All objects and figures are placed in space. Even in simple drawing It is worth understanding not completely different objects, but everything that is on it, and everything that we want to depict. It is worth considering it as one flow of shapes and lines, white and black, light and shadow.
The drawing should be perceived as a space on paper, where there is a plane and proportions of all objects, light and shadow, which is directed according to the shape of the object.
Basic geometric shapes:
2D flat shapes
Three-dimensional figures that have volume
Absolutely all objects are based on these figures.
A cube is a figure, the basis of which is a three-dimensional image in the spatial relationship of the sheet. The cube has all the geometric parameters, such as: verticality, horizontality and depth. The cube itself contains the concept of the drawing as a whole.
To begin to understand the drawing, we will work with it. With the help of figurative and logical constructions, you and I We will develop thinking through form analytics. For greater understanding and analysis of the drawing, there are several exercises.
Exercises
We sit down at the easel and take large leaf paper, maybe inexpensive, or even a piece of wallpaper (paper doesn't really matter in this exercise). We draw a square, naturally we try to make sure that its sides are even and its lines are straight.
So, we see an ordinary square, completely uninteresting and unimpressive, but this is only at the moment...
Making a cube out of a square using a pencil: draw lines from the edges at approximately 45 degrees. We finish drawing the back part and... we get a cube. But again we don’t see any space in our sheet. You can freely confuse the nearest and farthest edges. Now it's just a few lines on paper.
In order for us to feel space, we need to give the drawing smoothness. That is, to make it clear to us where the front of the drawing is and where the back is.
The side of the cube that is closer to us needs to be highlighted, made clearer and conveyed more actively. Take your pencil and draw in a bold tone on the front edges. Now we can already see where the near side is and where the side is further from us.
This is how we conveyed the space to achieve the desired result. But that's not all. Now it is important to correctly convey smoothness in order to obtain volume in the drawing.
We present to your attention a short video tutorial on the topic optical illusions.
In art schools or any drawing course, the first thing they teach is how to draw shadows. Drawing primitive figures: a ball, cube, cone or cylinder is a rather boring and tedious task. But it is precisely such classes that are the first steps towards understanding the volume of a geometric figure and the ability to correctly depict its dark and bright sides. In the future, the ability to correctly sense light and shadow will help you in other drawings.
I didn't study at art school, but took these lessons on my own in order to learn to understand the volume. In this article I will go through this lesson again, because such lessons are never superfluous, no matter how many times we go through them. In the illustrations, step by step, I will show how I drew the ball.
Start with light items
Any shadow from any object appears when a light source appears. If you know where the light source is, then drawing a shadow on a figure is not difficult. But, if you see that you have problems with how to draw shadows, then I advise you to start with something easy, for example, with some simple shape. Use any drawing technique that is convenient for you. I usually draw using two techniques - . 
Light a lamp so that it is the only light source in the room and easily shows the shadow of the object you choose. I won’t bore you with stories about all the nuances of constructing a shadow because this is all theory, and I don’t think that you will one hundred percent understand how to draw shadows. 
Artists, when drawing shadows, do it by eye, do not line up its guides and do not calculate where it should fall. Only practice will help you understand how to draw shadows, and if the first time you fail to draw a shadow correctly, then after fiddling with it for several evenings, you will see your mistakes.
How to draw shadows and add volume
I said that theory will not help to fully understand how to draw shadows, but still, every artist should know the main points. The areas where light rays fall directly on an object are called light. A penumbra or halftone appears around the light. Places where light rays do not reach are called shadow. After the shadow comes the illuminated area, which is called a reflex and is formed from other objects nearby. 
The location of shadows on any subject will depend on how the light source is positioned and at what angle it is located. A bright light source saturates the shadows and makes them sharp, while from a diffuse source, the shadow transitions become soft and smooth. Important! You should always shade according to the shape of the object you are drawing! Sometimes it is possible to combine shading in order to enhance the shadows. 
If you have already learned how to draw shadows, then try to draw a human eye three-dimensionally and realistically according to the lesson “
Basic information about the design, graphics and accessories
Drawing is a type of graphics. An image made by hand, by eye, using graphic means: lines, strokes, spots - is called a drawing. Drawing is both an independent form of fine art and the basis for painting, sculpture, engraving, posters, arts and crafts and other arts. Not only in works of art, but also in the most different types In human activity, drawing plays an important role; examples include drawings in textbooks, various design elements of scientific papers, sketches of technical details, sketches of costumes and sketches of clothing details, product processing units, and much more.
The scope of drawing is vast, but it is of exceptional importance as a means of cognition and study of reality. As in oral and writing person, and the drawings reflect the artist’s process of thinking and communication with the world.
Any object can be the object of an image, but people perceive the objective world around them differently. And although each of us has the opportunity to sense the diversity of the quality of objects with the help of vision, the visual perception of the artist is most acute. With the help of drawing, the artist learns external world, comprehends the secrets of its image on a plane and in volume.
Here we will consider drawing as a type of graphics and as an independent phenomenon of art.
Graphics (from the Greek grapho - I write, I draw) is a type of fine art that includes drawing and a very wide and diverse range of printed materials. works of art. We see graphics everywhere. Illustrations in books, drawings in magazines and newspapers, packaging designs for various goods, postal and banknotes, emblems, posters and much more - all these are the works of graphic artists. Compared to painting, graphics are more conventional and do not convey all the richness of color and shape of the surrounding objective world, the artist selects and highlights the most important things.
Graphics combine drawing as an independent area and printed artistic images: woodcut (woodcut), metal (etching), stone (lithography), linoleum (linocut), cardboard and other types based on the art of drawing, but having their own means artistic expression.
Unlike works of printed graphics, which can be replicated in many copies - prints, the drawing is unique. 
Drawings may vary in technique and nature of execution, purpose, genres and themes. An easel drawing has an independent meaning - it is a carefully crafted work made on an easel (an artist’s machine) on a separate sheet. These can be drawings of various genres: landscapes, portraits, still lifes, drawings for household and historical topics etc. Depending on the time of execution, drawings can be long-term or short-term. In contrast to lengthy drawings, in sketches and sketches the artist quickly records his impressions of what he sees. In preparatory drawings and sketches, artists, sculptors, and designers embody the initial ideas of their projects.
Means of artistic expression in graphics
Like any type of fine art, drawing has its own figurative language. Line, stroke, spot, tone, chiaroscuro are the means of artistic expressiveness of a drawing. Various combinations These tools allow you to create light and shade and tonal effects.
Main means of expression drawing - line. Its role in drawing is complex and responsible: it is inextricably linked with the essence of what is depicted and is the result of an artistic understanding of reality. The artist's line is different from the drawing line. It sometimes thickens, sometimes becomes thinner, sometimes strengthens, sometimes weakens, and can be rigid, angular, insecure and timid (Fig. 1.1). The line conveys not only the character of the depicted object, but also emotional condition the artist himself.
The emotional palette of the line is varied. How plastic and expressive the line is in V. Mukhina’s sketch (Fig. 1.2) and how dynamic it is in L. Spazzapan’s drawing (Fig. 1.3).
A stroke is a short trace of a pen or pencil, the simplest element of drawing technique. A system of strokes conveys space, reveals the volumetric-plastic properties of objects, their texture, and creates expressive effects of dynamics, light and shadow.
The drawing amazes with the magic of space and light French artist J. Seurat (Fig. 1.4), depicting a singer on the stage. It is made with a pencil, but not with an ordinary pencil stroke, but with a soft, uniform shading, creating, as it were, blurry, unclear outlines of figures and objects.
If the contour of a linear drawing is filled from the inside with an even color, the result is a silhouette - a spot - a planar color image. A spot with apparent non-plasticity can reveal an infinite variety of states. Using a spot you can express not only the shape, but also the character of the model and the plot situation (Fig. 1.5). They masterfully use stains in the art of textiles, which always tend to be flat.
The ability to work with stain is an important quality for craftsmen who create designs on fabric (Fig. 1.6).
The spot pattern may not be a silhouette. For the most part it is based on the use of gradations of tone, i.e. gradual transitions from dark to light. The drawing by N. Kupriyanov (Fig. 1.7) was made in black watercolor, but there is some poetry and mystery in this sketch.
Graphic materials, accessories and requirements for them
Many tools and materials are used for drawing. The most common of these is the graphite pencil. Already the ancient Romans knew a pencil, but only a silver or lead one. In the Middle Ages, tin and an alloy of tin and lead were added to it. However, such pencils could not become widespread. The revolution was made by the discovery of graphite in the second half of the 16th century. in England. But graphite pencils had drawbacks - they got dirty and did not stick well on paper. And only at the end of the 18th century. The French mechanic Gonte, having mixed graphite powder with clay in the right proportion, invented the pencil that we still use today.
Graphite pencils are produced various degrees hardness. Domestic pencils have 13 degrees of hardness, the harder ones are designated by the letter T (from 1T to 7T), the softer ones by the letter M (from 1M to 5M); imported pencils - N and V, respectively.
Relatively soft pencils of the TM, M, 2M - 5M brands are most suitable for drawing. They can make lines of varying thickness and a range of tonal gradations from the lightest to almost black, which is achieved by shading.
Charcoal is also widely used in drawing because it has great expressive capabilities. It gives a deep velvety black color and various tonal transitions. They are fulfilled quick sketches and long-term drawings. Charcoal can be drawn into a thin line and quickly covered large plane tone. Charcoal drawings should be secured with a special fixative.
Coal goes well with other materials - sanguine, chalk, pastel, colored pencils and special charcoal pencil"Retouch".
Drawing with a pen develops the hand and eye well. Feathers are used for drawing with liquid dyes: ink, ink, stain, watercolor. The pen has been known for a long time as an artist's tool. In the old days, goose, swan, crow, peacock, reed and straw feathers were used. Currently, metal feathers are common in artistic practice. different forms and sizes (Fig. 1.8). 
Working with a pen requires observation, attention, confidence and precision. The peculiarity of working with a pen is that corrections are almost impossible. By changing the pen pressure, you can achieve lines of varying thickness. Steel feathers give a clear and thin line, while goose and reed feathers give an expressive and lively line (Fig. 1.9).
A variety of graphic effects can be achieved with colored pencils. Blurring with water watercolor pencils, you can get picturesque effects.
Graphic work is mainly performed on paper, the selection of which must be selective. There are different types of paper. For quick drawings with pencil or paint, thick white paper with a slightly rough surface - Whatman paper or half-Whatman paper - is better suited. For short-term drawings and sketches made with soft graphic materials (very soft pencils, coal, sanguine, etc.), they use paper of different quality: wallpaper, wrapping, newspaper, etc. Smooth, without roughness, thick white paper is suitable for working with a pen.
For educational drawings, use paper 1/2 or 1/4 size of a standard sheet of drawing paper. It is better to store sheets of drawing paper in a special folder rather than on a roll, since a curled sheet is difficult to attach to an easel or drawing board.
The set of drawing supplies also includes a folding knife or scalpel and a soft rubber band cut diagonally, since it is more convenient to eliminate unnecessary lines with a sharp end.
Knowledge of artistic materials and techniques for working with them helps to realize creative ideas and make drawings more expressive.
Three-dimensionality. Form. Volume
The world around us is rich in a variety of forms. Everything we see around has a form that the best way characterizes any object (Fig. 1.11, a and b). When it is necessary to graphically represent an object on a plane, we focus our attention on the form. Any form that has already passed through our visual perception can be associated in consciousness with other similar forms, with which our imagination will create certain relationships and connections. For example, a spot of paint can be associated with a face, and in the outline of clouds you can see a lying dog, a running horse, and much more.
The expressiveness of the form of the depicted object is very important for the artist, because it determines the type of models he creates. On a flat sheet the artist creates an image in which the viewer sees volumes and space. In order for the painter to succeed, he must learn to perceive all visible space three-dimensionally: when drawing an object from one side, it is as if he sees it from all sides. The artist must consciously represent the structure of the object, the laws of its construction, and not “copy” the contours, light and dark spots without meaning.
Any form created by nature or man is based on geometric bodies, from which learning to draw begins.
The volume of an object is characterized by three parameters: length, width, height. Depends on their ratio appearance an object and the outline of its shape.
In order to convey a three-dimensional form in a drawing, you need to use imagination and logic to imagine its internal structure, that is, to understand the design of the object.
A design is the structural basis of a form, its frame, which connects individual elements and parts mutually located in space into a single plastic volume.
In order to understand the structural features of the form and its design, the method of through drawing is used in the drawing (Fig. 1.12). 
Based on their shape, objects can be classified as simple or complex. Complex shapes are a combination of different surfaces (flat, convex and concave). An example would be the shape of a car.
Simple shapes of objects can be divided into faceted and round. Faceted surfaces geometric bodies formed by flat faces - these are cubes, prisms, pyramids. The surfaces of round geometric bodies are formed by the rotation of a flat contour around its axis - these are a ball, a cylinder, a cone. They are characterized by curved surfaces - spherical or cylindrical.
When starting to draw, you need to carefully examine the depicted object from all sides in order to get a clear idea of its volume. Next, to clarify the design of the object, make several sketches, using the method of end-to-end drawing, in which to outline the axes and characteristic lines of the sections.
Optical illusions. To correctly depict the shape of objects, it is necessary to become familiar with perception. Artists encounter a number of phenomena called optical illusions. Studying and taking them into account will help avoid visual distortions of objects. Psychologists have noticed that our consciousness tends to group things into simple units. Points located at equal distances from each other and representing unrelated objects are organized in rows and columns in our minds (Fig. 1.13).
In Fig. 1.14, a - illusions that arise when comparing the lengths of segments. Optical illusions can also appear when comparing geometric shapes(Fig. 1.14, b). The same objects may appear larger when surrounded by small ones and small when surrounded by large ones. The perception of a geometric characteristic can be distorted if the sides of the rectangle are crossed by many rays emanating from the center (Fig. 1.14, c). These rays seem to transform the parallel straight lines of the sides of the rectangle into curved ones. A white square on a black background seems larger than a black one on white, although they are the same (Fig. 1.14, d). Optical illusions are the result of our own minds. For example, the so-called ambiguous drawings, which clearly demonstrate how the perception of one and the same object gives an alternating image and is read as a figure, then as a background: now we see two dark profiles on a white background, now a white vase on a dark one (Fig. 1.14, d).
Knowledge of the peculiarities of form perception will help you create accurate and expressive drawings, interesting compositions. When artistic designing modern clothing, knowledge of the laws of visual perception and the occurrence of optical illusions will help the costume designer to realize his idea in the most complete and interesting way, and the cutter to correct some of the shortcomings of the customer’s figure.
Chiaroscuro and its patterns.
The volumetric form is conveyed in the drawing not only with the help of constructive construction, but also with the help of chiaroscuro. Any three-dimensional object limited to curved or flat surfaces that are subject to varying lighting conditions when illuminated. Light, spreading across the form, depending on the nature of its surface, has various shades- from lightest to darkest.
The degree of surface illumination depends on the distance to the light source: the further the light source is from the surface, the weaker it is illuminated, and vice versa. The apparent lightness of the surface of an object also depends on the distance between the object and the viewer. When removed, light surfaces gradually darken, and darkened ones lighten.
The angle of incidence of light rays on the surface also plays a significant role in the degree of illumination of the surface. The most intensely illuminated surface will be the one on which the light rays fall at right angles, i.e. perpendicular. The smaller the angle of inclination of the light rays to the surface, the weaker it is illuminated.
The lightness of an object depends on the color and texture of its surface: a glossy surface will reflect light more than a matte and rough one. Dark surfaces absorb more light rays and reflect less. On very dark or very light surfaces, the gradations of light are poorly distinguished, since our eye is not able to distinguish between too weak or too strong light stimulation.
As an example of the distribution of chiaroscuro on various surfaces depending on the angle of incidence, let us consider chiaroscuro on the simplest geometric bodies.
Based on forms various items the simplest geometric bodies lie. Knowing the laws of light and shadow distribution on spherical, cylindrical and flat surfaces, you can understand the light and shadow of any object with a complex shape.
In order to better imagine the nature of the distribution of light and shadow on the surface of geometric bodies, imagine that they will be illuminated by strong lateral light with the shadow sides illuminated by reflected rays from a nearby white vertical plane (Fig. 1.15).
The part of the surface of the body that is hidden from the light source and is in the shadow is called its own shadow, and the illuminated part of the surface is called light. The degree of illumination of a curved surface is determined by the angle of incidence of the light rays: the most illuminated area will be the area on which they fall at a right angle. Where the rays only glide across the surface, penumbra is formed. As you approach the shadow line, the angle of incidence of the light rays decreases. On smooth shiny surfaces the light source is reflected and the brightest place is formed - glare. The illumination of a shadow by rays reflected from illuminated planes located nearby is called a reflex. The shadow cast by an object is a falling shadow.
For polyhedra, the most illuminated face will be the one on which the rays of light fall under high angle, and as the angle between the rays of light and the face decreases, the degree of its illumination decreases. Each face of the polyhedron is visually perceived as unequally illuminated at all its points. A light surface bordering on a dark one will appear lighter, and a dark surface will appear darker.
On cylindrical, conical and spherical surfaces, the transition from light to shadow will occur gradually, without a sharp change in light-and-shadow ratios. Such surfaces are characterized by a smooth, saturated halftone transition from the lightest to the darkest spot.
Proportions 
Proportions are the dimensional relationships of parts of a form with each other, as well as between different forms.
The sense of proportion is one of the main things in the drawing process. Compliance with proportions means the ability to subordinate the sizes of all parts of the depicted object in relation to each other and to the whole.
For example, to draw a still life from several household objects, it is necessary to determine how they relate to each other in size: height, width, volume, weight. Having established the proportional relationships between objects, they move on to identifying the proportionality of the parts of the form of a single object. Thus, establishing relationships between objects and between parts of the form separate subject, we identify their proportional characteristics. Therefore, the basis of proportions is the method of comparison.
The proportionality of the parts of the form creates its beauty. When we admire the works of masters of the past, we are struck by their amazing harmony, which is largely determined by such an aesthetic quality as the proportionality of the whole and details.
Artists different eras sought to understand the proportional patterns of objects in the surrounding world, and especially the human body. 
IN Ancient Egypt To depict the human body, a special canon was developed, according to which parts of the human body were measured with mathematical accuracy. The Egyptians based the division of the figure on 21 parts (Fig. 1.18), with 19 equal parts for the figure itself and 2 parts for the headdress (the crown of the pharaoh). Rules for the image were set standing man, walking, sitting, kneeling, etc. T9.K LS6 rules were developed for the depiction of a lotus flower, sacred animals and birds. When creating reliefs and paintings, the Egyptians used special grid-tables, which were applied to walls and stone slabs. The artist had to know the rules established by the canon and follow them using a grid table.
The ancient Greeks based their fine art on the image of a beautiful person. They argued that a strict pattern reigns in the world, and the essence of beauty lies in harmonious order, symmetry, harmonious unity of parts and the whole. These provisions formed the basis of the canons created by the Greeks. In 432 BC. e. The sculptor Polykleitos wrote an essay on the proportions of the human body, which was called “Canon”. To illustrate his theory, he created a statue of "Doriphoros", which means spearman. This statue of a young athlete served as a model for artists. Artists Ancient Greece discovered a system of proportions, which later became known as “ golden ratio" The essence of this proportion is that the sum of two quantities is related to the larger value, just as the larger value is related to the smaller one. An example of dividing segment AB according to the “golden section” principle is shown in Fig. 1.19 (AB: AC = AC: SV). Approximately in whole numbers, the "golden ratio" is expressed as 5:3; 8:5; 13:8; 21:13, etc.
Knowledge of the law of the “golden section” played a significant role in ancient architecture, painting and sculpture. If ancient artists intuitively followed the principle of the “golden ratio” in search of harmony, then it was theoretically described in the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci, based on the experience of the ancients, developed a system of proportions of the human body. Creating rules for depicting the human figure, he made a drawing diagram that clearly shows the proportional pattern of parts of the human body (Fig. 1.20).
Among the Renaissance masters who dealt with the theoretical foundations of drawing, a prominent place belongs to the German artist Albrecht Durer. Having written several books on human proportions, he strove to scientific justification topics, attaching a large number of drawings, diagrams and drawings to the texts.
Problem perfect proportions worried artists in subsequent eras. In 1947, the French architect S. E. Le Corbusier developed the modulator - a system for dividing the human figure in accordance with the principle of the “golden section”. On this basis, a school of models for architectural planning and design was created. In this system, the human figure is divided into segments from the foot to the waist, from the waist to the back of the head, from the back of the head to the fingertips of the raised hand (Fig. 1.21).
A developed sense of proportion largely determines success in drawing. Practice shows: the more accurately the proportions are found, the brighter and more expressive the drawing. The correct selection of proportional relationships has great importance when designing a costume. Co-dimension and successful organization parts of the costume help to make the human figure attractive and hide some flaws. And not only in the field of clothing design, but also in any artistic and design activity, proportionation plays an important role.
IN visual arts, when drawing from life, the proportions of objects can be checked by sighting (Fig. 1.22). 
This is done like this: we press the pencil with the ring and middle fingers to the palm, and thumb moves along the pencil and serves to mark it required sizes. The pencil is held on a horizontally outstretched hand between the subject and the eye. It can tilt both to the right and to the left depending on the position of the object being measured, but in this case the pencil must be in a position strictly perpendicular to the main line of vision. Without these conditions, measurements will be erroneous.
Using the sighting method, you can determine how many times the width of an object fits into its height, clarify the degree of inclination of the shape axes, etc. However, the sighting method should not be abused, since it inhibits the development of the eye, which is trained through systematic exercises. Measurements by eye can be more accurate than measurements by sighting if the sense of proportion is developed.
Basics of Perspective
When learning to draw from life, as well as from memory and imagination, you need to know theoretical basis constructing realistic images. Considering the world, a person cannot help but notice that objects, moving away, decrease in size.
The explanation for this lies in the properties of our vision. The objects we see are necessarily illuminated in one way or another, otherwise we would not see them. The rays reflected from illuminated objects are perceived by our eye and cause irritation of the nerve endings in its retina. This irritation in our mind is transformed into a visual image. In Fig. Figure 1.23 shows a diagram of visual perception, which shows that due to the optical properties of the eye from two objects equal size the nearest one is larger, and the more distant one is smaller. 
A classic example of a promising reduction in size is a road running into the distance with pillars running along it. Moving away, the road narrows, and the pillars become smaller until they converge somewhere on the horizon into one point (Fig. 1.24).
The horizon is not always visible - you won’t see it in the city or in the forest. In this case, it must be presented. main feature The horizon line is that it always passes at eye level of the observer. You look at everything above the horizon line from below, and at everything below you look at it from above. All horizontal lines of objects standing above the horizon line slope down, and similar lines of an object standing below the horizon line slope upward towards this line. All these changes occur according to certain laws.
The study of image patterns on the plane of the visible world in accordance with optical features and physiological properties Our vision is concerned with the science called perspective (from the Latin perspicio - I see clearly). The image itself, made in accordance with the provisions of this science, is also called perspective. The perspective method was developed during the Renaissance. One of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective was the early Renaissance architect Filippo Brunelleschi in collaboration with the mathematician Paolo Toscanelli. Then Italian and German artists Pierodella Francesca, Paolo Uccello, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Durer and others in their scientific works and works of art developed previously discovered laws.
IN fine arts Three types of perspective can be distinguished: observational, linear and aerial. Observational Perspective- this is a series of rules derived from the experience of direct observation. In this case, the artist, when conveying a full-scale image, is based not on precise geometric calculations, but on his own vision and analysis. Unlike observational perspective, linear perspective is a system various methods geometric construction of perspective images on a plane. Aerial perspective is a particular section of observational perspective and speaks of the change in color and clarity of the outline of objects as they move away from the viewer under the influence of the atmosphere. It is mainly used in painting.
Before you begin learning the basics of perspective, there are a few concepts you should familiarize yourself with. Everything that a person can cover with one glance, without moving or moving his eyes, is called the visual field. It is within a visual angle approaching 60°, but the clearest perception is within a visual angle of about 30°.
If we look at the same object, moving now to the right, now to the left, now crouching, now straightening up, it will appear to us differently each time. The position of the observer's eyes in relation to the observed object is called point of view.
When looking out the window from a room, we see a large space with houses, trees or other objects located at different distances. If we trace their outlines on glass with paint, we will get a contour image of objects located in space. In this case, the glass will be the picture plane. Looking at the full-scale setting, the painter seems to imagine an imaginary picture plane in front of him, on which objects are visible as they should be depicted on paper.
The horizontal plane of the ground, floor or table on which the depicted objects are located is usually called the object plane.
Points on the horizon that visually converge parallel lines, going deep into the picture, are called vanishing points.
For each group of parallel lines, no matter where they are in the picture and no matter what objects they belong to, there is only one vanishing point. Parallel lines, located at right angles to the horizon, go to one point, which is located opposite our eyes and is called the main point. In Fig. Figure 1.25 shows a spatial model for constructing a perspective image.
Lines perspective. Lines that are parallel to the picture plane in nature are called frontal. In the drawing they have the same directions as in nature, no matter how far away they are. All frontal lines, no matter what position they are in, do not have vanishing points.
The lines that are directed into the depth of the picture can be perpendicular to the picture plane or go to it at different angles. An object seems to us to become smaller as it moves away from the eyes, and parallel lines directed inward seem to approach each other at the vanishing point.
Square and circle perspective. A square in perspective will be either a trapezoid if its two sides are parallel to the picture plane, or an irregular quadrilateral if the plane of the square is located at a random angle. In the first case, two sides of the square will be parallel to the horizon line, and the sides going deeper will converge at the central vanishing point P (Fig. 1.26, a). In the second case, the sides of the square will be directed to the vanishing points Fx and F2, located to the right and left of the central one (Fig. 1.26, b).
A circle in perspective looks like an ellipse (Fig. 1.27). The closer to the horizon line, the narrower the ellipse becomes, and when it coincides with the horizon line, it turns into a straight line. When constructing the perspective of a circle, you should pay attention to the fact that the front half of the circle will be larger, and the back half will be smaller.
Cube perspective. It is best to understand the principles of changing shape in perspective using the example of such a simple geometric body as a cube. There can be two main, characteristic positions of the cube in relation to the picture plane: frontal (planes located parallel to the picture) and at an angle. In the first case, the perspective is frontal, and in the second - angular.
In the frontal arrangement of the cube, two of its faces are parallel to the plane of the picture, and the rest are perpendicular to it. The horizontal lines forming the edges going into depth will converge at one, central vanishing point P (Fig. 1.28). 
When constructing a cube perspective in an angular position, there will be two vanishing points Fx and F2 on the horizon line, located to the right and left of the central one (Fig. 1.29). Moreover, one or even both vanishing points may be outside the picture.
Knowledge of the laws of linear perspective will help the painter to understand the internal structure of the form in order to depict it vividly and convincingly. However, the use of perspective constructions should not turn the drawings into dry diagrams. Knowledge of the laws of perspective helps when drawing from life, from memory and from imagination. 
The main task of academic drawing is to reliably convey form And volume. These are the 2 main characteristics of any item, and they are inextricably linked. It is impossible to imagine something having form, but not having volume and vice versa. Under shape usually understand the geometric shape, outline of an object, and volume is its three-dimensional spatial characteristic.
You can find items with the same shape, but different volume. Let's say, a sheet of paper, a notebook, and a book - form one, volume- varies.
No matter how difficult they may be shape and volume object, they can always be reduced to a set of simple geometric primitives. A jug may consist of a ball and a set of cylinders, a person may consist of parallelepipeds and prisms. This may sound strange, but the ability to see objects as a set of geometric bodies is one of the most important skills of an artist.
This skill is called spatial vision(the ability to perceive the shape and spatial relationships of objects), and it should be constantly developed.
Of course, out of habit, it is quite difficult to discern geometric primitives in the figure of a person or animal. However, their shape is very complex; there are a lot of details that do not allow a beginner to see the main volume. And the attention of the novice artist focuses mainly on these details. In a portrait, for example, he begins to carefully draw holes in the nose and eyelashes, without paying attention to the shape of the nose and eyes. I think there is no need to clarify that such a portrait will not be realistic.
I once saw a portrait made in this way of a very pretty freckled girl in reality. The drawing showed a flat pancake with eyes, a mouth and many black dots - it felt like the artist had counted and depicted every freckle. The model didn’t like the portrait)
So, in a drawing, the most important thing is not to copy the visible image, but to analyze and generalize. That is, draw not what you see, but how you understand the shape of the object - then the result will be more convincing. In general, drawing is a more logical process than a sensory one, especially in the early stages.
Artistic analysis concerns not so much the external form as the design, because it is the design that determines the character of the form. The structural shape of a building is a parallelepiped, an apple is a sphere, and so on.
In the design of objects of more complex shape, more geometric bodies can be isolated, but always work in progress from largest to smallest: first the main volume, then the details (which are also divided into geometric components).
Have you ever felt like you could walk right into a beautiful landscape painting? Like a magician, the artist has transferred the third dimension onto a flat canvas, and you, the viewer, are drawn into the world created by paint.
Creating a believable landscape painting Depth isn't really some kind of magic trick, it's a technique. More than a century experienced artists used some of the following techniques to carefully organize persuasive landscape paintings. Learn how to draw the viewer into your landscapes with these tips.
1. Layers and overlay
The use of word and overlay is effective when there is a noticeable contrast in the shadow or texture of two overlapping objects. This creates additional contrast and helps separate objects from each other. IN magnificent picture Edgar Payne below, small boats in the foreground layer and partially overlap the larger ones. This creates a feeling of depth.
2. S-curve and winding path
A winding river or path that winds its way in an S shape through a painting can be used as a way to control the viewer's eye. Charles Warren Eaton's tone painting, Winter's Solitude is an example of this popular method.
3. Use diagonals
Lowell artist Birge Harrison makes effective use of diagonals in Moonrise on the Shore. Smoothly rolling waves move away from us at an angle, creating a feeling of depth and distance.
4. Aerial perspective
A mountain range in the distance usually appears lighter, foggier, and bluer as it gets further away. This is an optical effect that the atmosphere creates when you look at objects at a great distance. Use temperature changes in color to get aerial perspective. This is a generalization, but warm colors are more eye-catching.
5. Interest in the foreground
When painting objects at medium to long distances, they can often appear flat. Add interesting subject to the foreground to enhance the sense of depth. This draws the viewer's eye toward the scene, from the foreground to the subject in the distance. Use less details and textures on the background. Famous artist, teacher and author John F. Carlson demonstrates this technique in the following painting.
6. Change your size
In this painting, The Road to Sluys, Charles Warren Eaton makes effective use of the technique of resizing. Please note that although in real life we know that these trees are the same size; Eaton masterfully painted them in descending order. In other words, trees get smaller as you move away. This created a wonderful illusion of depth.
