemed as if huge snakes were writhing and slowly crawling along the street.

In addition to the holidays of the Four Seasons, celebrated on the days of the equinoxes and solstices, eight others were celebrated, four of which were associated with the veneration of spirits. Let's call the Early Festival of Spirits, which took place on the fifteenth day of the second lunar month, and the Festival of Tombstones. The latter occurred around the third day of the third lunar month, when the graves were put in order and special offerings were made to the dead. The Middle Spirit Festival took place on the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month, and the Late Spirit Festival on the fifteenth day of the tenth lunar month.

It is believed that the Dragon Festival on boats (on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month) was celebrated in memory of the poet Qu Yuan, who threw himself into the river, unable to withstand the palace intrigues and machinations of the courtiers. The main content of the rituals was requests for abundant rains for a good harvest.

The name reflects the meaning of the holiday; it takes place in the form of a competition on multi-oared boats in the shape of dragons. At the same time, texts of spells are attached to the doors of homes, a special kind of rice pudding is eaten, and intoxicating drinks are drunk.

On the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, the Midsummer holiday is celebrated; Europeans call it Remembrance Day. Then the women worship the Moon and offer pies and fruits as food. They believe that on this day the gates of purgatory open and hungry ghosts come out to enjoy everything that people offer them for a month.

On the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, the Chun-Yang festival was held, when anyone could climb to a high place, mountain or temple tower to fly a kite. It was believed that longevity could be achieved in this way. From this day the season of flying kites began. Over the next few months, the Chinese launched dragons, centipedes, frogs, butterflies and hundreds of other ingeniously made creatures into the sky, which they controlled using simple mechanisms using the power of the wind. They rolled their eyes, made various sounds, moved their paws, wings, and tails. There was a complete illusion that there were living beings in the sky.

The origin of this holiday, according to legend, is associated with a warning received by a scientist named Huan Jing from his mentor Fei Jiangfang from Henan, who lived during the Han Empire. One day, the spirit of a mentor appeared to a scientist in a dream and predicted that a flood would soon occur. In the morning, Huan Jing gathered his household and moved with them to a hill. Indeed, a flood soon occurred and their village was flooded. Upon returning, Huan Jing found that all his pets had died. He immediately made abundant sacrifices to the gods and celebrated this day as a holiday for the rest of his life.

Sports and games

The first Chinese sports competitions were games held during holidays, such as archery. The games were accompanied by military exercises. Favorite entertainment was hunting or games related to counting, chess (“the game of war”), badminton, throwing darts (for example, into a jug with a narrow neck), butting (the fighters wore masks with horns and sat on the shoulders of the attacker).

Since the same times, walking on stilts, football, throwing discs, rowing competitions, dog racing, cockfighting, kite flying, as well as dancing and singing puppets have been known - this is how the Chinese have been relaxing and having fun since ancient times.

Over time, most of the games were forgotten, so new entertainment was invented. Before the fall of the monarchy, during the reign of the Manchus, it turned out that badminton remained popular. They practiced lifting logs loaded with heavy stones; their length was approximately 1.5 meters, and at each end there was a load of 30-40 kilograms.

Also mentioned are flying snakes, fighting quails, playing cricket, releasing birds to catch seeds thrown into the air, walking through fields, playing chess, mahjong or dice. They made bets on winning in cricket, on winning in quail fights. Children's games were numerous and varied: they competed in strength, speed of reaction, accuracy and dexterity.

Traveling troupes performed on platforms built opposite the temples. Magicians, ventriloquists, acrobats, fortune tellers and storytellers gathered crowds of people, amused and entertained them. Even then, there were stationary theaters, and until recently, women’s roles were played by men. There are well-known shows where naked women are shown through a special opening.

In modern times, most outdoor games have been preserved in China. Let us note that indoor entertainment from the West has not taken root well.

Private life

In private life, in the rites of birth, death and marriage, all customs were carefully observed, which also reflected belief in supernatural forces. We usually woke up early. Shops closed at midnight, and until recently the streets were poorly lit or remained dark, with passers-by or their servants walking around with lanterns. Public baths are known in all cities and settlements.

Wealthy houses usually hired watchmen. We ate twice a day. Dinners for friends were given in taverns or restaurants, accompanied by musical or theatrical performances. Sometimes they were given after a meal.

European descriptions of the life of the Chinese say that the place of honor was located to the left of the head of the family: when seating a guest there, they expressed special concern for his safety. It was traditionally located opposite the door so that the guest could see the person entering and react accordingly.

Birds and lap dogs of the Chihuahua breed were kept as pets. Such a small yellow dog was considered a reliable guard in the house and cleaned the home of debris. Goldfish aquariums were often seen in upper and middle class homes. Rich people usually built gardens with decorative stone slides, ponds, built gazebos, and planted beautiful shrubs and flowers.

Shaving the head or beard, as well as cleaning the ears and massaging, was done by barbers. Men did not wear sideburns, and mustaches and beards appeared only after forty; before that time, hair grew very slowly. It was rare to see older people with thick facial hair like in the West. Both men and women carried snuff boxes, smoking pipes and fans. Educated members of society grew long nails. Women and girls, regardless of origin, used cosmetics liberally.

Industry and economy

In traditional China, there was a strict division of responsibilities between men and women. Men worked in the fields or were engaged in crafts, mining, trade, and participated in military operations.

Women took care of planting mulberry trees and silkworms, spinning, weaving, embroidering, mending old clothes, making holes in needles and sharpening them, gluing tin foil, making shoes, collecting and sorting tea leaves.

Trade gradually developed, which led to the specialization of individual areas: cod fishermen gathered in Shanxi, carpenters in Yizhou (Anhui), porcelain manufacturers in Yaozhou or Gansu.

As for the land, it quickly passed into private hands, and the owner began distributing it among his relatives or renting it out. Typically, lands were organized according to the well system. Around the public plot, cultivated by eight farming families, usually for the benefit of the state, eight private plots in the form of squares were organized.

From the beginning to the end of the monarchical period, the right to inherit land was vested only in the emperor. All other land was considered state land. It was mainly rented by rich clans or families and could not be transferred by inheritance or alienated. The owner annually paid a tax on it in kind in the form of part of the harvest or in money.

To be exempt from military service, it was possible to make monetary compensation in the form of a direct tax. Unknown at first, slavery existed as a special institution throughout the entire period of the monarchy.

The quantity of products produced depended on the intensity of labor of people and animals; only in the 20th century did machines begin to be widely used. The distribution of agricultural products was carried out from numerous centers, sold at fairs, shops and markets. The main trade routes by land and sea have remained virtually unchanged over the past two thousand years.

Chinese merchants traded with Western Asia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, and Arabia. Since the 17th century, exchanges took place mostly with European countries. The main means of transportation were horses, carts and boats. Since 1861, sailing ships were gradually replaced by steamships.

The exchange was of a barter nature. In exchange for fabrics, tea, porcelain and handicrafts, the Chinese received imported European goods. Silver ingots of different weights were used as a means of payment, samples changed during the reign of the new emperor. Until recently, copper money was used as a small change; paper tokens also became other means of payment, and silver bars remained.

Along with the development of trade with other countries, silver dollars and colonial coins came into use. The different measures of weight and length in the north and south began to be partially calculated in the decimal system. But in everyday trade within the country, in the provinces they adhered to the traditional duodecimal measure.

Crafts

Hunting, fishing, cooking, weaving, dyeing, carpet making, metallurgy, glass, brick and paper making, printing, book binding were almost at the initial stage of development. Mechanical crafts were largely borrowed and were not distinguished by skillful execution. But pottery, carving and varnish technology were at an unusually high level of development; the products produced by Chinese craftsmen surpassed all world analogues in both quality and beauty.

Agriculture and livestock breeding

Since ancient times, the Chinese have strived to cultivate as much land as possible. With the exception of periods after devastating wars, they carefully looked after every piece of arable land. They even used mountain slopes and terraces to grow a variety of crops. However, the poverty of the peasants and the inaction of the government hindered the full development of agriculture and led to losses.

Usually in the north they received two harvests per year, and in the south - five in two years. Farmers made up at least two-thirds of the total working population. And although in most cases the most primitive methods were used, the incredible fertility of the soil and the enormous diligence of the peasants, along with the thoughtful use of fertilizers, made it possible to feed the country’s huge population.

The main cultivated grain crops were rice, wheat, barley, buckwheat, maize, kaoliang, several varieties of millet and oats. In addition to them, legumes, peas, oilseeds (sesame, rapeseed) crops, fibrous plants (hemp, Chinese nettle, jute, cotton), starchy root crops (yams, sweet potatoes), as well as tobacco, indigo, tea, sugar, and fruits were grown.

True, fruit growing was spontaneous, because scientific methods were not used. The plants were not replaced, but grafting, pruning, and selection were carried out, through which they achieved both enhanced development and the creation of dwarf plants.

Thanks to the high culture of agriculture, it was possible to obtain abundant harvests of vegetables even on small plots of land. In the 20th century, another problem arose: due to low profitability, small farms could not afford expensive foreign equipment; in addition, in most cases it turned out to be too bulky or difficult to operate.

Cattle breeding was no less developed. Let's name the main types of animals: pigs, donkeys, horses, mules, cows, sheep, goats, buffalos, yaks, poultry, ducks, geese, pigeons, as well as silkworms and bees.

The newly established Ministry of Agriculture and Trade became the successor to the College of Agriculture, Production and Trade; Now it adapts Western techniques to the specifics of China, so good results can be expected.

Aesthetic feeling and morality

The Chinese have always admired beauty and found it in plants, music, poetry, literature, embroidery, painting, and porcelain. Flowers were planted almost everywhere, since almost every house had at least a small garden. Tables were often decorated with flowers in vases, baskets of fruit or sweets. Music came into use because it corresponded to the teachings of Confucius.

Paper with hieroglyphs written on it was so highly valued that it could not be thrown on the ground or stepped on. We admired the art of theater and professional storytellers. For the success of any enterprise, rituals were performed in temples.

However, until recently, streets and public places were not cleaned, and norms of behavior in society were not observed.

In China, elders in age and social status were traditionally deeply revered, and the authority of parents was unshakable. The possibility of “white lies” was recognized, that is, it was not condemned in any way and deception was not persecuted. Theft was not uncommon. Illegal extortions from rulers were considered a burdensome but inevitable burden.

Morality existed in society, but early marriages and concubinage were practiced, debauchery, drunkenness and corruption were known. Women were not considered full-fledged beings, they were deprived of their rights, and they were treated despotically.

Moral principles were set forth in classical works, and the foundations of the legal system were formed accordingly. Clan squabbles and battles between clans were a frequent occurrence; blood feud could last for several generations, because its fulfillment was considered a sacred duty. Ritual suicides were welcomed, which were often committed under the influence of unjust accusations. Based on the Buddhist dogma of the immortality of the soul, many strived for bodily immortality. The dignity of a man was considered to be endurance and the ability to hide his feelings.

At the same time, honesty and loyalty to one’s word were highly valued, especially among merchants, which was expressed in the saying: “A merchant’s word is stronger than a stone.” However, such relationships were obligatory only between Chinese, while deceiving a foreigner was not considered a sin.

Many smoked opium until its use became severely punished (in 1906-1916). But, despite the ban, opium continued to be smuggled, and bribed officials tried not to notice the cultivation of poppies.

Since ancient times, politeness and courtesy were considered the norm of behavior, and sometimes adherence to etiquette went to extremes. Politeness often masked true feelings. The deepest dislike for each other could be hidden behind the eloquent compliments. Many were addicted to gambling, such as mahjong, sometimes losing huge fortunes.

Cult organizations

Like other peoples, the Chinese have created a system of beliefs in which several layers of different times can be distinguished. Legends about deities, good and evil spirits and invincible heroes inherited from Ancient China occupied a large place in the spiritual life of the people during the Qing Dynasty.

It is difficult to even approximately calculate how many gods the Chinese people worshiped. There was not a single craft, not a single sphere of life where people could do without appropriate patrons. When numerous fires broke out in Beijing in April 1908, people attributed them to the spirit of fire that descended to the earth. “When this sinister deity returns to his abode, the fires will stop,” they said.

The main one was the cult of Heaven. The Emperor was considered the representative of the Heavenly Lord on earth, so only he could perform rituals of worship of Heaven. He was considered the high priest, and the nobility, statesmen, civil and military officials acted as his assistants depending on their rank.

The worship of Heaven took place in the Temple of Heaven, which was at once a palace, a place of audience, and a council chamber. There they made offerings to Heaven, to the spirits of mountains and rivers, to ancestors and to all spirits. All these cults were also performed in special sacred places, and they had their own order of rituals and ceremonies. Along with the state cult of Heaven and Earth, “great”, “medium” and “small” offerings to spirits were made in the form of animals, silver, grain, jade, as well as seasonal offerings to the altars; the clergy dressed in colors characteristic of a particular time of year.

Supporters of each of the existing movements, Taoism and Buddhism, had their own temples and monasteries. Priests and monks served in numerous village and roadside temples, at the tombs of their ancestors. In sacred places they worshiped the gods of thunder, rain, wind, fertility, and agriculture.

Attitudes towards Taoism and Buddhism changed, beliefs were sometimes encouraged, sometimes allowed, sometimes persecuted, but the hierarchy of the clergy and the very structure of the cult remained in the 20th century. Today, adherents of several religions coexist in China.

The main place among them is Confucianism, which was the state religion for many years. The cult of ancestors is no less widespread. Another group is adherents of Taoism. The observance of various annual festivals, such as All Souls' Day, when offerings are made to wandering and hungry spirits, reflects the close interconnection of the three religions (San Chao).

As the high priest, the emperor was personally responsible for the peace and order of the country, he confessed to Heaven and prayed that he would be punished for all the sins that his subjects committed. It has already been said above that, in addition to their usual duties, statesmen, nobility and officials performed the duties of priests of the state religion.

Even in the most elaborate ceremonies, performed on special occasions in Buddhist temples, there was nothing outwardly similar to one or another form of Christian worship, but in them it is easy to see similarities with solemn masses or “common prayer.” At the same time as worshiping Buddha, the Chinese could seek help from a local god or turn to spirits to avoid misfortune.

After China became a republic in 1912, the state cult disappeared and religious customs were less strictly observed, and many temples began to operate schools.

Religious ideas

The most important part of the Chinese belief system is the cult of ancestors. It became the basis of the state religion - Confucianism. Under the influence of the ideas of Taoism, which turned from a philosophical system into a cult system, traditions of worshiping spirits developed. The Chinese believed that the souls of dead people transmigrated into animals, insects, trees, and stones.

Originating in India, Buddhism was based on the belief in Buddha, who had superhuman powers. He believed that from a deified human being the soul transmigrates into someone or something: an elephant, a bird, a plant, a wall, a broom or any piece of inorganic matter.

These ideas corresponded to the Chinese mentality, so Buddhism deeply entered the culture, influencing both Taoism and ancient beliefs. Buddhism, with its concern for the future, was more understandable than Confucianism. Preaching compassion and preserving any life turned out to be an urgent need. If there was no belief in the transmigration of souls, then the existence of people would be much more difficult.

Apart from ancestor worship, religion did not fundamentally influence the daily life of the Chinese. It is unusual for them to express love for God as brightly as in Christianity. As for ancestor worship, it is gradually giving way to agnosticism.

Ancient Beliefs

Beliefs in good or evil spirits were common throughout China. Happy and unlucky days were also recognized. It was believed that eclipses of the Sun and Moon occur because a dragon wants to swallow these luminaries, and a rainbow is a consequence of the meeting of unclean fumes from the earth with sunlight.

Wearing protective amulets was practiced. To ward off evil spirits, flowering peach tree branches were hung over beds and doorways. Children and adults “locked their souls” with locks hanging on chains or cords tied around their necks. They believed that old bronze mirrors had magical powers: they could ward off evil spirits and even cure madness.

In order to protect themselves from illness, injury, fire or robbers, they wore pumpkin figurines, tiger fangs or rhinoceros teeth. Protective spells and good wishes were written down on paper, fabric, plant leaves, and then burned. The ashes were poured into a decoction and given to the sick person or child to drink.

Before starting any important business, they turned to fortune-tellers or predictors of the future. Fortune telling was done by plants (usually by yarrow) or with the help of sand, and most often in order to make sure that the plan was successfully fulfilled. Before setting off, they told fortunes using a coin thrown to the west.

There was a system of ideas associated with feng shui - “the art of achieving harmony between the living and the dead so that they correspond to the local flows of cosmic breath.” It stems from the cult of ancestor worship and has had a profound influence on Chinese philosophy and everyday life. Feng Shui received special development in the teachings of Zhu Xi and other philosophers of the Song Dynasty.

Science and education

Note that traditional Chinese education was mainly bookish, since the need for the development of those forms of knowledge that prevailed in the Western education system was considered secondary. The Chinese system developed in response to specific requirements and was largely determined by immediate needs.

Astronomy, or more precisely, astrology, was studied in order to draw up calendars and determine the timing of agricultural work. The daily ration depended on the harvest. Usually these were portions of rice, fruits and various types of meat necessary for subsistence.

There are two periods of greatest flowering in philosophy: the first begins with Lao Tzu and Confucius in the 6th century BC. e. and ends with the “burning of books” by the first ruler of the Qin kingdom, Shihuang Di, in 213 BC. e.; the second begins with Zhou Zi (1017–1073) and ends with Zhu Xi (1130–1200).

Imperial Library in 190 BC. e. contained 2705 books on philosophy by 137 authors. There is no doubt that such zeal in the study of orthodox teaching was determined by written instructions from government institutions - which is why scientific knowledge did not develop.

Note that during the rule of the Manchus, who ended the more than four thousand year history of China, we know of only a few truly educated people who became famous for their works. The famous “Description of the Twenty-Four Dynasties” is considered one of the rarest phenomena of antiquity.

Knowledge of geography, mathematics, chemistry, botany and geology was limited to purely practical needs. In all these areas of knowledge, a huge store of information has been accumulated, demonstrating the amazing property of the Chinese - the ability to observe the world around them, and then accumulate and use this experience. Therefore, one cannot agree with some Western scientists who speak disparagingly of Chinese scientists.

The achievements of Chinese medicine are no less amazing for a European. Although Chinese doctors, based on careful observation of the human body, believed that the mind is located in the stomach, the soul in the liver, and thoughts come from the heart, they accumulated vast experience and created a unique system of knowledge about vital points, the impact on which could reduce suffering, relieve symptoms of diseases. Currently, Zhenjiu therapy and the art of acupuncture have entered the arsenal of modern medicine.

Language

Originally polysyllabic, Chinese later adopted a monosyllabic, isolating, uninflected form in which grammatical relationships were conveyed by the location of words in a sentence. Tone stress, that is, the pronunciation of the same sound with different pitches, also performs a semantic distinguishing function. In numerous dialects existing in different parts of the country, ancient linguistic relics have been preserved. All these features led to the need for careful articulation of norms and to the emergence of homonyms, since some words began to differ only in pronunciation. To distinguish similar hieroglyphs, there are special keys, or so-called phonetics, which indicate the exact or approximate sound of the sign. And today the same phoneme “ma” can mean an exclamation, hemp, a horse or a curse. The specific meaning depends on the context and is conveyed by the height of pronunciation.

Consequently, the language has been preserved in an archaic state; it does not have a system of inflection or paradigms similar to European declensions or conjugations. The word order in a sentence is traditional: subject, verb, direct object, indirect object. Gender is formed using gender particles, number - by prefixes, case - by the position of the word or the corresponding preposition.

Adjectives precede nouns, position determines the degree of comparison, so lack of punctuation leads to ambiguity. True, in recent works we already find punctuation marks. Learning begins with memorizing numerous words and phrases that are not found in old literature or dictionaries. Japanese borrowings further pollute the Chinese language.

Chinese characters do not need a lengthy description; those who cannot understand its meaning will enjoy it as an exquisite pattern, a peculiar harmony of lines drawn on paper or fabric. Hieroglyphs consist of word roots, keys, or phonetics. They are written down in vertical columns, arranged from right to left. In the 1st century AD e. a modern style of writing hieroglyphs was developed (kaishu - “model writing”). The total number of characters is approximately 50 thousand; in modern Chinese, 4-7 thousand characters are used.

Achievements of the Chinese

Over a centuries-long history filled with constant struggle for survival, the Chinese have come up with many useful devices. They built comfortable houses and beautiful palaces, in which they preserved the features of the most ancient primitive dwellings: flat walls, the entrance is always in the front, the wooden roof rests on massive pillars. The main room was flanked by extensions on either side.

To heat the room in the cold season, they used gans, or “stone beds” (that is, peculiar platforms built of bricks), inside of which a fire was lit. A similar design was used in ancient times in caves.

Windows and shutters opened upward (in ancient times, instead of them, mats or curtains were used, hanging in front of openings in the walls of cave dwellings).

The closed space of the courtyard was formed by four buildings located one opposite the other, one or more courtyards formed a common space. The farm was natural and fully met its needs for plant and animal food. They ate everything they could gather, catch, or grow; They didn’t eat milk, they drank tea. And before they began to grow it, food was washed down with wine.

Clothing was made from skins and furs, sewn from cotton fabrics, and later from silk. Under the Manchus, they began to wear their clothes, characteristic of nomadic peoples. Loose trousers, boots with wide toes that resembled hooves, and hair braided came into use.

Typically, braids were braided from the hair that grew on the back of the head, and the front was shaved. Unlike the Egyptians, the Chinese did not wear wigs. They almost always dressed in long clothes and despised Europeans for wearing too short dresses. Today, the Chinese also wear Western-style suits.

The Chinese built huge canals, bridges, aqueducts and even built the largest wall in the world - the only man-made object that can be seen from space.

The Chinese had the longest and widest roads. In some places, the remains of ancient tracks have been preserved, on the site of which roads or railways are now being built.

To praise and be faithful to widows who did not remarry, the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire built special gates in their honor. Let us also note the pagodas and arched bridges of incredible beauty they created. Each city was necessarily surrounded by a high and strong wall, which was supposed to protect residents from raids and attacks.

The Chinese are known for constant improvements in a variety of tools and weapons, from writing utensils and fans to plows, carts and ships. They invented “fiery spears” and “flaming elephants”, which replaced bows and darts, chariots with spikes, battering guns and ballistas, guns with a matchlock, guns with 4-meter-long barrels placed on a tripod, iron helmets with holes for ears and shoulders.

The Chinese are also known for their greatest pieces of literature, as well as their fine porcelain. From the point of view of Europeans, Chinese musical compositions are not particularly elegant, since Chinese music is based on a completely different melodic series. The painting is very unique. Sculpture is varied and expressive in its own way, especially works of small forms.

Werner alludes to Japan, which in 1931 captured Manchuria and created the puppet state of Manchukuo, and in 1937 began a war to capture the entire territory of China.

The ancient myths of China describe the history of the ancient civilization of China since the birth of the universe. One could say that since the Big Bang, but this is part of modern scientific mythology, and in the ancient myths of China the Universe is described as a kind of egg that was broken from the inside. Perhaps, if there had been an external observer at that moment, it would have looked like an explosion to him. After all, the egg was filled with Chaos.

Creation of Earth and Sky

From this Chaos, with the help of the forces of the Yin and Yang Universe, Pangu was born. This part of the ancient myths of China is quite compatible with the modern scientific myth about how a DNA molecule was accidentally created from the chaos of chemical elements on Earth. So, according to the theory about the origin of life accepted in ancient Chinese civilization, it all started with the first ancestor Pangu, who broke an egg. According to one version of this ancient myth, Pangu used an axe, with which he was often depicted on antiques. It can be assumed that this weapon was created from the surrounding chaos, thereby becoming the first material object.

Chaos burst out of the egg, dividing into light and heavy elements. More precisely, the light elements rose up and formed the Sky - the bright beginning, white (yang), and the heavy ones sank down and created the Earth - cloudy, yolk (yin). It’s hard not to notice a certain connection between the ancient myths of China and the scientific explanation of the creation of the solar system. According to which our planetary system was formed from a rotating chaotic cloud of gases and heavy elements. Under the influence of rotation, heavy elements accumulated closer to the center, around the Sun, which appeared as a result of natural causes (which we will not discuss here). They formed rocky planets, and the light elements that accumulated closer to the edge became gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune...)

But let’s return to the theory of the origin of life accepted in the ancient civilization of China, to what our self-confident science calls mythology. So, the ancient myths of China tell how Pangu, being the first and only inhabitant of the new universe, rested his feet on the ground, his head in the sky and began to grow. For 18,000 years, the distance between heaven and earth increased by 3 meters every day until it reached today's scale. After this, Pangu's body disintegrated and was reincarnated into the whole world. His breath became wind and clouds, his body with arms and legs became huge mountains and the four cardinal directions, blood became rivers, flesh became soil, skin became grass and trees... The ancient civilization of China thereby confirms the myths of other peoples in which our planet plays a role living being or organism.

Creation of people

According to ancient legends, when the earth had already separated from the sky, it had everything - majestic mountains rose high, rivers full of fish flowed to the seas, forests and steppes were overflowing with wild animals, but the world still remained incomplete without the human race.

As in various religious versions, in ancient China it was believed that people were created from clay. In the 2nd century treatise “The General Meaning of Customs” it is written that the creator of people was Nuiva, the great female spirit. In the ancient myths of China, Nüwu was seen as a beautifier of the world, and therefore she was depicted with a measuring square in her hand or, as the personification of the feminine principle Yin, with the disk of the Moon in her hands. Nüwa was depicted with a human body, bird legs and a snake tail. She took a handful of clay and began to sculpt figures, they came to life and became people.

Nuiva understood that she did not have enough strength or time to blind all the people who could populate the earth. And then she pulled a rope through the liquid clay. When the goddess shook the rope, pieces of clay flew in all directions. Falling to the ground, they turned into people. But either because they were not molded by hand, or because the swamp clay, nevertheless, differed in composition from that from which the first people were molded, but the ancient myths of China claim that people have a faster method of creation significantly different from those created by hand. Thus, it is believed that the rich and noble are people created by the gods with their own hands from the yellow earth, while the poor and insignificant people are created with the help of a rope.

Further, Nuiva gave her creatures the opportunity to reproduce independently. True, before that she passed on to them the law on the responsibilities of both parties in marriage, which was strictly observed in the ancient civilization of China. For the Chinese, Nuwa was considered the patroness of marriages, who could save a woman from infertility. Nuiva's divinity was so strong that even from her insides 10 deities were born. But Nuiva’s merits do not end there.

Ancestress Nuiva protects humanity

Nuiva lived calmly for some time, without worries. But the land, which was already inhabited by the people she had created, was engulfed by great disasters. In some places the sky collapsed, and huge black holes appeared there. The spirit of fire Zhuzhong gave birth to the spirit of water Gungun, the fight against which occupied a large place in ancient mythology. Ancient myths of China describe incredible fire and heat that seeped through them, as well as a fire that engulfed forests on Earth. Depressions formed in the ground through which groundwater flowed. Two opposites that characterize the ancient civilization of China, two elements hostile to each other, Water and Fire, joined forces to destroy people.

Seeing how human creatures were suffering, Nüwa, as a true beautifier of the world, set to work to “patch up” the leaky firmament. She collected multi-colored stones and, melting them over the fire, filled the heavenly holes with the resulting mass. To strengthen the sky, Nüwa cut off four legs of a giant turtle and placed them on four parts of the earth as supports supporting the sky. The firmament strengthened, but did not return to its previous state. He looked askance a little, but in reality this can be seen by the movement of the sun, moon and stars. In addition, a huge depression formed to the southeast of the Celestial Empire, which became the Ocean.

Ksenia Velichko. The Epoch Times