Spatial features of the text. Space and image of the world. Physical point of view (spatial plans: panoramic image, close-up, moving - stationary picture of the world, external - internal space, etc.). Features of the landscape (interior). Types of space. The value meaning of spatial images (spatial images as an expression of non-spatial relationships).
Temporal features of the text. Action time and storytelling time. Types of artistic time, the meaning of temporary images. Vocabulary with temporary meaning. Basic chronotopes of the text. Space and time of the author and the hero, their fundamental difference.
Any literary work in one way or another reproduces the real world - both material and ideal: nature, things, events, people in their external and internal existence, etc. The natural forms of existence of this world are time And space. However art world, or world of art, always conditional to one degree or another: it exists image reality. Time and space in literature are thus also conditional.
Compared to other arts, literature deals most freely with time and space.(Perhaps only the synthetic art of cinema can compete in this area). The “immateriality of... images” gives literature the ability to instantly move from one space to another. In particular, events occurring simultaneously in different places can be depicted; To do this, it is enough for the narrator to say: “Meanwhile, such and such was happening there.” Equally simple are transitions from one time plane to another (especially from the present to the past and back). The earliest forms of such time switching were flashbacks in stories characters. With the development of literary self-awareness, these forms of mastering time and space will become more sophisticated, but the important thing is that they have always taken place in literature, and, therefore, constituted an essential element of artistic imagery.
Another property of literary time and space is their discontinuity. In relation to time, this is especially important, since literature turns out to be capable of not reproducingallflow of time, but select the most significant fragments from it, marking the gaps with formulas like: “several days have passed”, etc. Such temporal discreteness (has long been characteristic of literature) served as a powerful means of dynamization, first in the development of the plot, and then in psychologism.
Fragmentation of space partly connected with the properties of artistic time, partly has an independent character.
Characterconventions of time and space highly dependentfrom birth literature. Lyrics, which present an actual experience, and drama, which plays out before the eyes of the audience, showing an incident at the moment of its occurrence, usually use the present tense, while the epic (basically a story about what has passed) uses the past tense.
Conditionality is maximum inlyrics, it may even completely lack the image of space - for example, in the poem by A.S. Pushkin “I loved you; love still, perhaps...” Space in lyric poetry is often allegorical: the desert in Pushkin’s “Prophet”, the sea in Lermontov’s “Sail”. At the same time, lyrics are capable of reproducing the objective world in its spatial realities. Thus, in Lermontov’s poem “Motherland” a typically Russian landscape is recreated. In his poem “How often, surrounded by a motley crowd...” the mental transference of the lyrical hero from the ballroom to the “wonderful kingdom” embodies extremely significant oppositions for the romantic: civilization and nature, artificial and natural man, “I” and “the crowd” . And not only spaces are opposed, but also times.
Conventions of time and space Vdrama associated mainly with her orientation towards the theater. With all the diversity in the organization of time and space in drama, some general properties: no matter how significant the role narrative fragments play in dramatic works, no matter how fragmented the depicted action is, drama is committed to pictures that are closed in space and time.
Much wider possibilities epic kind , where the fragmentation of time and space, transitions from one time to another, spatial movements are carried out easily and freely thanks to the figure of the narrator - an intermediary between the life depicted and the reader. The narrator can “compress” and, on the contrary, “stretch” time, or even stop it (in descriptions, reasoning).
By features artistic convention time and space in literature (in all its types) can be divided into abstract And specific, This distinction is especially important for space.
Both in life and in literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it (in a broad sense), and we judge time by the processes occurring in it. To analyze a work, it is important to determine the fullness, saturation of space and time, since this indicator in many cases characterizes style works, writer, direction. For example, in Gogol the space is usually filled as much as possible with some objects, especially things. Here is one of the interiors in " Dead souls»: «<...>the room was hung with old striped wallpaper; paintings with some birds; between the windows there are old small mirrors with dark frames in the shape of curled leaves; Behind every mirror there was either a letter, or an old deck of cards, or a stocking; wall clock with painted flowers on the dial...” (Chapter III). And in Lermontov’s stylistic system, the space is practically not filled: it contains only what is necessary for the plot and depiction of the inner world of the heroes; even in “A Hero of Our Time” (not to mention romantic poems) there is not a single detailed interior
The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events. Dostoevsky, Bulgakov, Mayakovsky had an extremely busy time. Chekhov managed to sharply reduce the intensity of time even in dramatic works, which in principle tend to concentrate action.
Increased saturation of artistic space, as a rule, is combined with a reduced intensity of time, and vice versa: weak saturation of space - with time, rich in events.
Real (plot) and artistic time rarely coincide, especially in epic works, where playing with time can be a very expressive technique. In most cases, artistic time is shorter than “real” time: this is where the law of “poetic economy” manifests itself. However, there is an important exception related to the image psychological processes and subjective time character or lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts, unlike other processes, proceed faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery. Therefore, the image time is almost always longer than the subjective time. In some cases this is less noticeable (for example, in “A Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov, Goncharov’s novels, in Chekhov’s stories), in others it constitutes a conscious artistic device designed to emphasize the richness and intensity of mental life. This is typical of many psychological writers: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Faulkner, Hemingway, Proust.
The depiction of what the hero experienced in just a second of “real” time can take up a large amount of the narrative.
In literature as a dynamic, but at the same time visual, art, quite complex relationships often arise between “ real "and artistic time.« Real“time can generally be equal to zero, for example, with various types of descriptions. This time can be called eventless . But event time, in which at least something happens, is internally heterogeneous. In one case, literature actually records events and actions that significantly change either a person, or the relationships between people, or the situation as a whole. This plot , or plot , time. In another case, literature paints a picture of stable existence, actions and deeds repeated day after day, year after year. Events as such at such a time No. Everything that happens in it does not change either the character of a person or the relationships between people, does not move the plot (plot) from beginning to end. The dynamics of such time are extremely conditional, and its function is to reproduce a stable way of life. This type of artistic time is sometimes called "chronicle-everyday" .
The ratio of non-event and event time largely determines tempo organization of artistic time of a work , which, in turn, determines the character aesthetic perception. So, " Dead Souls» Gogol, in which predominates eventless, “chronic-everyday” time, create the impression slow tempo. There is a different tempo organization in Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”, in which event-based time (not only externally, but also internal, psychological events).
The writer sometimes makes time last, stretches it to convey a certain psychological state of the hero (Chekhov’s story “I want to sleep”), sometimes stops, “turns off” (philosophical excursions of L. Tolstoy in “War and Peace”), sometimes makes time move backwards.
Important for analysis iscompleteness Andincompleteness artistic time. Writers often create in their works closed time, which has both an absolute beginning and - what is more important - an absolute end, which, as a rule, represents the completion of the plot, the denouement of the conflict, and in the lyrics - the exhaustion of a given experience or reflection. From the early stages of the development of literature and almost until the 19th century. such temporary completeness was practically obligatory and constituted a sign of artistry. The forms of completion of artistic time were varied: this was the return of the hero to his father’s house after wanderings (literary interpretations of the parable of prodigal son), and his achievement of a certain stable position in life, and the “triumph of virtue,” and the final victory of the hero over the enemy, and, of course, the death of the main character or the wedding. At the end of the 19th century. Chekhov, for whom the incompleteness of artistic time became one of the foundations of his innovative aesthetics, extended the principle open finals and unfinished time on dramaturgy, those. to the literary genre in which it was most difficult to do this and which urgently requires temporal and eventual isolation.
Space, just like time, can shift at the will of the author. Artistic space is created through the use of image perspective; this occurs as a result of a mental change in the place from which the observation is being made: a general, small plan is replaced by a large one, and vice versa. Spatial concepts in a creative, artistic context can only be an external, verbal image, but convey a different content, not spatial.
The historical development of the spatio-temporal organization of the artistic world reveals a very definite tendency towards complication. In the 19th and especially in the 20th centuries. writers use space-time composition as a special, conscious artistic device; a kind of “game” begins with time and space. Its meaning is to compare different times and spaces, to identify both the characteristic properties of “here” and “now”, and the general, universal laws of existence, to comprehend the world in its unity. Each culture has its own understanding of time and space, which is reflected in literature. Since the Renaissance, culture has been dominated by linear concept time associated with the concept progress.Artistic time is also mostly linear., although there are exceptions. On culture and literature late XIX– beginning of the 20th century had a significant impact natural sciences concepts time and space, associated primarily with A. Einstein’s theory of relativity. Fiction responded to changing scientific and philosophical ideas about time and space: it began to contain deformations of space and time. Most fruitfully mastered new concepts of space and time Science fiction.
Titles denoting time and space.
Despite all the conventions of the “new artistic reality” created by the writer, the basis of the artistic world, like the real world, is its coordinates – time And place, which often indicated in the titles of works. In addition to cyclic coordinates (names of the time of day, days of the week, months), the time of action can be indicated by a date correlated with a historical event (“The Ninety-third Year” by V. Hugo), or the name of a real historical person with whom the idea of a particular era (“Chronicle of the reign of Charles IX” by P. Merimee).
The title of a work of art can indicate not only “points” on the time axis, but also entire “segments” that mark the chronological framework of the narrative. At the same time, the author, focusing the reader’s attention on a certain time period - sometimes it is just one day or even part of a day - strives to convey both the essence of existence and the “clump of everyday life” of his heroes, emphasizing the typicality of the events he describes (“Morning of the Landowner” by L.N. Tolstoy, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn).
The second coordinate of the artistic world of a work - place - can be indicated in the title with varying degrees of specificity, by a real (“Rome” by E. Zola) or a fictional toponym (“Chevengur” by A.P. Platonov, “Solaris” by St. Lem), defined in in the most general form (“Village” by I.A. Bunin, “Islands in the Ocean” by E. Hemingway). Fictional toponyms often contain an emotional assessment, giving the reader an idea of the author’s concept of the work. Thus, the negative semantics of Gorky’s toponym Okurov (“Okurov Town”) is quite obvious to the reader; Gorky’s town of Okurov is a dead outback, in which life does not seethe, but barely glimmers. The most common names of places, as a rule, indicate the extremely broad meaning of the image created by the artist. Thus, the village from the story of the same name by I.A. Bunin is not only one of the villages of the Oryol province, but also a Russian village in general with a whole complex of contradictions associated with the spiritual disintegration of the peasant world and community.
Titles indicating the place of action can not only model the space of the artistic world (“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A. Radishchev, “Moscow - Petushki” by V. Erofeev), but also introduce the main symbol of the work (“Nevsky Prospekt” by N.V. Gogol, “Petersburg” by A. Bely). Toponymic titles are often used by writers as a kind of bond that unites individual works into a single cycle or book (“Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N.V. Gogol).
Basic literature: 12, 14, 18, 28, 75
Further reading: 39, 45, 82
In art, the categories of space and time are a specific system of signs that serve to embody and transmit cognitive and evaluative artistic information. This dependence was first discovered and formulated by G. E. Lessing in the treatise “Laocoon, or On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry.” According to the philosopher, fine Arts and poetry can artistically recreate bodies and actions, i.e. spatial and temporal relations. Concerning spatial arts, they are able to depict bodies directly, but actions only indirectly, thanks to the depiction of the body at some fixed moment of movement. Temporary arts, on the contrary, are able to directly depict actions, and indirectly - bodies.
I. Kant considered time and space as a priori forms of sensory intuition. The philosopher substantiated the position that a prerequisite for any experience is a person’s ability to organize his sensations in space and time.
Following the theoretical principles of G. E. Lessing and I. Kant, developing them, many cultural theorists give the following classification of arts: spatial (painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture), temporal (verbal and musical creativity) and spatiotemporal (stage art, dance, cinema). It should, however, be taken into account that any scheme is relative, since the boundaries between the arts are often violated.
Each type of literature has its own laws of the relationship between time and space. IN classical drama place and time are determined by the specific principles of this type of verbal creativity. Since stagecraft involves the presentation of events, time must be concentrated to the duration of dialogues, and space is limited to mise-en-scène.
In a theatrical text, the compositional order is predetermined and finally fixed. “The limitation of space by a ramp or backstage,” writes Yu. M. Lotman, “with the complete impossibility of transferring artistically real (and not implied) action beyond these limits is the law of the theater. This closedness of space can be expressed in the fact that the action takes place indoors ( house, room) with the image of its boundaries (walls) on the scenery. The absence of walls from the side. auditorium does not change the matter, since it is not spatial in nature: in the language of the theater it is equivalent to the condition for constructing a verbal literary text, according to which the author and reader have the right to know everything they need about the characters and events."
In the poetics of the theater of the absurd, there is no intrigue, which gives the plays a static character. In the dramaturgy of the 20th century, which has acquired the status of an intellectual game, space and time persistently declare their relativity. In S. Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" the present and the past are simultaneously presented, and the place of action in this aesthetic system does not require designation at all. The closed space of the stage captures the boundaries of the human cosmos, the extreme temporal and spatial extent of life, and the anticipation of the characters creates the stage tension of time.
Poetic time moves faster than real time. In works in which there are no events, the style-forming principle becomes lyrical, extra-fabular time, for which, according to E. Vinokur, the past and the future are “one and the same continuous present.”
The structure-forming beginning of epic time, as a rule, is the combination of various time layers. Direct speech in the novel is synchronous with real time. Indirect speech can vary in pace depending on the artistic preferences of the author.
IN piece of music two time lines are revealed. This is, first of all, objective time, measured by the duration of the work itself. Another type lies in the specific organization of sound material, reflecting the thinking style of the composer and the era. In music, time cannot be analyzed in isolation from space. The uniform pulsation of rhythmic beats, the principle of contrast, the presence of main and secondary themes create a chain of events that reflects the present, memory and premonition. Space in works classical music due to its continuity, it plays an exceptional formative role. Time in music is manifested in the change of chords, melodic peaks, and rhythmic accents.
In musical experiments of the 20th century. time breaks up into separate self-sufficient moments. Composers, in their desire to break the shackles of time, strive to free musical sound from associations, to make it an end in itself due to the destruction of intonation and the absence of harmonic tonal gravity. Modernist music concentrates attention on one sound, how it is produced, and the duration of the sound. The indivisibility and uniformity of the musical fabric leads to a synthesis of the moment and eternity. The task of modernist music is to divide eternity into many unique moments.
Time and space in cinema should not be reduced to the analysis of technical techniques or to the features of dramaturgy. In the film, the director combines mental, physical and dramatic time. The editing technique and the rhythmic change of frames contribute to the emergence in the viewer’s mind of the illusion of spatial unity.
The director, depending on the need, can concentrate the chronology, unfolding the action only in space. When necessary, the film is constructed as a chain of events, sometimes time is reduced to a single moment. A number of images are similar to the clarity of a literary phrase, marked by musicality, which allows you to express the most vague sensations. The author's attitude to events is often embodied using the techniques of compressed time, coincidence of times, or reverse time. The continuity of movement in cinema and the impression of integrity arises from a sequence of discrete shots.
V. E. Meyerhold denied the right of “photography” to be called art, since in mechanical copying there is no movement and measurement of time, which are the basis of cinema. The director argued that “the screen is something located in time and space, and that developing the consciousness of time in the game is the task of the actor of the future.”
Cinema is based on montage. The technique itself was opened by the literature of romanticism. Editing is one of the leading methods of film construction. Cinema experiments with the categories of space and time, disrupts the relationship between causes and effects, creates a paradoxical shift in event plans, achieving a sophisticated transmission of the director’s intention.
The universality of aesthetic laws makes different types of art and their perception similar.
To understand the specifics of art, it is necessary to take into account the time of reception of the work. Perception is subject to certain laws. Repeated presentation of the theme with anticipation and recognition of it, preservation of the plot texture in memory throughout long sections of the form, metrical organization of sound material - patterns related to the time of perception of a musical work.
A piece of music is perceived as sequence of sounds film - how consistent organization of personnel, static works of painting, sculpture and architecture in human perception unfold in time as sequence of images. The perception of spatial arts is marked by the following composition: the viewer is revealed to the aesthetic complex of the work - the plastic subordination of profiles and projections, the combination of shadows and light.
The perception of plastic arts presupposes the initiative of the viewer when considering the subject: the angle of observation, the speed of transition from one point to another, the total duration of perception.
This does not mean absolute arbitrariness and uncontrollability of perception. P. Florensky reflects on this in his work “Analysis of spatiality in works of art”: “Nothing prevents me from tearing a ball of thread anywhere or opening a book anywhere, but if I want to have a solid thread, I look for the end of the ball and from it I am already going through all the turns of the thread. In the same way, if I want to perceive the book as a logical or artistic whole, I open it on the first page and proceed according to the page numbering sequentially. The visual work, of course, is accessible to my inspection from any place, starting from any place. order, but if I approach it as an artistic one, then with an involuntary instinct I find the first thing to start with, the second, the next one, and, unconsciously following its guiding pattern, I straighten it with an internal rhythm.
The work is structured in such a way that this transformation of pattern into rhythm occurs automatically.”
It is obvious that P. Florensky’s thinking is aimed at a prepared viewer. Be that as it may, the perception of the plastic arts in any sequence ultimately creates a holistic view. Works of painting, sculpture, and architecture are static, two-dimensional or three-dimensional plastic. They are excluded from the flow of time. Meanwhile, the act of perception is the reading of human experience into artistic creation– overcomes the limitations of a particular type of art.
In various types of art, the categories of space and time manifest themselves especially. The existence of verbal and musical art is marked by process. The act of reading presupposes strict determinism, determined by the time of perception, which does not exclude the need to slow down or speed up reading or return to places you like. The world of artistic images affects the reader, viewer and listener, breaks the spatial locality of the work and gives rise to various associations.
The categories of space and time in art have figurative And expressive meanings. More than once, lyrical masterpieces have attracted composers. Many works of world literature have been influenced by music. The poets enthusiastically describe ancient statues, transferring perfect plasticity into the sphere of images and rhymes. “Prose of moods” and “musical prose” are marked by the tension of the melodic atmosphere. In the picturesque arrangement of objects on the canvas, in the special elaboration of the “light-air environment”, a clear rhythm of space is felt. Musical themes evoke associations with color schemes and color contrasts.
The undoubted relationship between music and painting allows us to compare pictorial image harmonious sound. The composer, turning only to the ear, can evoke the same sensations that painting conveys with the help of paints. The Romantics insisted that architecture is frozen music. As for poetry, the definition of lyrical landscapes as “painting with words” has long ceased to be conventional - the images created by the great artists of words are so bright and plastic.
A work of art is a source of information and is perceived in different ways. This is how it differs from scientific texts, the information capacity of which is always strictly fixed and does not imply, as in communication with a work of art, the effect of empathy and sensory contemplation.
“What happens in the process of reading?” J. Carey discusses the role of time in the formation of reading impressions. “At first, the reader perceives physiologically. In fact, the reader is presented with only combinations of signs written on paper. They are inert and meaningless in themselves. They are not able to convey him something “with his own forces.” Reading is a creative process, subject to the same rules, the same restrictions, as the spiritual activity through which a person contemplating a work of art turns a block of stone, paints applied to a canvas, i.e. that is, things that in themselves mean nothing, into a meaningful impression.”
Each era creates its own vision of the world, its own style of thinking and, accordingly, its own concept of time and space.
Ancient forms of thinking are marked by an anthropomorphic perception of time, endowing it with moral meaning. Archaic time is ahistorical, it is cyclical and does not need precise measurement, events are reduced to categories, and individual stories are reduced to archetypal ones. Life, freed from chance, is included in the structure of eternity. The future in the mythopoetic tradition is identified with fate, the time duration of wanderings is measured by the space overcome.
In folklore, event time is determined by circumstances external to the hero. Folklore storytelling documents non-event time as “pauses” and expresses it using sacred numbers indicating not so much duration as immeasurability (three, seven, ten, thirty-three).
The epic is based on the principles of cyclization. The chronology of epic tales is alien to reliable dates. "Empty" time does not change heroes. They are not subject to aging. The hero begins to undergo changes only when he is included in the action.
The mythopoetic tradition has become a fruitful source of many artistic solutions in the literature of recent centuries.
A work of art is the embodiment of philosophical and ethical-aesthetic quests, which are materialized in a composition, a system of images, in the space-time continuum, giving the plot the necessary dynamics, argumentation and recognition. The original, fundamentally heterogeneous material of reality is interpreted by the author and proposed as a dynamic figurative and artistic phenomenon, which unfolds in the form of a sequential series of stages and is translated into a space-time continuum - a chronotope.
The category "chronotope" is introduced into the research arsenal of literary criticism Μ. M. Bakhtin, who developed the theory of the poetics of the novel from a historical perspective. The pictorial function of the chronotope is to make events visible and tangible. “An event,” writes M. M. Bakhtin, “can be reported, informed, and precise instructions can be given about the place and time of its occurrence. But the event does not become an image. The chronotope provides essential ground for display - the image of events.”
This happens due to the condensation of time human life or a historical event in certain areas of the artistic space. All abstract elements of the novel, not marked by artistic imagery, philosophical reasoning, generalizations and ideas various kinds ideas are filled with “flesh and blood, attached to artistic imagery through the chronotope.”
The chronotope, according to Bakhtin, creates an image, and this is where its pictorial function is manifested. The general meaning of the chronotope is that events in a work of art are characterized by a certain spatiotemporal interdependence. Event time can be marked by duration, discreteness or continuity, finiteness or infinity, closedness or openness.
The concept of chronotope does not exhaust the scope of a single work; it is associated with the aesthetic trends of the era, the author's style, the genre of works, and is often marked by a direct relationship with the typology of reader reactions.
In art, time can shrink and stretch, stop, go back, spatial relationships can shift and deform. On this basis, the distance between artistic form and reality arises, which is usually called artistic convention.
D. S. Likhachev wrote that “time is a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a work, subordinating its grammatical and philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks.”
The problem of spatio-temporal relationships in literature must be considered in connection with the evolution of artistic movements and styles. The classicist principle of “three unities,” which caused fierce criticism among the theorists of romanticism, aimed to concentrate events to the utmost, to offer a clear portrait of what was happening, opposing the chaos of reality and the artist’s willfulness. “Letter on the Rule of Twenty-Four Hours” by Jean Chaplin, “The Practice of the Theater” by François d’Aubignac, “The Art of Poetry” by Nicolas Boileau-Depreau develop the theoretical aspects of classicist poetics, set out the rules with the help of which conditions are created for the differentiated disclosure of characters, ideas and deep analysis of the collision of a private impulse with a rational norm.
The philosophical and aesthetic practice of classicism made it possible to organize the source material full of contradictions in a plot, to generalize the depicted reality, to present it in the form of an integral dramatic conflict.
In classicism, space and time are created in accordance with plastic models that have clear lines that are open to aesthetic contemplation. The frightening multidimensionality of objects is brought into line with the stylistic norm. The spatial argumentation of conflicts is intended to confirm artistic and figurative persuasiveness. In this sense, the subsequent polemic with the limitations of classicist aesthetics is a dispute between romanticism and a culture that chose temporal-spatial convention as an independent value, providing artistic practice with theoretically sound arguments.
Classicists often transfer the action of their works to the past, seeing historical heroes the personification of the virtues and vices of his time. This solution characterizes all narrative aesthetics, but for classicism the principle of analogy is important, which allows us to illustrate the idea of the transtemporal existence of the conflict between duty and passion.
The classicist idea of a mandatory aesthetic "discipline" will be developed in artistic creativity and literary critical activity of representatives of the early Enlightenment. Supporters of normative poetics and opponents of “unlimited freedom” in creativity rely on the idea of measure, harmony and law. Meanwhile, the Age of Enlightenment expresses a skeptical attitude towards the desire of classicism to rationally order the world. Authors of novels strive to depict life in the realities of life itself: in its prejudices, dynamics, conflicts, epic temporal and spatial extent.
Romanticism defends the artist's right to free initiative in the artistic embodiment of the contradictions of the rebellious spirit. Writers comment extremely freely on the temporary circumstances of the characters’ lives, correlate the eternal and the temporary, and create an eschatological image of time, which measures the fatal step of inevitable death. The idea of the doom of titanic passions encourages romantics to narrow the time and space limits of the character’s existence. The rebellious youth is defeated in his clash with the world. All attempts to overcome loneliness and melancholy are doomed. And even travel does not change anything in a soul marked by disappointment. The authors depict the hero's tragedy, reducing his physical representation in the world to a psychological reflection of what is happening. Such a subjective perspective of the image radically narrows reality itself, often making it unreal.
Romantics often resort to the technique of an asymmetrical image of the universe. Writers interrupt the usual flow of events that are not significant for the conflict with flashes of concentrated time, the metric of which is designed to reveal the dramatic climaxes of a restless spirit.
Understanding the tragic vicissitudes of fate in romantic art is often carried out in terms of musical aesthetics. Music allows you to overcome space-time boundaries, turn to the past and look into the future, promises to fulfill hopes and fatally programs fate. An active appeal to Platonic ideas is embodied in the development of the theory of “two worlds” and “double vision”, which expands the space of romantic works: any plot situation correlates with the world of ideas, the specifics of life turn out to be a simplified sketch ideal program world order.
Romantic irony relieves the tension between the real and ideal worlds; it is assigned the role of expressing the author’s doubt in the triumph of harmony and revealing the ability of the romantic reader to be equal to the ideal.
The Romantics not only discovered the wealth of oral folk art, but were also the first to begin to study folklore. Turning to folklore helps expand the established boundaries of plots, and also introduces fantastic elements into culture that allow you to look into the future and discover in it the personification of an ideal, or an impending tragedy.
Romantics, in search of harmony, turn to the depiction of a patriarchal past, not overshadowed by the influence of a spiritless civilization. The past beckons with a utopian sense of the unattainable and is painted in idyllic tones. An original view of history is offered by W. Scott. The writer is not limited to the traditional opposition of the past to the present. Turning to the history of England, the author of "Ivanhoe" uses the principle of analogy, revealing in the past circumstances that determined the specific historical perspective of the country.
In the aesthetics of realism, space-time representations are focused on the scrupulous reproduction of reality.
In realism, space and time become one of the means of conveying thoughts, feelings of the characters and the author, but their main purpose is a figurative generalization of reality.
A. S. Pushkin traces the connection of individual time with eternity. M. Yu. Lermontov contrasts the present and the past; modernity saddens the poet, prompting him to paint gloomy pictures of the future. For F.I. Tyutchev, life is a fragile moment, marked by a tragic feeling of the finitude of life. N. A. Nekrasov strives to objectify the poetic content of his works, inscribing signs of real historical time into the lyrics.
A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. A. Goncharov, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, recreating a holistic and visible picture of human experiences, use effective techniques that allow them to “stop” time or, when it is necessary to increase its duration.
D. S. Likhachev, reflecting on the poetics of artistic time, makes an important generalization: “On the one hand, the time of a work can be “closed,” “closed in itself,” occurring only within the boundaries of the plot, not related to events occurring outside the boundaries of the work , with historical time. On the other hand, the time of a work can be “open”, included in a broader flow of time, developing against the background of a precisely defined historical era. “Open” time of a work presupposes the presence of other events occurring simultaneously outside the work, its plot. ".
In the works of N.V. Gogol, the structure of time and space becomes one of the main means of expression. In "Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka" real and fantastic spaces collide. Closed in its geographical specificity, "Petersburg Tales" become a metaphor for a world that is destructive for humans, and the city depicted in "The Inspector General" appears as an allegory of bureaucratic Russia. Space and time can appear in everyday scenes or in marking the boundaries of the characters’ existence. In "Dead Souls" the image of the road as a form of space is identical to the idea of the path as moral standard human life.
I. A. Goncharov in the novel “Oblomov,” emphasizing the slowness of the calendar of patriarchal existence, turns to comparing the hero’s life with the “slow gradualness with which geological modifications of our planet occur.” The novel is based on the principle of open time. The author deliberately neglects the clear metrics of the narrative, slows down the passage of time, persistently returning to the description of the patriarchal idyll.
The time depicted and the time of the image in literary texts may not coincide. Thus, the novel "Oblomov" reproduces several episodes from the life of the main character. Those points that the author considered important to dwell on are presented in detail, others are only indicated. Nevertheless, such a principle of organizing a work results in the creation of a holistic picture of a person’s life.
L. N. Tolstoy in the novel "War and Peace", reflecting on the laws of human society, turns to the mythopoetic tradition, which is based on the idea of the cyclical development of the universe. The philosophical purpose of such a solution is the idea that everything in the world, chaotic and contradictory, is subordinated to man’s eternal desire to achieve harmony.
In the novel "War and Peace" the flow of time is determined by the law of nonlinear transformations, which is embodied in the intersection of "real time" and "literary time." In the work of L. N. Tolstoy, chronological order plays a special role. The writer carefully dates each chapter and even notes the time of day.
In the passages describing the experiences of the characters, the author of the epic manages to achieve rhythmic tension in the narrative and dynamic change emotional states. The characters' thoughts either speed up or seem to freeze, and accordingly, time itself accelerates its movement or petrifies in anticipation.
A work of art belongs to special types of mastery of reality. The artistic image is only indirectly related to the depiction of reality. A writer must always take into account the spatio-temporal boundaries of reality in his work and correlate them with the chronology of the text being created. Often in literary work physical time and plot time do not coincide.
As an example, we can turn to the poetics of F. M. Dostoevsky’s novels. The writer puts his heroes in crisis situations, the implementation of which requires an extremely long time. The events described in the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky, especially some scenes, do not fit into the framework of real time. But it is precisely this chronotope of the novel that conveys the tension of thought and will of the characters caught in the drama of life situations.
Readers may get the impression that F. M. Dostoevsky's novels are based on different time plans. This feeling stems from a tense interweaving of events, discussions, confessions, facts, internal monologues and internal dialogues. In fact, the writer’s works are marked by the unity of time, and all artistic material is presented in a holistic space of simultaneous implementation.
The aesthetics of naturalism in the reproduction of space and time chooses the technique of rigid spatiotemporal presentation of the material. E. Zola, E. and J. Goncourt record the facts of reality, correlate them with the voice of nature, revealing the conditionality of the heroes’ intuitive actions by the eternal laws of nature.
Symbolism overcomes the objectivity of phenomenal existence; metaphors and symbols expand the horizons of human existence. With the help of "lyrical alchemy" C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé compare reality with the irrational meanings of the world, prove that the symbol embodies perfect plan, the essences of things that were, are present or someday will certainly make themselves known.
Yu. M. Lotman noted that " art space in a literary work, it is a continuum in which characters are located and action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space. There is some truth in such a perception, since even when its function of modeling extra-spatial relations is exposed, artistic space necessarily retains, as the foreground of metaphor, the idea of its physical nature.
According to the degree of convention, the categories of space and time can be relative and specific in a literary work. Thus, in the novels of A. Dumas, the action takes place in France in the 17th century, but the real historical place and time indicated by the writer is only an excuse for recreating heroic types. The main thing in this approach to the past, according to U. Eco, is that it is “not here and not now.”
The “concrete” principle of mastering reality includes Gogol’s principles of realistic typification. The image of the provincial town of N. is not at all a symbol of a Russian province, it is a symbol of bureaucratic Russia, an allegory of widespread lack of spirituality.
For the perception of a literary work, the difference between fictional and real topoi is not fundamental. The main thing is that St. Petersburg in the Russian novel, and the city of S. (A. P. Chekhov’s story “The Lady with the Dog”), and the city of Kalinov (A. Ostrovsky’s play “The Thunderstorm”) - they all artistically embody the author’s idea and are symbols of the world who has lost the concept of morality.
The conventionality and stereotyping of literary time is manifested in the calendar of seasonal preferences. Winter is the most dangerous time of year for the embodiment of intimate emotions. Many characters of romanticism in winter reflect inconsolably and remember the old glorious time that has passed into oblivion. The rare hero of romanticism in winter will be brought out of scrap by love's needs. Time and space are subject to the laws of strict regulation. Images of blizzards and winter cold in literature are correlated with the struggle of infernal forces and often become, especially in realistic literature, allegories of social violence. No less common are winter landscape sketches, the purpose of which is to glorify the intrinsic value of life.
The normativity of classicism in the depiction of regenerating nature - an appeal to ancient images, pathetic comparisons - is overcome by a sentimentalist conviction in the identity of nature and soul. Romanticism imbues the description of the awakening world with objectivity, expressive details, and a rich range of colors.
Awakening from winter sleep nature provides convincing interiors to reveal the first sense. Spring favors the birth of love. A hubbub reigns in the forests, restless birds are absorbed in the construction of their homes. The world is tirelessly preparing for a date with passion.
Heroes romantic poetry, faithful to the imperative call of nature, with a heart filled with hope, they rush into the whirlwind of spring delusions. Lyric poetry attributes the most sincere and exciting emotions to spring. In spring, as literature proves, it is simply necessary to fall in love. The characters feel they belong to the general unrest. Nature and soul awaken from grief. The time has come to experience for yourself what you have read, seen in your dreams and cherished in your dreams. Descriptions of the joy of innocent love sensations, languid nights, and multi-talking sighs become dominant in literary plots. The metric of experiences is designed in accordance with violent natural metamorphoses. Poetry enthusiastically describes the first thunder, the May thunderstorm - signs of a symbolic exposition of the renewal of nature and the birth of love.
Summer in literary works, as a rule, comes unnoticed and does not give the promised joys. Literature does not favor settings illuminated by bright sunlight. Everything sincere is afraid of publicity. For a love story, twilight is preferable. Evening walks evoke thoughts of eternity. Distant stars - the only witnesses of timid feelings - watch the lucky ones. The very mise-en-scène of an evening date, as the works of the romantics and A.P. Chekhov show, is structured in such a way that the plot of confession can be realized.
The autumn plot declares the need to complete everything started in spring and summer. The love and everyday mythology of literature warns about this. English cemetery poetry is permeated with autumn moods. It is at this time of year that the most painful events in the works of neo-romanticism occur. The range of “autumn” activity of the heroes is extremely limited. Realistic poetry condemns social injustice, and romantic heroes in the fall they strive to put an end to love punctuation.
The literary category of the time is marked by a wide range of artistic solutions. Literature actively uses images that are symbols of time measurement: an instant, a minute, an hour, a pendulum, a dial. In poetry, there is a widespread opposition between the symbols of the measurable and the immeasurable - the moment and eternity.
The interpretation of the space-time continuum in the works of the last century is ambiguous.
Literature of the 20th century marked by a special relationship to the category of time, to the phenomenon of reconstruction of what happened. Beginning with St. Augustine's Confessions, the introduction of present and future plans into the past becomes one of the techniques of confessional and memoir literature. Integration of the future into the present allows you to analyze what happened and see it in a time perspective. V. Shklovsky, reflecting on the nature of the memoir genre, noted: “There are two dangers for a person who begins to write memoirs. The first is to write, inserting yourself today. Then it turns out that you always knew everything. The second danger is to remain only in the past when remembering Run through the past the way a dog runs along a wire on which its dog chain is attached. Then a person always remembers the same thing: trampling down the grass of the past, he is tied to it. It is necessary to write about the past, not. inserting today's self into the past, but seeing the past from today."
At the beginning of the 20th century. the genre of autobiography itself in the parameters outlined by Augustine and culminating in J.-J. Rousseau begins to demonstrate his insincerity. The fate of the autobiographical genre is changing.
The modernist experience of M. Proust shows that the author is faced with the need to choose what to prefer: an inspired presentation of life or the registration of a certain image of reality in the space of words. In other words, Proust does not tell the story of his life, but sets out to find ways and mechanisms for revealing the past. Otherwise, time may be “lost.” The leading tool for penetrating into what once happened is the narrative technique of “automatic writing.” It is this, according to Proust, that allows one to reveal and organize the images of the departed.
The theory of “automatic writing” casts doubt on the likelihood of reproducing the empirical content of the original reality. The fact of life, whatever it may be, competes with the self-sufficiency of writing. As a result, tension arises between a word that is aware of the world and an event that initially has no artificial form perpetuation and therefore in need of words. What is the source of “gained” time - a fact or a word - is a Proustian question, clearly resolved by the writer in favor of the word.
After the artistic experiments of M. Proust, a special philosophical and aesthetic configuration is created in literature, in which the very parameters of the narrative structure, tested for centuries, undergo a qualitative metamorphosis. The idea of the feasibility of traveling into the past - auto(I) bio(life) graphite(I write) - is being repressed autograph, persistently proving the priority of writing over fact of life.
As a result, the idea of the self-sufficiency of the word and the mud of organization of the novel narrative that it gives birth to begin to triumph over any reality of life. Therefore, it turns out to be fundamentally impossible to comprehend real experience and complete it. M. Proust experiments with narrative time. The writer, studying in detail the mechanisms of recall, splits the hero's biography into a series of subjective images, excluding the objective flow of history from the narrative. Following the task of restoring what was lost, the writer ignores some impressions and poetically comprehends others. The hero's conflict with objective time leads to the fact that it begins to fragment into many self-valuable absolutized moments, each of which destroys the physical reality of the previous one, marking it with hypertrophied subjectivity.
In the literature of the 20th century. Narrative time and real time, as a rule, do not coincide. J. Joyce in the novel "Ulysses" compares different time layers. The inhabitants of Dublin are correlated with Homeric characters; the psychological world of the hero is associated with ancient eras. The eternal, embodied in plots, genres, words, shines through in the modern. This type of narration illustrates the idea of the endless existence of culture, embodied in the soul and consciousness of a person.
V. Wulf abandons the classical interpretation of time and reduces it to the study of intuition. Different episodes in the stream of consciousness lose their determinism, the past and present demonstrate their unity. Dos Passos develops a theory of mechanical memory. Time does not move in W. Faulkner's works. In the novels of the American writer there is no linear order of events and correlation of episodes. The characters exist in the time of their memories. And therefore, the cause-and-effect relationships familiar to classical narratives turn out to be mystified.
The concept of the future in literature of the 20th century. inseparable from the idea of the reversibility of time and space. This view is based on F. Nietzsche’s idea of the “eternal return,” which outlines the connection of time with the transition of possibility into reality and vice versa. Moreover, this repeatability is not accidental, but natural, since it reflects the essence of system processes.
G. G. Marquez in the romance “One Hundred Years of Solitude” unfolds the narrative in the space of reality and historical time, which turn out to be subject to the laws of what has already been created. Everything that happens and will happen to the heroes has not only already happened, but is even described in a book, reading which means coming to the final plot of existence. The classic comparison of a book with life takes on a completely non-metaphorical meaning in Marquez’s poetic system.
M. Bulgakov in “The Master and Margarita” proves the connection of the past with the present and future. “Manuscripts Don’t Burn” is an expressive illustration of well-known romantic concepts, polemics with which will be presented in W. Eco’s novel “The Name of the Rose.”
Postmodernist writers, abandoning the self-sufficient recording of history, the task of endowing it with exclusive ethical content, make the key to interpreting what happened the idea of the impossibility of adequately understanding the meanings of things and concepts dissolved in time. U. Eco argues that from things that have passed into the past, only names remain, which, due to their historical and cultural oversaturation of meanings, disorient the modern reader, dooming to failure any attempt to offer an uncontested interpretation of what happened.
The future is often used as an artistic device for revealing certain phenomena of reality. In science fiction, especially in the dystopian genre, the present is projected onto the future; time travel enhances the absurdity of phenomena that are just being born in modern times. The future, thus, explains the present day, expands its perception and understanding.
Many artistic experiments of the 20th century persistently strive to convey the indivisibility of the time-spatial planes experienced by man. As a result, each time slice of the works unites the already realized past, the directly experienced present and the not yet actualized future.
The categories of artistic space and time depend on the evolving artistic consciousness and specific attitudes creative method, the psychological and ideological positions of the artist and the specific tasks that the authors set in their works.
Plot and text composition
Plot is the dynamic side of the form of a literary work.
Conflict is an artistic contradiction.
The plot is one of the characteristics of the artistic world of the text, but it is not only a list of signs by which the art can be quite accurately described. the world of the work is quite wide - spatio-temporal coordinates - chronotope, figurative structure, dynamics of action development, speech characteristics and others.
Art world– a subjective model of objective reality.
Hood. the world of each work is unique. It is a complexly mediated reflection of the author’s temperament and worldview.
Hood. world– display of all facets of creative individuality.
The specificity of literary representation is movement. And the most adequate form of expression is a verb.
Action, as an event unfolding in time and space or a lyrical experience, is what forms the basis of the poetic world. This action can be more or less dynamic, extensive, physical, intellectual or indirect, BUT its presence is mandatory.
Conflict as the main driving force of the text.
Hood. the world in its entirety (with spatial and temporal parameters, population, elemental nature and general phenomena, the character’s expression and experience, the author’s consciousness) exists not as a disorderly heap..., but as a harmonious, expedient cosmos in which the core is organized. Such a universal core is considered to be COLLISION or CONFLICT.
Conflict is a confrontation of contradiction either between characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within character, underlying the action.
It is the conflict that forms the core of the theme.
If we are dealing with a small epic form, then the action develops on the basis of one single conflict. In works of large volume, the number of conflicts increases.
PLOT = /FABULA (not equal)
Plot elements:
Conflict– an integrating rod around which everything revolves.
The plot least of all resembles a solid, unbroken line connecting the beginning and end of an event series.
Plots break down into various elements:
Basic (canonical);
Optional (grouped in a strictly defined order).
The canonical elements include:
Exposition;
Climax;
Development of action;
Peripeteia;
Denouement.
Optional include:
Retreat;
Ending;
Title;
Exposition(Latin – presentation, explanation) – a description of the events preceding the plot.
Main functions:
Introducing the reader to the action;
Orientation in space;
Presentation of characters;
Picture of the situation before the conflict.
The plot is an event or group of events that directly leads to a conflict situation. It can grow out of exposure.
The development of action is the entire system of sequential deployment of that part of the event plan from beginning to end that guides the conflict. It can be calm or unexpected turns (vicissitudes).
The moment of highest tension in a conflict is critical to its resolution. After which the development of the action turns to the denouement.
In "Crime and Punishment" the climax - Porfiry comes to visit! Talk! Dostoevsky himself said so.
The number of climaxes can be large. It depends on the storylines.
Resolution is an event that resolves a conflict. Tells along with the ending of the dramas. or epic. Works. Most often, the ending and denouement coincide. In the case of an open ending, the denouement may recede.
All writers understand the importance of the final final chord.
“Strength, artistic, the blow comes at the end”!
The denouement, as a rule, is juxtaposed with the beginning, echoing it with a certain parallelism, completing a certain compositional circle.
Optional Plot Elements(not the most important):
Title (only in fiction);
Most often, the title encodes the main conflict (Fathers and Sons, Thick and Thin)
The title does not leave the bright field of our consciousness.
Epigraph (from Greek - inscription) - can appear at the beginning of the work, or as parts of the work.
The epigraph establishes hypertextual relationships.
An aura of related works is formed.
Deviation is an element with a negative sign.
There are lyrical, journalistic, etc. used to slow down, inhibit the development of action, switch from one storyline to another.
Internal monologues - play a similar role, since they are addressed to oneself, to the side;
reasoning of the characters, the author.
Insert numbers - play a similar role (in Eugene Onegin - songs of girls);
Inserted stories - (about Captain Kopeikin) their role is an additional screen that expands the panorama of the artistic world of the work;
The final. As a rule, it coincides with the denouement.
Subjective organization of text
Bakhtin was the first to consider this topic.
Any text is a system. This system involves something that seems to defy systematization: the consciousness of a person, the personality of the author.
The author’s consciousness in the work receives a certain form, and the form can already be touched and described. In other words, Bakhtin gives us an idea of the unity of spatial and temporal relations in the text. It gives an understanding of one’s own and someone else’s word, their equality, the idea of an “endless and complete dialogue in which not a single meaning dies, the concepts of form and content come closer together through understanding the concept of worldview. The concepts of text and context come together, and affirms the integrity of human culture in the space and time of earthly existence.
Korman B. O. 60-70s 20th century developed ideas. He established theoretical unity between terms and concepts such as: author, subject, object, point of view, someone else's word and others.
The difficulty lies not in distinguishing the narrator and the narrator, but in UNDERSTANDING THE UNITY BETWEEN CONSCIOUSNESS. And the interpretation of unity as the final author’s consciousness.
Consequently, in addition to realizing the importance of the conceptualized author, a synthesizing view of the work and the system was required and appeared, in which everything is interdependent and is expressed primarily in formal language.
Subjective organization is the correlation of all objects of the narrative (those to whom the text is assigned) with the subjects of speech and subjects of consciousness (that is, those whose consciousness is expressed in the text), this is the correlation of the horizons of consciousness expressed in the text.
It is important to consider 3 viewpoint plans:
Phraseological;
Spatio-temporal;
Ideological.
Phraseological plan:
As a rule, it helps to determine the nature of the bearer of the statement (I, you, he, we or their absence)
Ideological plan:
It is important to clarify the relationship between each point of view and with artistic world, in which it occupies a certain place from another point of view.
Space-time plan:
(see Heart of a Dog analysis)
It is necessary to distinguish distance and contact 9 according to the degree of remoteness), external and internal.
When characterizing the subject organization, we inevitably come to the problem of the author and the hero. Considering different aspects, we come to the ambiguity of the author. Using the concept of “author” we mean a biographical author, an author as a subject of the creative process, an author in his artistic embodiment (the image of the author).
A narrative is a sequence of speech fragments of text containing a variety of messages. The subject of the story is the narrator.
The narrator is an indirect form of the author’s presence within the work, performing a mediating function between the fictional world and the recipient one.
The hero’s speech zone is a collection of fragments of his direct speech, various forms of indirect speech transmission, fragments of phrases that fall into the author’s zone, characteristic words, and emotional assessments characteristic of the hero.
Important characteristics:
Motif – repeating elements of the text that have a semantic load.
Chronotope is the unity of space and time in a work of art;
Anachrony is a violation of the direct sequence of events;
Retrospection – shifting events into the past;
Prospection - a look into the future of events;
Peripeteia is a sudden sharp shift in the fate of a character;
Landscape is a description of the world external to man;
Portrait is an image of the hero’s appearance (figure, pose, clothing, facial features, facial expressions, gestures);
There are self-portrait descriptions, comparison portraits, and impression portraits.
- Composition of a literary work.
This is the relationship and arrangement of parts, elements within a work. Architectonics.
Gusev “The Art of Prose”: composition in reverse time (“Easy Breathing” by Bunin). Composition of direct time. Retrospective (“Ulysses” by Joyce, “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov) – different eras become independent objects of depiction. Intensification of phenomena - often in lyrical texts - Lermontov.
Compositional contrast (“War and Peace”) is an antithesis. Plot-compositional inversion (“Onegin”, “Dead Souls”). The principle of parallelism is in the lyrics, “The Thunderstorm” by Ostrovsky. Composition ring – “Inspector”.
Composition of figurative structure. The character is in interaction. There are main, secondary, off-stage, real and historical characters. Catherine - Pugachev are bound together through an act of mercy.
Composition. This is the composition and specific position of parts of elements and images of works in time sequence. Carries a meaningful and semantic load. External composition– dividing the work into books, volumes / is of an auxiliary nature and serves for reading. More meaningful elements: prefaces, epigraphs, prologues, / they help to reveal the main idea of the work or identify the main problem of the work. Internal- includes Various types descriptions (portraits, landscapes, interiors), non-plot elements, staged episodes, all kinds of digressions, various forms of speech of the characters and points of view. The main task of the composition– integrity of the depiction of the artistic world. This decency is achieved with the help of a kind of compositional techniques - repeat- one of the simplest and most effective, it allows you to easily round out the work, especially the ring composition, when a roll call is established between the beginning and the end of the work, carries a special artistic meaning. Composition of motives: 1. motives(in music), 2. opposition(combining repetition, contrasting with mirror compositions), 3. details, installation. 4. default,5. point of view - the position from which stories are told or from which the events of the characters or the narrative are perceived. Types of Viewpoints: ideological-integral, linguistic, spatial-temporal, psychological, external and internal. Types of compositions: simple and complex.
Plot and plot. Categories of material and technique (material and form) in the concept of V.B. Shklovsky and their modern understanding. Automation and disengagement. Correlation of concepts "plot" And "plot" in the structure of the artistic world. The importance of distinguishing these concepts for the interpretation of the work. Stages in plot development.
The composition of a work is its construction, the organization of its figurative system in accordance with the author’s concept. Subordination of the composition to the author's intention. Reflection of the tension of the conflict in the composition. The art of composition, compositional center. The criterion of artistry is the correspondence of the form to the concept.
Artistic space and time. Aristotle was the first to connect “space and time” with the meaning of a work of art. Then the ideas about these categories were carried out by: Likhachev, Bakhtin. Thanks to their works, “space and time” became established as the basis of literary categories. In any case the work inevitably reflects real time and space. As a result, a whole system of spatio-temporal relations develops in the work. Analysis of “space and time” can become a source of study, the author’s worldview, his aesthetic relationships in reality, his artistic world, artistic principles and his creativity. In science, there are three types of “space and time”: real, conceptual, perceptual.
.Artistic time and space (chronotope).
It exists objectively, but is also subjectively experienced differently by people. We perceive the world differently than the ancient Greeks. Artistic time And artistic space, this is the nature of the artistic image, which provides a holistic perception artistic reality and organizes the compositional work. Artistic space represents a model of the world of a given author in the language of his representation space. In the novel Dostoevsky this is ladder. U Symbolists mirror, in the lyrics Pasternak window. Characteristics artistic time And space. Is them discreteness . Literature does not perceive the entire flow of time, but only certain essential moments. Discreteness Artistic time And space spaces are usually not described in detail, but are indicated using individual details. In lyric poetry, space can be allegorical. Lyrics are characterized by the overlap of different time plans of the present, past, future, etc.. symbolically: Basic spatial symbols house (image of a closed space), space (image of open space), threshold, window, door (border). In modern literature: station, airport Artistic space(places of decisive meetings). May be:. Artistic space point, volumetric Dostoevsky Romano - This stage area . Time in his novels moves very quickly and Chekhov time stopped. Famous physiologist Wow Tomsky combines two Greek words: chronos - time, topos - place. In concept chronotope - a space-time complex and believed that this complex is reproduced by us as a single whole. These ideas had a huge influence on M. Bakhtin - place. In concept, which in the work “Forms of Time and Chronotope” in the novel explores in novels of different eras since antiquity, he showed that chronotopes different authors and different eras differ from each other. Sometimes the author breaks the time sequence “for example, The Captain’s Daughter.” Xcharacter traits chronotope in 20th century literature: 1. Abstract space, instead of concrete, having a symbol and meaning. 2. The place and time of action are uncertain. 3. The character’s memory as the internal space of unfolding events. The structure of space is built on opposition : top-bottom, sky-earth, earth-underworld, north-south, left-right, etc. Time structure
: day-night, spring-autumn, light-dark, etc. the author’s expression of feelings and thoughts in connection with what is depicted in the work. These digressions allow readers to take a deeper look at the work. Digressions slow down the development of the action, but lyrical digressions naturally enter into the work, imbued with the same feeling as artistic images.
Introductory episodes – stories or novellas that are indirectly related to the main plot or not related to it at all
Artistic appeal – a word or phrase used to name persons or objects to which speech is specifically addressed. Can be used alone or as part of a sentence.
Artistic time- reproduction of time in a work of art, the most important compositional component of the work. It is not identical to objective time. There are three types of artistic time: “the “idyllic time” in the father’s house, the “adventurous time” of trials in a foreign land, the “mysterious time” of descent into the underworld of disasters.” The “adventurous” time is presented in Apuleius’s novel “The Golden Ass”, the “idyllic” time - in the novel by I.A. Goncharov’s “Ordinary History”, “mysterious” - in the novel “The Master and Margarita” by M.S. Bulgakov. Time in a work of art can be stretched (retardation technique - the author uses landscapes, portraits, interiors, philosophical discussions, lyrical digressions- collection “Notes of a Hunter” by I.S. Turgenev) or accelerated (the author denotes all events that happened over a long period of time in two or three phrases - the epilogue of the novel “The Noble Nest” by I.S. Turgenev (“So, eight years have passed”)). The time of plot action can be combined in a work with the author's time. The emphasis on the author's time, its differences from the time of the events of the work, is characteristic of the literature of sentimentalism (Stern, Fielding). The combination of plot and authorial time is typical for the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin".
There are different types of artistic time: linear (corresponds to the past, present and future, events are continuous and irreversible - the poem “Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet...” by A.S. Pushkin) and cyclic (events are repeated, occur during cycles - daily, annual, etc. - the poem “Works and Days” by Hesiod); “closed” (limited by the plot - the story “Mumu” by I.S. Turgenev) and “open” (included in a specific historical era- epic novel “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy); objective (not refracted through the perception of the author or characters, described in traditional units of time - days, weeks, months, etc. - the story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn) and subjective (perceptual) (given through the prism perception of the author or hero - Raskolnikov’s perception of time in F.M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”); mythological (E. Baratynsky's poems "The Last Poet", "Signs") and historical (description of the past, historical events in the life of the state, human personality, etc. - the novel "Prince Silver" by A.K. Tolstoy, the poem "Pugachev" S.A. Yesenina). In addition, M. Bakhtin also distinguishes psychological time (a type of subjective time), crisis time ( last moment time before death or before contact with mystical forces), carnival time (which has fallen out of real historical time and includes many metamorphoses and transformations).
It is also worth noting these artistic techniques, as retrospection (appeal to the past of the characters or the author), prospection (appeal to the future, author's hints, sometimes open indications of events that will happen in the future).
Any literary work in one way or another reproduces the real world - both material and ideal. The natural forms of existence of this world are time and space. However, the world of a work is always conditional to one degree or another, and, of course, time and space are also conditional.
The essential interrelation of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature, M.M. Bakhtin proposed to call it a chronotope. The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All time-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally and value-laden. Abstract thinking can, of course, think of time and space in their separateness and be distracted from their emotional and valuable moment. But living artistic contemplation (it is, of course, also full of thought, but not abstract) does not separate anything and is not distracted from anything. It captures the chronotope in all its integrity and completeness.
Compared to other arts, literature deals most freely with time and space (only cinema can compete with it). The “immateriality of images” gives literature the ability to instantly move from one space and time to another. For example, events occurring simultaneously in different places can be depicted (for example, Homer’s Odyssey describes the protagonist’s travels and events in Ithaca). As for time switching, the simplest form is the hero’s memory of the past (for example, the famous “Oblomov’s Dream”).
Another property of literary time and space is their discreteness (i.e. discontinuity). Thus, literature can not reproduce the entire time stream, but select the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps (for example, the introduction to Pushkin’s poem “ Bronze Horseman": "On the shore of desert waves He stood, full of great thoughts, And looked into the distance.<…>A hundred years have passed, and the young city... From the darkness of the forests, from the swamps, the cronyism Ascended magnificently, proudly"). The discrete nature of space is manifested in the fact that it is usually not described in detail, but is only indicated with the help of individual details that are most significant for the author (for example, in “The Grammar of Love” Bunin does not completely describe the hall in Khvoshchinsky’s house, but mentions only its large size, windows , facing west and north, “clumsy” furniture, “beautiful slides” in the walls, dry bees on the floor, but most importantly - the “goddess without glass”, where stood the image “in a silver robe” and on it “wedding candles in pale -green bows"). When we learn that the wedding candles were purchased by Khvoshchinsky after Lusha’s death, this emphasis becomes understandable. There may also be a change in spatial and temporal coordinates at the same time (in Goncharov’s novel “The Break,” the transfer of action from St. Petersburg to Malinovka, to the Volga makes the description of the road unnecessary).
The nature of the conventions of time and space greatly depends on the type of literature. Maximum convention in the lyrics, because it is characterized by the greatest expression and is focused on inner world lyrical subject. The conventions of time and space in drama are related to the possibilities of staging (hence the famous rule of 3 unities). In the epic, the fragmentation of time and space, transitions from one time to another, spatial movements are carried out easily and freely thanks to the figure of the narrator - an intermediary between the depicted life and the reader (for example, the intermediary can “suspend” time during reasoning, descriptions - see the example above about the hall in Khvoshchinsky’s house; of course, when describing the room, Bunin somewhat “slowed down” the passage of time).
According to the peculiarities of artistic convention, time and space in literature can be divided into abstract (one that can be understood as “everywhere”/“always”) and concrete. Thus, the space of Naples in “The Master from San Francisco” is abstract (it does not have characteristic features, important for the narrative, and is not comprehended, and therefore, despite the abundance of toponyms, can be understood as “everywhere”). Concrete space actively influences the essence of what is depicted (for example, in Goncharov’s “Cliff” the image of the Malinovka is created, which is described down to the smallest details, and the latter, undoubtedly, not only influence what is happening, but also symbolize the psychological state of the heroes: thus, the cliff itself indicates “fall” of Vera, and before her grandmother, to Raisky’s feverish passion for Vera, etc.). The corresponding properties of time are usually associated with the type of space: a specific space is combined with a specific time (for example, in “Woe from Wit,” Moscow with its realities could not belong to any other time except the beginning of the 19th century) and vice versa. Forms of concretization of artistic time are most often the “linking” of action to historical landmarks, realities and the designation of cyclical time: time of year, day.
In literature, space and time are not given to us in their pure form. We judge space by the objects that fill it, and we judge time by the processes occurring in it. To analyze a work, it is important to at least approximately determine the fullness and saturation of space and time, because this indicator often characterizes the style of a work. For example, in Gogol’s work the space is usually filled as much as possible with some objects (for example, the textbook description of the interior in Sobakevich’s house). The intensity of artistic time is expressed in its saturation with events. Cervantes's time in Don Quixote is extremely busy. Increased intensity of artistic space, as a rule, is combined with reduced intensity of time and vice versa (cf. the examples given above: “Dead Souls” and “Don Quixote”).
The depicted time and the time of the image (i.e. real (plot) and artistic time) rarely coincide. Typically, artistic time is shorter than “real” (see the example above about the omission of the description of the road from St. Petersburg to Malinovka in Goncharov’s “The Cliff”), but there is an important exception associated with the depiction of psychological processes and the subjective time of the character. Experiences and thoughts flow faster than the flow of speech, so the time of the image is almost always longer than the subjective time (for example, the textbook episode from “War and Peace” with Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, looking at the high, endless sky and comprehending the secrets of life). “Real time” can generally be equal to zero (for example, with all kinds of lengthy descriptions); such time can be called eventless. Event time is divided into plot time (describes ongoing events) and chronicle-everyday time (a picture of stable existence, repeated actions and deeds is drawn (one of the most striking examples is the description of Oblomov’s life at the beginning of Goncharov’s novel of the same name)). The ratio of non-event, chronicle-everyday and event types of time determines the tempo organization of the artistic time of the work, which determines the nature of aesthetic perception, forms the subjective reading time (“Dead Souls” creates the impression of a slow pace, and “Crime and Punishment” - a fast pace, and therefore the novel is readable Dostoevsky often “in one breath”).
The completeness and incompleteness of artistic time is important. Often writers create in their works a closed time that has an absolute beginning and end, which until the 19th century. was considered a sign of artistry. However, monotonous endings (return to the father's house, wedding or death) already seemed boring to Pushkin, so from the 19th century. there is a struggle with them, but if in a novel it is quite simple to use the other ending (as in the already mentioned “Precipice” many times), then with drama the situation is more complicated. Only Chekhov (The Cherry Orchard) managed to “get rid” of these ends.
The historical development of spatiotemporal organization reveals a tendency towards complication and individualization. But the complexity and individual uniqueness of artistic time and space does not exclude the existence of general, typological models - meaningful forms that writers use as “ready-made”. These are the motifs of a house, a road, a horse, a crossroads, up and down, open space, etc. This also includes types of organization of artistic time: chronicle, adventure, biographical, etc. It is for such spatio-temporal typological models that M.M. Bakhtin introduced the term chronotope.
MM. Bakhtin identifies, for example, the chronotope of a meeting; in this chronotope the temporal connotation predominates, and it is different high degree emotional-value intensity. The associated chronotope of the road has a wider scope, but somewhat less emotional and value intensity. Meetings in the novel usually take place on the “road”. The “road” is the predominant place for random encounters. On the road (“high road”) spatial and temporal paths intersect at one temporal and spatial point different people- representatives of all classes, conditions, religions, nationalities, ages. Here those who are normally separated by social hierarchy and spatial distance can meet by chance; here any contrasts can arise, collide and intertwine different destinies. Here spatial and time series are uniquely combined human destinies and lives, complicated and concretized by the social distances that are overcome here. This is the starting point and the place where events take place. Here time seems to flow into space and flow through it (forming roads).
TO end of the XVIII century in England, a new territory for the accomplishment of novel events is formed and consolidated in the so-called “Gothic” or “black” novel - “zbmok” (for the first time in this meaning in Horace Walpole - “The Castle of Otranto”). The castle is full of time, and the time of the historical past. The castle is the place where historical figures of the past lived; traces of centuries and generations have been deposited in it in visible form. Finally, legends and traditions bring memories of past events to life in all corners of the castle and its surroundings. This creates a specific plot of the castle, developed in Gothic novels.
In the novels of Stendhal and Balzac, a significantly new locality of the events of the novel appears - the “living room-salon” (in the broad sense). Of course, it is not with them that it appears for the first time, but only with them does it acquire the fullness of its meaning as the place of intersection of the spatial and temporal series of the novel. From the point of view of plot and composition, meetings take place here (meetings on the “road” or in an “alien world” no longer have the previously specific random nature), the beginnings of intrigues are created, denouements are often made, here, finally, and most importantly, dialogues take place, acquiring exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the heroes are revealed (cf. Scherer’s salon in “War and Peace” - A.S.).
In Flaubert's Madame Bovary, the setting is a “provincial town.” A provincial town with its musty way of life is an extremely common setting for novel events in the 19th century. This town has several varieties, including a very important one - idyllic (for regionalists). We will touch only on the Flaubertian variety (created, however, not by Flaubert). Such a town is a place of cyclical everyday time. There are no events here, but only repeating “occurrences.” Time here is deprived of a progressive historical course; it moves in narrow circles: the circle of the day, the circle of the week, the month, the circle of all life. A day is never a day, a year is never a year, a life is never a life. The same everyday actions, the same topics of conversation, the same words, etc. are repeated day after day. This is everyday cyclical everyday time. It is familiar to us in different variations from Gogol, Turgenev, Shchedrin, Chekhov. Time here is eventless and therefore seems almost stopped. There are no “meetings” or “separations” here. This is thick, sticky time crawling in space. Therefore, it cannot be the main time of the novel. It is used by novelists as a side tense, intertwined with or interrupted by other, non-cyclical time series, and often serves as a contrasting background for event and energy time series.
Let us also call here a chronotope, imbued with high emotional and value intensity, as a threshold; it can also be combined with the motive of the meeting, but its most significant completion is the chronotope of crisis and life turning point. In literature, the chronotope of the threshold is always metaphorical and symbolic, sometimes in an open form, but more often in an implicit form. In Dostoevsky, for example, the threshold and the adjacent chronotopes of the staircase, hallway and corridor, as well as the chronotopes of the street and square that continue them, are the main places of action in his works, places where events of crises, falls, resurrections, renewals, insights, decisions take place that determine a person’s entire life (for example, in “Crime and Punishment” - A.S.). Time in this chronotope is, in essence, an instant, seemingly without duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time.
Unlike Dostoevsky, in the works of L.N. Tolstoy the main chronotope is biographical time, flowing in the internal spaces of noble houses and estates. Of course, in Tolstoy’s works there are crises, falls, renewals, and resurrections, but they are not instantaneous and do not fall out of the flow of biographical time, but are firmly sealed into it. For example, the renewal of Pierre Bezukhov was long-term and gradual, quite biographical. Tolstoy did not value the moment, did not strive to fill it with anything significant and decisive; the word “suddenly” is rarely used in his work and never introduces any significant event.
In the nature of chronotopes M.M. Bakhtin saw the embodiment of various value systems, as well as types of thinking about the world. Thus, since ancient times, literature has reflected two main concepts of time: cyclical and linear. The first was earlier and relied on natural cyclical processes in nature. This cyclical concept is reflected, for example, in Russian folklore. Christianity of the Middle Ages had its own time concept: linear-finalistic. It was based on the movement in time of human existence from birth to death, while death was considered as a result, a transition to some stable existence: to salvation or destruction. Since the Renaissance, the culture has been dominated by a linear concept of time associated with the concept of progress. Also in literature, works periodically appear that reflect the atemporal concept of time. These are various kinds of pastorals, idylls, utopias, etc. The world in these works does not need changes, and therefore does not need time (E. Zamyatin shows the artificiality and implausibility of such a passage of time in his dystopia “We”). On culture and literature of the 20th century. Natural scientific concepts of time and space associated with the theory of relativity had a significant influence. The most fruitful mastery of new ideas about time and space was science fiction, which at that time entered the sphere of “high” literature, raising deep philosophical and moral problems(for example, “It’s Hard to Be a God” by the Strugatskys).
