Christianity is the largest religion in the world by number of followers. But today it is divided into many denominations. And an example was set a long time ago - in 1054, when the Western Church excommunicated Eastern Christians, rejecting them as if they were aliens. Since then, many more events have followed that only worsened the situation. So why and how the division of churches into Roman and Orthodox happened, let's figure it out.

Prerequisites for the split

Christianity was not always the dominant religion. Suffice it to remember that all the first Popes, starting with the Apostle Peter, ended their lives as martyrdom for the faith. For centuries, the Romans tried to exterminate an obscure sect whose members refused to make sacrifices to their gods. The only way for Christians to survive was unity. The situation began to change only with the coming to power of Emperor Constantine.

Global differences in the views of the Western and Eastern branches of Christianity clearly revealed themselves only centuries later. Communication between Constantinople and Rome was difficult. Therefore, these two directions developed on their own. And at the dawn of the second millennium they became noticeable ritual differences:

But this, of course, was not the reason for the split of Christianity into Orthodoxy and Catholicism. The bishops in charge increasingly began to disagree. Conflicts arose, the resolution of which was not always peaceful.

Photius schism

This split occurred in 863 and lasted for several years.. The head of the Church of Constantinople was then Patriarch Photius, and Nicholas I was on the Roman throne. The two hierarchs had difficult personal relationships, but formally the reason for disagreement was given by Rome’s doubts about Photius’ rights to lead the Eastern churches. The power of the hierarchs was complete, and it still extends not only to ideological issues, but also to the management of lands and finances. Therefore, at times the struggle for it was quite tough.

It is believed that the real reason for the quarrel between the heads of the church was the attempts of the Western governor to include the Balkan Peninsula under his guardianship.

The election of Photius was the result of internal dissensions, who then reigned in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Patriarch Ignatius, who was replaced by Photius, was deposed thanks to the machinations of Emperor Michael. Supporters of the conservative Ignatius turned to Rome for justice. And the Pope tried to take advantage of the moment and take the Patriarchate of Constantinople under his influence. The matter ended in mutual anathemas. The next church council that took place temporarily managed to moderate the zeal of the parties, and peace reigned (temporarily).

Controversy over the use of unleavened dough

In the 11th century the complication of the political situation resulted in another aggravation of the confrontation between the Western and Eastern rituals. Patriarch Michael of Constantinople did not like the fact that the Latins began to displace representatives of the Eastern churches in the Norman territories. Cerularius retaliated by closing all the Latin churches in his capital. This event was accompanied by rather unfriendly behavior - unleavened bread was thrown into the street, and the priests of Constantinople trampled it underfoot.

The next step was theological rationale for the conflict - message against the Latin rite. It brought forward many accusations of violating church traditions (which, however, had not previously bothered anyone):

The work, of course, reached the head of the Roman throne. In response, Cardinal Humbert composed the “Dialogue” message. All these events took place in 1053. There was very little time left before the final divergence between the two branches of the single church.

Great Schism

In 1054 Pope Leo wrote to Constantinople, demanding recognition of his full power over the Christian Church. As justification, a forged document was used - the so-called deed of gift, in which Emperor Constantine allegedly transferred the management of churches to the Roman throne. The claims were rejected, to which the Supreme Bishop of Rome equipped an embassy. It was supposed, among other things, to obtain military assistance from Byzantium.

The fateful date was July 16, 1054. On this day the unity of the Christian Church formally ceased. Although by that time Leo I. X. had already died, the papal legates still came to Michael. They entered the Cathedral of St. Sophia and placed on the altar a letter in which the Patriarch of Constantinople anathematized. The response message was drawn up 4 days later.

What was the main reason for the division of churches? Here the opinions of the parties differ. Some historians believe that this is the result of a struggle for power. For Catholics, the main thing was the reluctance to recognize the primacy of the Pope as the successor of the Apostle Peter. For Orthodox Christians, the debate about the Filioque - the procession of the Holy Spirit - plays an important role.

Rome's arguments

In a historical document, Pope Leo for the first time clearly formulated the reasons, according to which all other bishops should recognize the primacy of the Roman see:

• Since the Church stands on the firmness of Peter’s confession, moving away from it is a big mistake.
• Anyone who questions the authority of the Pope also renounces Saint Peter.
• He who rejects the authority of the Apostle Peter is an arrogant proud man who independently plunges himself into the abyss.

Arguments of Constantinople

Having received an appeal from the papal legates, Patriarch Michael urgently assembled the Byzantine clergy. The result was accusations against the Latins:

For some time, Rus' remained aloof from the conflict, although initially it was under the influence of the Byzantine rite and recognized Constantinople, not Rome, as the spiritual center. The Orthodox have always made the dough for prosphoras using sourdough. Formally, in 1620, a local council condemned the Catholic rite to use unleavened dough for church sacraments.

Is a reunion possible?

Great Schism(translated from ancient Greek - schism) occurred quite a long time ago. Today, relations between Catholicism and Orthodoxy are no longer as strained as in past centuries. In 2016, there was even a brief meeting between Patriarch Kirill and Pope Francis. Such an event seemed impossible 20 years ago.

Although mutual anathemas were lifted in 1965, the reunification of the Roman Catholic Church with the Autocephalous Orthodox Churches (and there are more than a dozen of them, the Russian Orthodox Church is only one of the professing Orthodoxy) is unlikely today. The reasons for this are no less than a thousand years ago.

It is not so important in what year the schism of the Christian church occurred. The more important thing is that today the church represents many movements and churches- both traditional and newly created. People failed to preserve the unity bequeathed by Jesus Christ. But those who call themselves Christians should learn patience and mutual love, and not look for reasons to move further apart from each other.

Schism of the Christian Church, Also The Great Schism And The Great Schism- church schism, after which the Church was finally divided into the Roman Catholic Church in the West, centered in Rome, and the Orthodox Church in the East, centered in Constantinople. The division caused by the schism has not been overcome to this day, despite the fact that in 1965 the mutual anathemas were mutually lifted by Pope Paul VI and the Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras.

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  In 1053, a church confrontation for influence in southern Italy began between the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius and Pope Leo IX. Churches in Southern Italy belonged to Byzantium. Michael Cerularius learned that the Greek rite was being replaced by the Latin rite there, and closed all the temples of the Latin rite in Constantinople. The Patriarch instructs the Bulgarian Archbishop Leo of Ohrid to compose a letter against the Latins, in which the service of the liturgy on unleavened bread would be condemned; fasting on Saturday during Lent; the absence of Hallelujah singing during Lent; eating strangled meat. The letter was sent to Apulia and was addressed to Bishop John of Trania, and through him to all the bishops of the Franks and "the most venerable pope." Humbert Silva-Candide wrote the essay “Dialogue”, in which he defended the Latin rites and condemned the Greek ones. In response, Nikita Stiphatus writes a treatise “Anti-Dialogue”, or “A Discourse on Unleavened Bread, Sabbath Fasting and the Marriage of Priests” against Humbert’s work.

  Events of 1054

  In 1054, Leo sent a letter to Cerularius which, in support of the papal claim to full power in the Church, contained lengthy extracts from a forged document known as the Deed of Constantine, insisting on its authenticity. The Patriarch rejected the Pope's claims to supremacy, after which Leo sent legates to Constantinople that same year to settle the dispute. The main political task of the papal embassy was the desire to obtain military assistance from the Byzantine emperor in the fight against the Normans.

  On July 16, 1054, after the death of Pope Leo IX himself, in the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, papal legates announced the deposition of Cerularius and his excommunication from the Church. In response to this, on July 20, the patriarch anathematized the legates.

  Reasons for the split

  The historical background of the schism goes back to late antiquity and the early Middle Ages (starting with the destruction of Rome by the armies of Alaric in 410) and is determined by the emergence of ritual, dogmatic, ethical, aesthetic and other differences between the Western (often called Latin Catholic) and Eastern (Greek) Orthodox) traditions.

  The point of view of the Western (Catholic) Church

  1. Michael is wrongly called the patriarch.
  2. Like the Simonians, they sell the gift of God.
  3. Like the Valesians, they castrate newcomers and make them not only clergy, but also bishops.
  4. Like the Arians, they rebaptize those baptized in the name of the Holy Trinity, especially the Latins.
  5. Like the Donatists, they claim that throughout the world, with the exception of the Greek Church, the Church of Christ, the true Eucharist, and baptism have perished.
  6. Like the Nicolaitans, altar servers are allowed marriages.
  7. Like the Sevirians, they slander the law of Moses.
  8. Like the Doukhobors, they cut off the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son (filioque) in the symbol of faith.
  9. Like the Manichaeans, they consider leaven to be animate.
  10. Like the Nazirites, the Jews observe bodily cleansing, newborn children are not baptized before eight days after birth, parents are not honored with communion, and, if they are pagans, they are denied baptism.

  As for the view on the role of the Roman Church, then, according to Catholic authors, evidence of the doctrine of the unconditional primacy and ecumenical jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter's have existed since the 1st century. (Clement of Rome) and further found everywhere both in the West and in the East (St. Ignatius the God-Bearer, Irenaeus, Cyprian of Carthage, John Chrysostom, Leo the Great, Hormizd, Maximus the Confessor, Theodore the Studite, etc.), so attempts to attribute only to Rome some kind of “primacy of honor” is unfounded.

  Until the middle of the 5th century, this theory had the character of unfinished, scattered thoughts, and only Pope Leo the Great expressed them systematically and set them out in his church sermons, delivered by him on the day of his consecration before a meeting of Italian bishops.

  The main points of this system boil down, firstly, to the fact that St. The Apostle Peter is the princeps of the entire rank of apostles, superior to all others in power, he is the primas of all bishops, he is entrusted with the care of all sheep, he is entrusted with the care of all the shepherds of the Church.

  Secondly, all the gifts and prerogatives of the apostleship, priesthood and shepherdhood were given fully and first of all to the Apostle Peter and through him and no other way than through his mediation are given by Christ and all other apostles and shepherds.

  Thirdly, primatus an. Peter's is not a temporary, but a permanent institution. Fourthly, the communication of the Roman bishops with the Supreme Apostle is very close: each new bishop receives the apostle. Peter in the department of Petrova, and hence the gift of the apostle. Peter, the power of grace flows onto his successors.

  From this practically follows for Pope Leo:
  1) since the entire Church is based on the firmness of Peter, those who move away from this stronghold place themselves outside the mystical body of Christ’s Church;
  2) whoever encroaches on the authority of the Roman bishop and refuses obedience to the apostolic throne does not want to obey the blessed Apostle Peter;
  3) whoever rejects the power and primacy of the Apostle Peter cannot in the least diminish his dignity, but the arrogant spirit of pride casts himself into the underworld.

  Despite the petition of Pope Leo I for the convening of the IV Ecumenical Council in Italy, which was supported by the royals of the western half of the empire, the IV Ecumenical Council was convened by Emperor Marcian in the East, in Nicaea and then in Chalcedon, and not in the West. In the conciliar discussions, the Council Fathers treated very restrainedly the speeches of the papal legates, who presented and developed this theory in detail, and the declaration of the pope they announced.

  At the Council of Chalcedon, the theory was not condemned, since, despite the harsh form in relation to all eastern bishops, the content of the speeches of the legates, for example, in relation to Patriarch Dioscorus of Alexandria, corresponded to the mood and direction of the entire Council. But nevertheless, the council refused to condemn Dioscorus only because Dioscorus committed crimes against discipline, not fulfilling the orders of the first in honor among the patriarchs, and especially because Dioscorus himself dared to carry out the excommunication of Pope Leo.

  The papal declaration did not mention Dioscorus' crimes against the faith anywhere. The declaration also ends remarkably, in the spirit of papist theory: “Therefore, the most serene and blessed Archbishop Leo of the great and ancient Rome, through us and through this most holy council, together with the most blessed and all-praised Apostle Peter, who is the rock and affirmation of the Catholic Church and the foundation of the Orthodox faith, deprives him of his bishopric and alienates him from all holy orders.”

  The declaration was tactfully, but rejected by the Fathers of the Council, and Dioscorus was deprived of the patriarchate and rank for the persecution of the family of Cyril of Alexandria, although they also recalled his support for the heretic Eutyches, disrespect for bishops, the Robber Council, etc., but not for the speech of the Alexandrian pope against Pope of Rome, and nothing from the declaration of Pope Leo was approved by the Council, which so exalted the tomos of Pope Leo. The rule adopted at the Council of Chalcedon 28 on granting honor as the second after the Pope to the Archbishop of New Rome as the bishop of the reigning city second after Rome caused a storm of indignation. Saint Leo, Pope of Rome, did not recognize the validity of this canon, interrupted communication with Archbishop Anatoly of Constantinople and threatened him with excommunication.

  The point of view of the Eastern (Orthodox) Church

  However, by 800, the political situation around what had previously been a unified Roman Empire began to change: on the one hand, most of the territory of the Eastern Empire, including most of the ancient apostolic churches, fell under Muslim rule, which greatly weakened it and diverted attention from religious problems in favor of foreign policy, on the other hand, in the West, for the first time after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, its own emperor appeared (Charlemagne was crowned in Rome in 800), who in the eyes of his contemporaries became “equal” to the Eastern Emperor and on whose political power the Roman bishop was able to rely in his claims. It is attributed to the changed political situation that the Roman popes again began to pursue the idea of ​​their primacy, rejected by the Council of Chalcedon, not in honor and Orthodoxy of teaching, which was confirmed by the vote of bishops equal to the Roman bishop at councils, but “by divine right,” that is, the idea of ​​their the highest individual authority in the entire Church.

  After the legate of the Pope, Cardinal Humbert, placed a scripture with an anathema on the throne of the Church of St. Sophia against the Orthodox Church, Patriarch Michael convened a synod, at which a reciprocal anathema was put forward:

  With anathema then to the wicked writing itself, as well as to those who presented it, wrote it and participated in its creation with any approval or will.

  The retaliatory accusations against the Latins were as follows at the council:

  In various bishops' messages and conciliar decrees, the Orthodox also blamed the Catholics:

  1. Celebrating the Liturgy on Unleavened Bread.
  2. Post on Saturday.
  3. Allowing a man to marry the sister of his deceased wife.
  4. Catholic bishops wearing rings on their fingers.
  5. Catholic bishops and priests going to war and desecrating their hands with the blood of the slain.
  6. The presence of wives of Catholic bishops and the presence of concubines of Catholic priests.
  7. Eating eggs, cheese and milk on Saturdays and Sundays during Great Lent and non-observance of Great Lent.
  8. Eating strangled meat, carrion, meat with blood.
  9. Catholic monks eating lard.
  10. Carrying out Baptism in one rather than three immersions.
  11. The image of the Holy Cross and the image of saints on marble slabs in churches and Catholics walking on them with their feet.

  The patriarch's reaction to the defiant act of the cardinals was quite cautious and generally peaceful. Suffice it to say that in order to calm the unrest, it was officially announced that the Greek translators had distorted the meaning of the Latin letter. Further, at the ensuing Council on July 20, all three members of the papal delegation were excommunicated from the Church for misbehavior in the church, but the Roman Church was not specifically mentioned in the council’s decision. Everything was done to reduce the conflict to the initiative of several Roman representatives, which, in fact, took place. The Patriarch excommunicated only legates from the Church and only for disciplinary violations, and not for doctrinal issues. These anathemas did not apply in any way to the Western Church or the Bishop of Rome.

  Even when one of the excommunicated legates became pope (Stephen IX), this schism was not considered final or particularly important, and the pope sent an embassy to Constantinople to apologize for Humbert’s harshness. This event began to be assessed as something extremely important only a couple of decades later in the West, when Pope Gregory VII, who at one time was a protégé of the now deceased Cardinal Humbert, came to power. It was through his efforts that this story acquired extraordinary significance. Then, in modern times, it ricocheted from Western historiography back to the East and began to be considered the date of the division of the Churches.

  Perception of the schism in Rus'

  Having left Constantinople, the papal legates went to Rome by a roundabout route to notify other eastern hierarchs of the excommunication of Michael Cerularius. Among other cities, they visited Kyiv, where they were received with due honors by the Grand Duke and the clergy, who did not yet know about the division that had occurred in Constantinople.

  In Kyiv there were Latin monasteries (including the Dominican - from 1228), on lands subject to the Russian princes, Latin missionaries acted with their permission (for example, in 1181, the princes of Polotsk allowed the Augustinian monks from Bremen to baptize the Latvians and Livs subject to them in Western Dvina). In the upper class there were (to the displeasure of the Greek metropolitans) numerous mixed marriages (with Polish princes alone - more than twenty), and in none of these cases anything resembling a “transition” from one religion to another was recorded. Western influence is noticeable in some areas of church life, for example, in Rus' there were organs before the Mongol invasion (which then disappeared), bells were imported to Rus' mainly from the West, where they were more widespread than among the Greeks.

  Removal of mutual anathemas

  In 1964, a meeting took place in Jerusalem between Patriarch Athenagoras, the primate of the Orthodox Church of Constantinople, and Pope Paul VI, as a result of which mutual anathemas were lifted in December 1965 and a joint declaration was signed. However, the “gesture of justice and mutual forgiveness” (Joint Declaration, 5) had no practical or canonical meaning: the declaration itself read: “Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I with his Synod are aware that this gesture of justice and mutual forgiveness is not sufficient to to put an end to the differences, both ancient and recent, that still remain between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church." From the point of view of the Orthodox Church, the remaining anathemas remain unacceptable

  DIVISION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO DIFFERENT RELIGIONS

  The persecutions experienced by Christianity in the first centuries of its existence left a deep imprint on its worldview and spirit. Persons who suffered imprisonment and torture for their faith (confessors) or were executed (martyrs) began to be revered in Christianity as saints. In general, the ideal of the martyr becomes central in Christian ethics.

  The conditions of the era and culture changed the political and ideological context of Christianity, and this caused a number of church divisions - schism. As a result, competing varieties of Christianity—“confessions”—emerged. Thus, in 311, Christianity became officially permitted, and by the end of the 4th century, under Emperor Constantine, it became the dominant religion, under the tutelage of state power. However, the gradual weakening of the Western Roman Empire eventually ended in its collapse. This contributed to the fact that the influence of the Roman bishop (pope), who also took on the functions of a secular ruler, increased significantly. Already in the 5th - 7th centuries, during the so-called Christological disputes, which clarified the relationship between the divine and human principles in the person of Christ, Christians of the East separated from the imperial church: monophists and others. In 1054, the division of the Orthodox and Catholic churches took place, which was based on the conflict the Byzantine theology of the sacred power - the position of church hierarchs subordinate to the monarch - and the Latin theology of the universal papacy, which sought to subjugate secular power.

  After the death of Byzantium under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Russia turned out to be the main stronghold of Orthodoxy. However, disputes about the norms of ritual practice led to a schism here in the 17th century, as a result of which the Old Believers separated from the Orthodox Church.

  In the West, the ideology and practice of the papacy aroused increasing protest throughout the Middle Ages both from the secular elite (especially the German emperors) and from the lower classes of society (the Lollard movement in England, the Hussites in the Czech Republic, etc.). By the beginning of the 16th century, this protest took shape in the Reformation movement.

  Orthodoxy - one of the three main directions of Christianity - historically developed, formed as its eastern branch. It is distributed mainly in the countries of Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Balkans. The name “Orthodoxy” (from the Greek word “orthodoxy”) was first found among Christian writers of the 2nd century. The theological foundations of Orthodoxy were formed in Byzantium, where it was the dominant religion in the 4th - 11th centuries.

  The basis of the doctrine is the Holy Scripture (Bible) and sacred tradition (the decisions of the seven Ecumenical Councils of the 4th-8th centuries, as well as the works of major church authorities, such as Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John of Damascus, John Chrysostom). It fell to these church fathers to formulate the basic tenets of the doctrine.

  In the Creed, adopted at the Ecumenical Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople, these fundamental doctrines are formulated in 12 parts or members.

  In the further philosophical and theoretical development of Christianity, the teaching of St. Augustine played a significant role. At the turn of the 5th century he preached the superiority of faith over knowledge. Reality, according to his teaching, is incomprehensible to the human mind, since behind its events and phenomena the will of the almighty Creator is hidden. Augustine’s teaching on predestination said that anyone who believed in God could enter the sphere of the “elect” predestined for salvation. For faith is the criterion of predestination.

  An important place in Orthodoxy is occupied by sacramental rituals, during which, according to the teachings of the church, special grace descends on believers. The Church recognizes seven sacraments:

  Baptism is a sacrament in which a believer, by immersing his body three times in water with the invocation of God the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, gains spiritual birth.

  In the sacrament of confirmation, the believer is given the gifts of the Holy Spirit, restoring and strengthening him in spiritual life.

  In the sacrament of communion, the believer, under the guise of bread and wine, partakes of the very Body and Blood of Christ for Eternal Life.

  The sacrament of repentance or confession is the recognition of one’s sins before the priest, who absolves them in the name of Jesus Christ.

  The sacrament of the priesthood is performed through episcopal ordination when a person is elevated to the rank of clergy. The right to perform this sacrament belongs only to the bishop.

  In the sacrament of marriage, which is performed in the temple at the wedding, the marital union of the bride and groom is blessed.

  In the sacrament of consecration of oil (unction), when anointing the body with oil, the grace of God is invoked on the sick person, healing mental and physical infirmities.

  Another major movement (along with Orthodoxy) in Christianity is Catholicism. Word "Catholicism" means universal, universal. Its origins are from a small Roman Christian community, the first bishop of which, according to legend, was the Apostle Peter. The process of isolation of Catholicism in Christianity began in the 3rd - 5th centuries, when economic, political, and cultural differences between the Western and Eastern parts of the Roman Empire grew and deepened. The division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox began with the rivalry between the Popes of Rome and the Patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in the Christian world. Around 867 there was a break between Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople.

  Catholicism, as one of the directions of the Christian religion, recognizes its basic dogmas and rituals, but has a number of features in its doctrine, cult, and organization.

  The basis of Catholic doctrine, like all Christianity, is the Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition. However, unlike the Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church considers as sacred tradition not only the decisions of the first seven Ecumenical Councils, but also all subsequent councils, and in addition - papal messages and decrees.

  The organization of the Catholic Church is characterized by strict centralization. The Pope is the head of this Church. It defines doctrines on matters of faith and morals. His power is higher than the power of the Ecumenical Councils. The centralization of the Catholic Church gave rise to the principle of dogmatic development, expressed, in particular, in the right to non-traditional interpretation of dogma. Thus, in the Creed, recognized by the Orthodox Church, in the dogma of the Trinity it is said that the Holy Spirit comes from God the Father. Catholic dogma declares that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. A unique teaching about the role of the Church in the matter of salvation was also formed. It is believed that the basis of salvation is faith and good works. The Church, according to the teachings of Catholicism (this is not the case in Orthodoxy), has a treasury of “super-duty” deeds - a “reserve” of good deeds created by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, saints, pious Christians. The Church has the right to dispose of this treasury, to give part of it to those who need it, that is, to forgive sins, to grant forgiveness to those who repent. Hence the doctrine of indulgences - the remission of sins for money or for some merit to the Church. Hence the rules of prayer for the dead and the right of the pope to shorten the period of stay of the soul in purgatory.

  
  
  

  The dogma of purgatory (a place intermediate between heaven and hell) is found only in the Catholic faith. The souls of sinners who do not bear too great mortal sins burn there in a cleansing fire (perhaps this is a symbolic image of the torment of conscience and repentance), and then gain access to heaven. The duration of a soul’s stay in purgatory can be shortened by good deeds (prayers, donations to the church) performed in memory of the deceased by his relatives and friends on earth.

  The doctrine of purgatory developed back in the 1st century. The Orthodox and Protestant Churches reject the doctrine of purgatory.

  In addition, unlike the Orthodox doctrine, the Catholic doctrine has such dogmas as the infallibility of the pope - adopted at the First Vatican Council in 1870; about the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary - proclaimed in 1854. The Western Church's special attention to the Mother of God was manifested in the fact that in 1950, Pope Pius XII introduced the dogma of the bodily ascension of the Virgin Mary.

  The Catholic faith, like the Orthodox faith, recognizes seven sacraments, but the understanding of these sacraments does not coincide in some details. Communion is made with unleavened bread (among the Orthodox - leavened bread). For the laity, communion is allowed with both bread and wine, and with bread only. When performing the sacrament of baptism, they are sprinkled with water, and not immersed in a font. Confirmation takes place at the age of 7–8 years, and not in infancy. At the same time, the teenager receives another name, which he chooses for himself, and along with the name - the image of a saint, whose actions and ideas he intends to consciously follow. Thus, performing this ritual should serve to strengthen faith.

  In Orthodoxy, only the black clergy (monasticism) takes the vow of celibacy. For Catholics, celibacy (celibacy), established by Pope Gregory VII, is mandatory for all clergy.

  The center of the cult is the temple. The Gothic style in architecture, which spread in Europe at the end of the Middle Ages, greatly contributed to the development and strengthening of the Catholic Church. Important elements of the cult are holidays, as well as fasts that regulate the everyday life of parishioners.

  Catholics call the Nativity Fast Advent. It begins on the first Sunday after St. Andrew's Day - November 30th. Christmas is the most solemn holiday. It is celebrated with three services: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the birth of Christ in the bosom of the Father, in the womb of the Mother of God and in the soul of the believer. On this day, a manger with a figurine of the infant Christ is displayed in churches for worship.

  According to the Catholic hierarchy, there are three degrees of priesthood: deacon, priest (curate, priest, priest), bishop. The bishop is appointed by the pope. The pope is elected by the College of Cardinals by a majority of at least two-thirds plus one vote by secret ballot.

  At the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), the process of agiornamento began - renewal, modernization of all aspects of the life of the church. First of all, this affected the tradition of worship. For example, the refusal to conduct services in Latin.

  Story Protestantism truly begins with Martin Luther, who was the first to break with the Catholic Church and formulate and defend the main provisions of the Protestant Church. These provisions proceed from the fact that a direct connection between man and God is possible. Luther's rebellion against spiritual and temporal authorities, his speeches against indulgences, against the claims of the Catholic clergy to control faith and conscience as a mediator between people and God were heard and perceived by society extremely sharply.

  The essence of Protestantism is this: divine grace is bestowed without the mediation of the church. A person's salvation occurs only through his personal faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The laity are not separated from the clergy - the priesthood extends to all believers. Among the sacraments, baptism and communion are recognized. Believers do not obey the Pope. The service consists of sermons, congregational prayers and the singing of psalms. Protestants do not recognize the cult of the Mother of God, purgatory, they reject monasticism, the sign of the cross, sacred vestments, and icons.

  The fundamental principle of another movement - Congregationalists (from the Latin - connection) is the complete religious and organizational autonomy of each congregation. They are strict puritans. Unlike Calvinists, all laity are involved in conducting services and preaching. They preach the principle of secular and religious collectivism, therefore the entire community is considered the recipient of grace. The doctrine of predestination of human destiny and the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe inerrancy of the Bible are not as important for them as for Calvinists. Congregationalism is common in Great Britain and its former colonies.

  Presbyterians(from Greek - oldest) - moderate Puritans. The Scottish Parliament in 1592 decided to make this teaching state. The head of the Church community is a presbyter elected by the members of the community. Communities unite into unions, local and state. The ritual boils down to prayer, the sermon of the presbyter, and the singing of psalms. The liturgy has been cancelled, neither the Creed nor the Our Father is read. Only weekends are considered holidays.

  Anglican Church- the state church of England. In 1534, after the local Catholic Church broke with Rome, the English Parliament declared the king

  Henry VIII as head of the Church. That is, the Church was subordinated to royal power. In the middle of the 16th century, services in English were introduced, fasts were abolished, icons and images were confiscated, and celibacy of the clergy was no longer mandatory. A doctrine of the “middle path” emerged, that is, the middle way between Roman Catholicism and continental Protestantism. The foundations of the Anglican faith are reflected in the Book of Common Prayer.

  Protestant doctrine with the largest number of followers - baptism(from Greek - immerse in water, baptize with water) - came to us in the 70s of the 19th century. Followers of this teaching baptize only adults. “No one can choose a faith for a person, including parents. A person must accept faith consciously” - the main postulate of Baptists and Evangelical Christians. Their worship is simplified as much as possible and consists of religious singing, prayers and sermons. Evangelical Christians retain four rites: baptism (for adults), communion in the form of the breaking of bread, marriage, ordination (priesthood). The cross for evangelical Christians is not a symbol of veneration.

  The reasons for church splits are numerous and complex. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the main cause of church schisms was human sin, intolerance, and disrespect for human freedom.

  Currently, the leaders of both the Western and Eastern Churches are striving to overcome the harmful consequences of centuries-old hostility. Thus, in 1964, Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras of Constantinople solemnly canceled the mutual curses pronounced by representatives of both Churches in the 11th century. A beginning has been made to overcome the sinful disunity between Western and Eastern Christians.

  Even earlier, from the beginning of the 20th century, the so-called ecumenical movement (Greek - "eiumena" - universe) became widespread. Currently, this movement is carried out mainly within the framework of the World Council of Churches (WCC).

  In 1054, the Christian Church collapsed into Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Greek Catholic). The Eastern Christian Church began to be called Orthodox, i.e. true believer, and those professing Christianity according to the Greek rite are orthodox or true believers.

  The “Great Schism” between the Eastern and Western Churches matured gradually, as a result of long and complex processes that began long before the 11th century.

  Disagreements between the Eastern and Western Churches before the schism (a brief overview)

  The disagreements between East and West that caused the “Great Schism” and accumulated over the centuries were political, cultural, ecclesiological, theological and ritual in nature.

  a) Political differences between East and West were rooted in the political antagonism between the Roman popes and the Byzantine emperors (basileus). At the time of the apostles, when the Christian Church was just emerging, the Roman Empire was a unified empire, both politically and culturally, headed by one emperor. From the end of the 3rd century. the empire, de jure still unified, was de facto divided into two parts - Eastern and Western, each of which was under the control of its own emperor (Emperor Theodosius (346-395) was the last Roman emperor who led the entire Roman Empire). Constantine exacerbated the process of division by founding a new capital in the east, Constantinople, along with ancient Rome in Italy. The Roman bishops, based on the central position of Rome as an imperial city, and on the origin of the see from the supreme apostle Peter, began to claim a special, dominant position in the entire Church. In subsequent centuries, the ambitions of the Roman high priests only grew, pride took its poisonous roots deeper and deeper into the church life of the West. Unlike the Patriarchs of Constantinople, the Roman Popes maintained independence from the Byzantine emperors, did not submit to them unless they considered it necessary, and sometimes openly opposed them.

  In addition, in the year 800, Pope Leo III in Rome crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne with the imperial crown as Roman Emperor, who in the eyes of his contemporaries became “equal” to the Eastern Emperor and on whose political power the Bishop of Rome was able to rely in his claims. The emperors of the Byzantine Empire, who themselves considered themselves successors to the Roman Empire, refused to recognize the imperial title for Charles. The Byzantines viewed Charlemagne as a usurper and the papal coronation as an act of division within the empire.

  b) Cultural alienation between East and West was largely due to the fact that in the Eastern Roman Empire they spoke Greek, and in the Western Empire they spoke Latin. In the time of the apostles, when the Roman Empire was unified, Greek and Latin were understood almost everywhere, and many could speak both languages. However, by 450 very few in Western Europe could read Greek, and after 600 few in Byzantium spoke Latin, the language of the Romans, although the empire continued to be called Roman. If the Greeks wanted to read the books of Latin authors, and the Latins the works of the Greeks, they could only do this in translation. And this meant that the Greek East and the Latin West drew information from different sources and read different books, as a result becoming more and more distant from each other. In the East they read Plato and Aristotle, in the West they read Cicero and Seneca. The main theological authorities of the Eastern Church were the fathers of the era of the Ecumenical Councils, such as Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria. In the West, the most widely read Christian author was St. Augustine (who was almost unknown in the East) - his theological system was much simpler to understand and more easily accepted by barbarian converts to Christianity than the sophisticated reasoning of the Greek fathers.

  c) Ecclesiological disagreements. Political and cultural disagreements could not but affect the life of the Church and only contributed to church discord between Rome and Constantinople. Throughout the era of the Ecumenical Councils in the West, a doctrine of papal primacy (i.e. the Roman bishop as the head of the Universal Church) . At the same time, in the East the primacy of the Bishop of Constantinople increased, and from the end of the 6th century he acquired the title of “Ecumenical Patriarch”. However, in the East, the Patriarch of Constantinople was never perceived as the head of the Universal Church: he was only second in rank after the Bishop of Rome and first in honor among the Eastern patriarchs. In the West, the Pope began to be perceived precisely as the head of the Universal Church, to whom the Church throughout the world must obey.

  In the East there were 4 sees (i.e. 4 Local Churches: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem) and, accordingly, 4 patriarchs. The East recognized the Pope as the first bishop of the Church - but first among equals . In the West there was only one throne that claimed apostolic origin - namely, the Roman throne. As a result of this, Rome came to be regarded as the only apostolic see. Although the West accepted the decisions of the Ecumenical Councils, it itself did not play an active role in them; In the Church, the West saw not so much a college as a monarchy - the monarchy of the Pope.

  The Greeks recognized the primacy of honor for the Pope, but not universal superiority, as the Pope himself believed. Championship "by honor" in modern language it may mean “most respected,” but it does not abolish the Conciliar structure of the church (that is, making all decisions collectively through the convening of Councils of all churches, primarily apostolic). The Pope considered infallibility his prerogative, but the Greeks were convinced that in matters of faith the final decision rested not with the Pope, but with the council, representing all the bishops of the church.

  d) Theological reasons. The main point of theological dispute between the Churches of the East and West was the Latin doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son (Filioque) . This teaching, based on the Trinitarian views of Blessed Augustine and other Latin fathers, led to a change in the words of the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, where it spoke of the Holy Spirit: instead of “from the Father proceeding” in the West they began to say “from the Father and the Son (lat. . Filioque) outgoing." The expression “proceeds from the Father” is based on the words of Christ Himself ( cm.: In. 15:26) and in this sense has indisputable authority, while the addition “and the Son” has no basis either in Scripture or in the Tradition of the early Christian Church: it began to be inserted into the Creed only at the Toledo Councils of the 6th-7th centuries, presumably as protective measure against Arianism. From Spain, the Filioque came to France and Germany, where it was approved at the Frankfurt Council in 794. The court theologians of Charlemagne even began to reproach the Byzantines for reciting the Creed without the Filioque. Rome resisted changes to the Creed for some time. In 808, Pope Leo III wrote to Charlemagne that although the Filioque was theologically acceptable, its inclusion in the Creed was undesirable. Leo placed tablets with the Creed without the Filioque in St. Peter's Basilica. However, by the beginning of the 11th century, the reading of the Creed with the addition of “and the Son” entered into Roman practice.

  Orthodoxy objected (and still objects) to the Filioque for two reasons. Firstly, the Creed is the property of the entire Church, and any changes can only be made to it by an Ecumenical Council. By changing the Creed without consultation with the East, the West (according to Khomyakov) is guilty of moral fratricide, a sin against the unity of the Church. Secondly, most Orthodox believe that the Filioque is theologically incorrect. The Orthodox believe that the Spirit comes only from the Father, and consider it heresy to claim that He also comes from the Son.

  e) Ritual differences between East and West have existed throughout the history of Christianity. The liturgical charter of the Roman Church differed from the charters of the Eastern Churches. A whole series of ritual details separated the Churches of the East and the West. In the middle of the 11th century, the main issue of a ritual nature, on which polemics flared up between East and West, was the Latins' consumption of unleavened bread at the Eucharist, while the Byzantines consumed leavened bread. Behind this seemingly insignificant difference, the Byzantines saw a serious difference in the theological view of the essence of the Body of Christ, taught to the faithful in the Eucharist: if leavened bread symbolizes the fact that the flesh of Christ is consubstantial with our flesh, then unleavened bread is a symbol of the difference between the flesh of Christ and our flesh. In the service of unleavened bread, the Greeks saw an attack on the core point of Eastern Christian theology - the doctrine of deification (which was little known in the West).

  These were all disagreements that preceded the conflict of 1054. Ultimately, the West and the East disagreed on matters of doctrine, mainly on two issues: about papal primacy And about Filioque .

  Reason for split

  The immediate cause of the church schism was conflict between the first hierarchs of two capitals - Rome and Constantinople .

  The Roman high priest was Leo IX. While still a German bishop, he refused the Roman See for a long time and only at the persistent requests of the clergy and Emperor Henry III himself agreed to accept the papal tiara. On one of the rainy autumn days of 1048, in a coarse hair shirt - the clothing of penitents, with bare feet and a head covered in ashes, he entered Rome to take the Roman throne. This unusual behavior flattered the pride of the townspeople. With the crowds cheering, he was immediately proclaimed pope. Leo IX was convinced of the high importance of the Roman See for the entire Christian world. He tried with all his might to restore the previously wavered papal influence in both the West and the East. From this time on, the active growth of both the church and socio-political significance of the papacy as an institution of power began. Pope Leo achieved respect for himself and his cathedra not only through radical reforms, but also by actively acting as a defender of all the oppressed and offended. This is what made the pope seek a political alliance with Byzantium.

  At that time, Rome's political enemy were the Normans, who had already captured Sicily and were now threatening Italy. Emperor Henry could not provide the pope with the necessary military support, and the pope did not want to give up his role as defender of Italy and Rome. Leo IX decided to ask for help from the Byzantine emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople.

  Since 1043 the Patriarch of Constantinople was Mikhail Kerullariy . He came from a noble aristocratic family and held a high position under the emperor. But after a failed palace coup, when a group of conspirators tried to elevate him to the throne, Mikhail was deprived of his property and forcibly tonsured a monk. The new emperor Constantine Monomakh made the persecuted man his closest adviser, and then, with the consent of the clergy and people, Michael took the patriarchal see. Having devoted himself to the service of the Church, the new patriarch retained the features of an imperious and state-minded man who did not tolerate the derogation of his authority and the authority of the See of Constantinople.

  In the correspondence that arose between the pope and the patriarch, Leo IX insisted on the primacy of the Roman See . In his letter, he pointed out to Michael that the Church of Constantinople and even the entire East should obey and honor the Roman Church as a mother. With this provision, the pope also justified the ritual differences between the Roman Church and the Churches of the East. Michael was ready to come to terms with any differences, but on one issue his position remained irreconcilable: he did not want to recognize the Roman See as superior to the See of Constantinople . The Roman bishop did not want to agree to such equality.

  Beginning of the split

  
  

  The Great Schism of 1054 and the Separation of the Churches

  In the spring of 1054, an embassy from Rome headed by Cardinal Humbert , a hot-tempered and arrogant person. Together with him, as legates, came the deacon-cardinal Frederick (future Pope Stephen IX) and Archbishop Peter of Amalfi. The purpose of the visit was to meet with Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and discuss the possibilities of a military alliance with Byzantium, as well as to reconcile with the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerullarius, without diminishing the primacy of the Roman See. However, from the very beginning the embassy took a tone that was not consistent with reconciliation. The pope's ambassadors treated the patriarch without due respect, arrogantly and coldly. Seeing such an attitude towards himself, the patriarch repaid them in kind. At the convened Council, Michael allocated the last place to the papal legates. Cardinal Humbert considered this a humiliation and refused to conduct any negotiations with the patriarch. The news that came from Rome about the death of Pope Leo did not stop the papal legates. They continued to act with the same boldness, wanting to teach the disobedient patriarch a lesson.

  July 15, 1054 , when the St. Sophia Cathedral was filled with praying people, the legates walked to the altar and, interrupting the service, made accusations against Patriarch Michael Kerullarius. They then placed on the throne a papal bull in Latin, which excommunicated the patriarch and his followers and brought forward ten charges of heresy: one of the charges concerned the “omission” of the Filioque in the Creed. Coming out of the temple, the papal ambassadors shook off the dust from their feet and exclaimed: “Let God see and judge.” Everyone was so amazed by what they saw that there was deathly silence. The patriarch, numb with amazement, initially refused to accept the bull, but then ordered it to be translated into Greek. When the contents of the bull were announced to the people, such great excitement began that the legates had to hastily leave Constantinople. The people supported their patriarch.

  July 20, 1054 Patriarch Michael Cerullarius convened a Council of 20 bishops, at which he subjected the papal legates to excommunication.The Acts of the Council were sent to all Eastern Patriarchs.

  This is how the “great schism” happened . Formally, this was a break between the Local Churches of Rome and Constantinople, but the Patriarch of Constantinople was subsequently supported by other Eastern Patriarchates, as well as young Churches that were part of the orbit of influence of Byzantium, in particular the Russian Church. The Church in the West over time adopted the name Catholic; The Church in the East is called Orthodox because it preserves the Christian doctrine intact. Both Orthodoxy and Rome equally considered themselves right in controversial issues of doctrine, and their opponent wrong, therefore, after the schism, both Rome and the Orthodox Church laid claim to the title of true church.

  But even after 1054, friendly relations between East and West remained. Both parts of Christendom had not yet realized the full extent of the gap, and people on both sides hoped that the misunderstandings could be settled without much difficulty. Attempts to negotiate reunification were made for another century and a half. The dispute between Rome and Constantinople largely went unnoticed by ordinary Christians. The Russian abbot Daniel of Chernigov, who made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1106-1107, found the Greeks and Latins praying in agreement in holy places. True, he noted with satisfaction that during the descent of the Holy Fire on Easter, the Greek lamps miraculously ignited, but the Latins were forced to light their lamps from the Greek ones.

  The final division between East and West came only with the beginning of the Crusades, which brought with them a spirit of hatred and malice, as well as after the capture and destruction of Constantinople by the Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.

  Material prepared by Sergey SHULYAK

  Used Books:
  1. History of the Church (Callistus Ware)
  2. Church of Christ. Stories from the history of the Christian Church (Georgy Orlov)
  3. The Great Church Schism of 1054 (Radio Russia, cycle World. Man. Word)

  Film by Metropolitan Hilarion (Alfeev)
  Church in history. Great Schism

  Themes: the formation of the Latin tradition; conflicts between Constantinople and Rome; schism 1051; Catholicism in the Middle Ages. Filming took place in Rome and the Vatican.

  From the very beginning of its adoption as a state, two church centers emerged: Byzantium And Rome.

  The position of the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope was not the same. The Eastern Roman Empire retained its independence for another millennium after the division of the Roman Empire, and the Western one ceased to exist at the end of the 5th century. Patriarch- the head of the Eastern Church - was reliably protected by state power from external enemies, but he was completely dependent on the emperor. The head of the Western Church, the pope, was relatively free from direct influence from secular power, but he had to constantly maneuver between the rulers of the barbarian states that formed on the territory of the former Western Roman Empire. From the middle of the 8th century. the pope receives a gift of land and at the same time becomes a secular sovereign. To manage economic affairs, the church created a powerful administrative apparatus. This is the objective state of affairs that determined the confrontation between the Eastern and Western churches.

  For several centuries, there was a struggle between these branches of the church with varying success, however, while the parties needed each other’s support, a complete break did not occur. In the middle of the 9th century. occurred between the papacy and the patriarchy, marking the beginning of the final schism. First of all, it concerned the appointment to the patriarchal throne Photia who was disliked by dad Nicholas I. The parties did not want to compromise also because it was connected with territorial claims in Bulgaria and Sicily. Bulgaria had recently been baptized, and the parties were arguing over whose jurisdiction it should fall.

  Disputes also erupted over religious issues. The Roman Church distributed the Creed adopted at the council with an additional word filioque(and the Son), which meant the recognition of the procession of the Holy Spirit not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son. This was a serious deviation from the original understanding. In addition, the Roman Church allowed fasting on Saturdays, allowed the consumption of cheese and milk during Lent and other liberties. But this time it did not come to a complete break, since the parties were not yet strong enough.

  In the middle of the 11th century. The crisis between the two churches took an irreconcilable form and led to a final break. The pope strengthened his influence in Sicily, where the patriarchy had previously occupied a dominant position. In response to this, the patriarch Mikhail Kirulariy ordered that worship according to the Greek model be introduced in the Latin churches of Constantinople. The Patriarch and the Pope exchanged threatening messages. Finally, in 1054, the pope sent his envoys to Constantinople, led by Cardinal Humbert. Patriarch Michael refused to enter into negotiations with them. As a result, the pope and the patriarch exchanged anathemas against each other, which marked the final split of the Christian churches and the emergence of the main trends -