History of China. Myths about the creation of the world

Chinese mythology is a complex combination of several ancient mythological systems - ancient Chinese, Buddhist and Taoist. It was possible to reconstruct the mythology of Ancient China based on historical, philosophical, religious teachings - great works created several centuries BC. Among them are “Shu-ching” (dated to the 14th-11th centuries BC, “Book of History” from the Confucian Pentateuch), “I-Ching” (created in the 8th-7th centuries BC, “ Book of Changes"), "Zhuang Tzu", (IV-III centuries BC, named after the philosopher), "Le Tzu" ("Treatise of Teacher Le"), "Huainan Tzu" (II century BC). BC, treatise on mythology). A lot of information about classical mythology is gleaned from the treatise “Shan Hai Jing” (“Canon of Mountains and Seas,” 3rd to mid-1st millennium BC) and the poetry of Qu Yuan.

Ancient Chinese mythology

Chinese mythology is especially characterized by the desire for historicization at all levels. So, for example, the heroes of myths are associated with emperors, and minor spirits with officials: it is believed that they were real personalities, figures of ancient times.

Totem animals are no less important. It is generally accepted that Chinese mythology is based on the beliefs and legends of two tribes. The first tribe believed that their ancestor was a swallow, the second considered the snake to be their ancestor. Thus, gradually the snake in myths acquired the appearance of a dragon (Lun), which was associated with underground forces and the element of water, and the bird, according to a number of versions, is the prototype of Fenghuang - the mythical bird. The combined symbol of Dragon and Fenghuang is the personification of the sovereign and empress.

This myth about Pangu expresses the cosmological ideas of the ancient tribes of the Celestial Empire, and also expresses one of the key ideas of Eastern philosophy - the connection between the external and internal space.

The cycle of myths about Nuiva, half-man, half-snake, is considered even more ancient. In myths, Nuiva appears as a demiurge, the progenitor of people and all things. And if Pangu participates in the creation of the elements and the world unconsciously, passively, then Nyuwa personally improves and restores the world: for example, in myths she repairs the firmament, props up the world with the feet of a turtle, and also collects reed ash so that the waters do not spill.

One of the most famous ancient myths about a hero is the myth of Fuxi, who is considered the first ancestor of one of the Eastern Chinese tribes. Traditionally, Fuxi is represented as a bird-man caring for humanity. Myths tell how Fusi taught people to hunt and fish, and to fry meat on a fire. It is he who is considered the inventor of fishing nets and fortune-telling trigrams. Experts suggest that the totem animal, the swallow, was embodied in the image of Fusi.

The myths also tell about the further fate of Fusi, who, according to legend, married his sister Nuiva for the revival of humanity after the flood. Moreover, according to early myths, the flood was the embodiment of water chaos, and only later it began to be interpreted as a punishment for sins.

Late folk mythology of China

For later times in Chinese mythology, there is a tradition of reverse historicization of mythical heroes. The Middle Ages were characterized by the mythologization of historical figures. They began to be turned into gods, patrons of cities and crafts. Now the reasons for the deification of this or that figure seem random, although this often happened officially at the behest of the emperor.

For example, the mythologization of Liu Bei, the commander of the 3rd century AD. From his biographies it is known that in his youth he was engaged in weaving mats and straw shoes, this made him the god of weavers in late Chinese mythology. And his friend Guan Yu, known for his courage, was deified as a guardian of monasteries, and later as a patron of demons. And from the 16th century he became the god of war Guandi. This is how real heroes of the 3rd century BC later turned into universal benefactors.

By the end of the first millennium, the mythological systems of China were becoming increasingly closer. Syncretic mythology combines Buddhist, Taoist, folk mythology and heroes of the Confucian cult. Syncretization was even more active in the village, where statues of Buddha, Confucius and Lao Tzu could be found in one temple. In cities the process was slower, and adherents of different religions still preferred different deities.

However, syncretism led to the emergence of a consolidated pantheon of gods headed by Yudi in the Middle Ages. During the late Middle Ages, mythological heroes of the syncretic pantheon began to appear on popular popular prints, replacing icons for the Chinese. These splints are still common today.

The Heimiao, or Black Miao (so named because of the dark color of their skin), do not have a written language, but have a developed epic tradition. From generation to generation they pass on poetic legends about the creation of the world and the Flood. During holidays, they are performed by storytellers accompanied by a choir consisting of one or two groups of performers. The story is interspersed with poetic inserts consisting of one or more five-line lines. They ask questions and answer them themselves:

Who created the sky and land?

Who created insects?

Who created people?

Created men and women?

I don't know.

The Heavenly Lord created the Sky and the land,

He created insects

He created people and spirits,

Created men and women.

Do you know how?

How did Heaven and Earth come into being?

How did insects appear?

How did people and spirits appear?

How did men and women appear?

I don't know.

Heavenly Lord wise

He spat on his palm,

He clapped his hands loudly -

Heaven and land appeared,

Made insects from tall grass,

Created people and spirits

Men and women.

The legend of the World River is interesting because it mentions the Great Flood:

Sent fire and set the mountains on fire?

Who came to cleanse the world?

Did you release water to wash the earth?

I, who sing to you, do not know.

Ze cleansed the world.

He summoned fire and set the mountains on fire.

The god of thunder has cleansed the world,

He washed the earth with water.

Do you know, why?

The legend goes on to say that after the flood, only Ze and his sister remained on earth. When the water subsided, the brother wanted to marry his sister, but she did not agree. Finally, they decided to take a millstone each and climb two mountains, and then let the millstones roll down. If they collide and fall on each other, then she will become Ze’s wife, but if not, then there will be no marriage. Fearing that the wheels would roll, the brother prepared two similar stones in the valley in advance. When the millstones they had thrown were lost in the tall grass, Ze brought his sister and showed her the stones he had hidden. However, she did not agree and suggested placing double sheaths below and throwing a knife into them. If they fall into the sheath, the marriage will take place. The brother deceived his sister again, and she finally became his wife. They had a child without arms and legs. Seeing him, Ze became angry and chopped him into pieces, and then threw him off the mountain. Having touched the ground, the pieces of meat turned into men and women - this is how people appeared on the earth again.

The period from the 8th to the 10th centuries was the heyday of Chinese literature. After the unification of the empire and the establishment of strong centralized power, representatives of all South Asian states appeared in Beijing. It was at this time that Indian Buddhist texts began to be translated, and the achievements of Chinese culture became known in Central Asia, Iran and Byzantium. Chinese translators reinterpret borrowed texts and introduce into them the motives of their own beliefs and surrounding realities.

The literary tradition reaches its highest point during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). In the history of Chinese literature, the Tang era is rightly considered the “golden age”. Thanks to the examination system, representatives of all classes gained access to knowledge. Art and literature flourished, and a galaxy of short story masters emerged—Li Chaowei, Sheng Jiji, Niu Senzhu, and Li Gongzuo. Below we present one of his short stories.

In the section about the myths of Ancient China, children will learn about how the world and people’s lives were created, about brave heroes who protect their people from evil. How people got food, defended themselves from angry Chinese gods who sent difficulties, and how they learned to experience feelings and emotions. They will understand that the origin of language, rituals, etiquette - all this came from ancient oriental legends!

Myths of Ancient China read

China has been famous for its rich mythology since ancient times. Its history includes ancient Chinese, Taoist, Buddhist and later folk tales peoples of China. It is several thousand years old.

The main strong-willed characters became Chinese emperors and rulers, who were honored and respected by the people as a sign of gratitude. Minor characters became dignitaries and officials. Ancient people did not know the laws of science, but they believed that everything that happened to them were the acts of the gods. Thanks to mythology, Chinese holidays emerged that are still relevant today.

Mythology is the way of thinking of a people, its legends, beliefs and teachings. She takes your breath away with her stories and stories. Typically, characters in legends are presented as brave, unpredictable and infinitely kind. These brave men cannot be confused with any other mythology! Unfortunately, over time, the Chinese began to forget their myths, and in our time only isolated fragments of legends have survived.

On our website you can read the myths of ancient China with interest, because Chinese legends are unique in their kind. It contains teachings that bring wisdom and kindness. Due to this, the traits of philanthropy, responsiveness, internal harmony and morality are cultivated in a person. And this is so necessary for children in the future.

Myths of ancient China

Each nation creates a unique mythology, which, like a mirror, reflects its way of thinking. Chinese myths intertwine ancient beliefs and legends, the philosophical teachings of Buddhism and Taoism, folk legends and legendary events, because the ancient Chinese assumed that mythical events actually happened many, many centuries ago.

In this section we will meet the mythical characters of Chinese history. Some of them are already familiar to us: the snake woman Nuwa, the emperors Fuxi and Huangdi. However, if until now mythology interested us as a reflection of possible historical events, now we will try to look at it from a different point of view. After all, with the help of myths you can see how the Chinese are similar to other peoples and what makes them absolutely unique. Let's start from the very beginning - from the creation of the world.

Every nation has a myth about the creation of the world. Such myths are often attempts by an inquisitive mind to imagine what was before everything came into existence. But there is another point of view on the myths about the creation of the world. According to the works of orientalist and writer Mircea Eliade, creation myths were used in New Year's celebration rituals. Man, Eliade argues, is afraid of time, the mistakes of the past remain behind him, and an unclear and dangerous future lies before him. To get rid of the fear of time, a person created a New Year's ritual in which the old world was destroyed and then recreated again with the help of special magical formulas. In this way, a person was freed from the sins and mistakes of the past and could not be afraid of the dangers awaiting him in the future, because each subsequent year is completely similar to the previous one, which means that it will be lived like the previous ones.

According to Chinese beliefs, the world was created from the original water chaos, which in Chinese is called “huntun”. This watery chaos was filled with terrible monsters, the very appearance of which caused horror: these monsters had fused legs, teeth and fingers. It is interesting that, according to the Chinese, some of their mythical ancestors looked similar.

A collection of sayings of philosophers from Huainan (Huainanzi) talks about those times when there was neither heaven nor earth and only formless images wandered in the pitch darkness. In those distant times, two deities emerged from chaos.

Another myth tells that the first event of the creation of the world was the separation of heaven from earth (in Chinese - kaipi). Written in the 3rd century. The philosopher Xuzheng’s treatise “Chronological Records of the Three and Five Rulers” (“San Wu Liji”) says that heaven and earth were in chaos, like the contents chicken egg. From this chicken egg the first man, Pangu, came into being: “Suddenly, heaven and earth separated from each other: yang, light and pure, became heaven, yin, dark and unclean, became earth. The sky began to rise up by one zhang every day, and the earth became thicker by one zhang per day, and Pangu grew by one zhang per day. Eighteen thousand years passed, and the sky rose high, high, and the earth became dense and thick. And Pangu himself became tall and tall.” As he grew in the watery chaos, the sky moved further and further from the earth. Every action of Pangu gave rise to natural phenomena: with his sigh wind and rain were born, with his exhalation - thunder and lightning, he opened his eyes - day came, closed - night came. After Pangu's death, his elbows, knees and head turned into five sacred mountain peaks, and the hair on his body turned into modern people.

This version of the myth became the most popular in China, which was reflected in traditional Chinese medicine, physiognomy and even in the theory of Chinese portraiture - artists sought to depict real people and mythical characters in such a way that they were more or less similar to the mythological first man Pangu.

The Taoist legend, contained in the Notes on the First Immortals, tells a different story about Pangu: “When earth and heaven were not yet separated, Pangu, the first who was called the heavenly king, wandered among chaos. When heaven and earth separated, Pangu began to live in a palace that stood on the Mountain of the Jasper Capital (Yujingshan), where he ate heavenly dew and drank spring water. A few years later, in a mountain gorge, from the blood that had collected there, a girl of unprecedented beauty named Taiyuan Yunyu (the first jasper maiden) appeared. She became Pangu’s wife, and their first children were born - the son Tianhuang (Heavenly Emperor) and the daughter Jiuguangxuannyu (Pure Maiden of the Nine Rays) and many other children.”

Comparing these texts, we see how myths have changed and been reinterpreted over time. The fact is that every myth, unlike historical fact or an official document, is subject to multiple interpretations and interpretations, so it may be understood differently by different people.

The next myth tells about the half-woman-half-snake Nuiva, already familiar to us. She did not create the Universe, but created all things and was the foremother of all people whom she fashioned from wood and clay. Seeing that the creatures she created were dying without leaving offspring, and the earth was quickly becoming empty, she taught people about sex and created special mating rituals for them. As we have already mentioned, the Chinese depicted Nüwu as a figure with the head and arms of a man and the body of a snake. Her name means "woman - snail-like creature." The ancient Chinese believed that certain shellfish, insects and reptiles, capable of changing skin or shell (house), had the power of rejuvenation and even immortality. Therefore, Nuiva, having been reborn 70 times, transformed the Universe 70 times, and the forms that she took in her rebirths gave rise to all creatures living on earth. It was believed that divine Magic force Nuiva was so great that even from her intestines (intestines) 10 deities were born. But Nüwa’s main merit is that she created humanity and divided people into higher and lower: those whom the goddess sculpted from yellow clay (yellow in China is the color of the heavenly and earthly emperors) and their descendants subsequently formed the ruling elite of the empire; and those who emerged from the pieces of clay and mud scattered by Nüwa with the help of a rope are peasants, slaves and other subordinates.

According to other myths, Nuiva saved the Earth from destruction during a catastrophe, when heavenly fire and flood could destroy all life. The goddess collected multi-colored stones, melted them and sealed the heavenly holes through which water and fire poured onto the earth. Then she cut off the legs of the giant turtle and with these legs, like pillars, strengthened the firmament. Nevertheless, the sky tilted somewhat, the earth went to the right, and the sky to the left. Therefore, the rivers in the Celestial Empire flow to the southeast. Nuiva's husband is considered to be her brother Fusi (it is he who is identified with one of the first emperors). They are often depicted with intertwined snake tails, facing each other or facing away. The sign of Nuiva, which she holds in her hands, is a compass. Temples were built in her honor, where in the second month of spring abundant sacrifices were made and holidays were held in her part, as the goddess of love and marriage. In late China, images of Nüwa and Fuxi were also carved on tombstones to protect graves.

Historians suggest that in ancient times Pangu and Nuwa were deities of different tribes, which later merged into the Han nation, and therefore their images are so different from each other. Thus, it is known that the Nuwa cult was widespread in Sichuan and the southeastern outskirts of the Chinese empire, and the Pangu cult was widespread in the south. In history, it often happens that two images similar in their functions merge into marriage or closely related (mother-son, father-daughter, brother-sister) pairs of deities, but in the case of Pangu and Nyuwa this did not happen, most likely because they were too different from each other.

For the Chinese, the created world was not a list of natural objects located at different distances from each other, but was inhabited by numerous spirits. In every mountain, in every stream and in every forest lived good or evil spirits, with whom legendary events took place. The Chinese believed that such events actually happened in ancient times, and therefore historians chronicled these legends along with real historical events. But in neighboring settlements the same legend could be told in different ways, and writers, having heard it from different people, entered different legends into their records. In addition, historians have often reworked ancient myths, trying to present them at the desired angle. Thus, legends were woven into historical events, and incidents that took place in distant mythical times became contemporary for the great dynasties of China.

There were a great many spirits that the Chinese worshiped. Among them were many spirits of ancestors, that is, spirits of people who once lived on earth and helped their relatives and fellow villagers after their death. In principle, any person after death could become a deity, enter the local pantheon and receive the honors and sacrifices due to the spirits. To do this, he had to have certain magical abilities and spiritual qualities. The Chinese were convinced that after death, all the evil that was in a person goes away when the body decays, and the cleansed bones serve as a container for the strength of the deceased. So, when the meat on the bones decayed, the dead turned into spirits. People believed that they often met them wandering along the roads or in places they loved during life, and they looked the same as before when they were alive. Such spirits could come to fellow villagers and ask, and often even demand, that they make sacrifices to them. If the inhabitants of this area refused to make sacrifices, the spirits could cause a lot of trouble to the living: send a flood or drought, spoil crops, bring clouds with heavy hail, snow or rain, deprive livestock and local women of fertility, cause an earthquake. When people made the necessary sacrifices, the spirits were supposed to treat the living favorably and stop harming people.

Often people tested the spirits, asking them to carry out some magical tasks of varying levels of “complexity” - to ensure the fertility of livestock and crops, victory in a war, a successful marriage of children. If after sacrifices to the spirits the desired events did not occur, the spirits were called impostors and sacrifices were no longer made to them.

The ancient Chinese worshiped many gods, the cults of which have survived to this day. Until now, the most revered goddess in China is the goddess of mercy Guanyin, also called Guanshiyin or Guanzizai. The Chinese proverb “Amitofo in every place, Guanyin in every home” testifies to the enormous popularity of Guanyin among the people. She is revered by representatives of all religious movements of the country, and Chinese Buddhists consider her the incarnation of Avalokiteshvara. According to the Buddhist pictorial canon, she is depicted as a bodhisattva in a female form, which generally contradicts the religious tenets of Buddhism, which state that bodhisattvas are asexual. Buddhists believe that the divine essence of a bodhisattva can manifest itself in the form of any creature or even object. Its purpose is to help living beings comprehend the universal law (Dharma), which means there is no reason to depict bodhisattvas in female guise. Buddhists believe that the main purpose of Guanshiyin Bodhisattva is to teach all people about their true nature and how they can realize themselves in the world around them in order to follow the path of enlightenment. But the popularity of this goddess was so great that Buddhists decided to directly violate their own canon.

Guanyin's Buddhist name, Avalokitesvara, comes from the Indian (Pali) verb "to look down, explore, inspect" and means "Mistress of the world, who looks at the world with pity and compassion." Close to this and Chinese name goddesses: “guan” means “to consider”, “shi” means “world”, “yin” means “sounds”. Thus, her name means "Viewer of the Sounds of the World." Tibetan name of the goddess Spryanraz-Gzigs - “The Lady who contemplates with her eyes” - also draws attention to the visual, visual aspect of the goddess.

Traditional Chinese Wedding Dress silk

According to the Buddhist treatise “Manikabum”, Avalokiteshvara is a man, not a woman. He was born on the pure sacred land of Padmavati, created by the Buddha, in which an ideal ruler named Tsangpohog reigned. This ruler had everything one could wish for, but he had no son, and he longed for an heir. For this purpose, he made many offerings to the Shrine of the Three Jewels, but his desire was not fulfilled, although for each offering he ordered the collection of lotus flowers. One day his servant informed his master that he had found a giant lotus on the lake, the petals of which were as large as the wingspan of a kite. the flower was about to bloom. The ruler considered this a good omen and assumed that the deities supported him in his desire to have a son. Tsangpohog gathered his ministers, confidants and servants and went with them to the lake. There they saw a wonderful lotus bloom. And something unusual happened: among its petals sat a boy of about sixteen, dressed in white clothes. The sages examined the boy and found the main physical signs Buddha. When it got dark, it turned out that there was a glow coming from it. A little later the boy said: “I feel pity for all intelligent beings who are immersed in suffering!” the king and his subjects presented gifts to the boy, fell to the ground in front of him and invited him to live in the palace. the king gave him the name "Born of the Lotus", or "Essence of the Lotus", because of his miraculous birth. Buddha Amitabha, who appeared in a dream, told the king that this boy was the manifestation of the virtues of all Buddhas and the essence of the hearts of all Buddhas, and he also said that the boy’s heavenly name was Avalokitesvara and his purpose was to help all living beings in their troubles and sufferings , no matter how countless they would be.

According to ancient legend, the daughter of the king of one of the Chinese states named Miaoshan was so righteous in her earthly life that she received the nickname “Da Ci da bei jiu ku jiu nan na mo ling gan Guan shi yin pusa” (the most merciful, saving from torment and disasters, a refuge for those who resort to , miraculous lord of the world of bodhisattvas). It is believed that Miaoshan was one of the first incarnations of Guan Yin on earth.

The appearances of Guanshiyin were numerous in China, but she appeared especially often to people in the 10th century, during the reign of the Five Dynasties. During this period, she appeared sometimes in the form of a bodhisattva, sometimes in the form of a Buddhist or Taoist monk, but never in the form of a woman. But in earlier times she took on her original female form. This is exactly how she was depicted in early paintings. This is how she was depicted, for example, by Wudaozi, the famous artist of the Tang Emperor Xuanzong (713–756).

In China, they believe that Guanyin has miraculous powers that allow one to get rid of bonds and fetters, as well as execution. According to legend, one has only to pronounce the name Guanyin, and the shackles and bonds themselves fall off, swords and other instruments of execution are broken, and this happens every time, regardless of whether the convicted person is a criminal or an innocent person. It also frees you from suffering from weapons, fire and fire, demons and water. And of course, Guanyin is prayed to by women who wish to give birth to a child, and the child they are able to bear at the appointed time will be provided with the blessings of good deities, virtues and wisdom. Guanshiyin's feminine qualities are manifested in her qualities as a “great sadness,” a giver of children, a savior; and also in the guise of a warrior actively fighting evil. In this case, she is often depicted together with the deity Erlanshen.

The functions of the deity, like his appearance, could change over time. An example is the goddess Sivanma - the queen of the West, keeper of the source and fruits of immortality. In more ancient myths, she acts as the formidable mistress of the land of the Dead, located in the West, and the mistress of heavenly punishments and diseases, primarily the plague, as well as the natural disasters that she sends to people. Artists depicted her as a woman with long disheveled hair, a leopard tail and tiger claws, sitting on a tripod in a cave. Food was brought to her by three blue (or green) three-legged sacred birds. At a later time, Sivanmu turns into a heavenly beauty living in the far West, in the Kunlun Mountains in a jade palace on the shores of Jasper Lake, near which grows a peach tree with fruits that grant immortality. She is always accompanied by a tiger. The goddess here is the patroness of the “immortal” Taoist saints. Her palace and the adjacent garden with a peach tree and the source of immortality are surrounded by a golden rampart guarded by magical creatures and monsters.

The Chinese often mythologized real people. One of them is Guanyu, the military leader of the Shu kingdom of the Three Kingdoms era. Subsequently, he became one of the main characters in the medieval novel “The Three Kingdoms,” in which he is presented as the ideal of nobility. Historians of Chinese literature even call him the Eastern Robin Hood. According to legend, he and his two friends (Zhangfei and Liubei) swore to stand by each other after straw sandal maker Liubei broke up a fight between Guanyu and the butcher Zhangfei in a peach orchard. When fate elevated Liubei highly and he founded the kingdom of Shu, he made Guanyu his supreme military leader. However, the relationship between the real Guanyu and Liubei was not so idyllic. Around 200, the first fought in the army of Caocao, and Liubei was on the side of his main enemy (Yuanshao). Nineteen years later, the real Guanyu, along with his son and squire, was captured by Sunquan and executed. After the execution, Sun Quan sent Guanyu's head to Emperor Caocao, who buried it with honors. Soon after the burial of the head, legends appeared that said that Guanyu, after killing the unscrupulous judge, managed to pass by the guards unrecognized, since his face fantastically changed color. Since the 17th century Guanyu began to be revered in Korea as well. According to local legends, Guanyu allegedly protected the country from the Japanese invasion. Later he began to be revered in Japan.

Since the Sui Dynasty, Guanyu began to be revered not so much as a real person, but as a god of war, and in 1594 he was officially deified under the name Guandi. Since then, thousands of temples have been dedicated to him in the Celestial Empire. In addition to military functions, Guandi-Guanyu also performed judicial functions; for example, a sword was kept in his temples, which was used to execute criminals. And besides, it was believed that the spirit of the deceased would not dare to take revenge on the executioner if he performed cleansing rites in the Guandi Temple.

Guandi is depicted accompanied by a squire and his son. His face is red and he is dressed in green robes. In his hands Guandi holds the historical treatise “Zozhuan”, which he supposedly memorized. Thanks to this, it is believed that Guandi patronizes not only warriors and executioners, but also writers. It is quite possible that the image of the warrior-writer was greatly influenced by the Tibetan god Geser (Gesar), who was both a deity and historical figure- commander of the Ling region. Later, the image of Geser was adopted by the Mongols and Buryats, for whom he became the main epic hero.

As in every ancient culture, in the mythological ideas of the Chinese, the real and the fantastic are closely intertwined. It is impossible to say what is the share of reality in the myths about the creation and existence of the world. It is impossible to say what is the share of the fantastic in the descriptions of real rulers (if, of course, they are real). Most likely, what is told in many Chinese myths is an allegorical embodiment of power, courage, wealth, anger and destruction, etc.

Of course, in a book so small in volume, it is impossible to talk in any detail about the mythology of China. But what we managed to talk about allows us to assert that Chinese civilization is unique in its attitude to mythology, to the relationship between myth and real history. Therefore, in the history of China you can often see that the Chinese create a kind of myth out of real history and live in it, firmly believing that this is reality. Perhaps we can say that the Chinese live in myths and create myths about life. This myth-making of history and the historicity of myths is, in our opinion, the main difference between the Chinese and other peoples of the world.