Sentimentalism in Russian literature.
Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s and early 1790s thanks to translations of the novels “Werther” by J.V. Goethe, “Pamela,” “Clarissa” and “Grandison” by S. Richardson, " New Eloise"J.-J. Rousseau, "Paul and Virginie" by J.-A. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. The era of Russian sentimentalism was opened by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin with "Letters of a Russian Traveler" (1791–1792).
His story "Poor Liza" (1792) is a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther he inherited general atmosphere sensitivity, melancholy and themes of suicide.
The works of N.M. Karamzin gave rise to a huge number of imitations; at the beginning of the 19th century appeared "Poor Masha" by A.E. Izmailov (1801), "Journey to Midday Russia" (1802), "Henrietta, or the Triumph of Deception over Weakness or Delusion" by I. Svechinsky (1802), numerous stories by G. P. Kamenev ( “The Story of Poor Marya”; “Unhappy Margarita”; “Beautiful Tatiana”), etc.
Ivan Ivanovich Dmitriev belonged to Karamzin’s group, which advocated the creation of a new poetic language and fought against the archaic pompous style and outdated genres.
Marked by sentimentalism early work Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky. Publication in 1802 of a translation of the Elegy written in rural cemetery E. Gray became a phenomenon in artistic life Russia, because he translated the poem “into the language of sentimentalism in general, translated the genre of elegy, and not the individual work of an English poet, which has its own special individual style"(E.G. Etkind). In 1809, Zhukovsky wrote a sentimental story “Maryina Roshcha” in the spirit of N.M. Karamzin.
Russian sentimentalism had exhausted itself by 1820.
It was one of the stages of the pan-European literary development, which ended the Age of Enlightenment and opened the way to romanticism.
- departure from the straightforwardness of classicism
- emphasized subjectivity of approach to the world
- cult of feeling
- cult of nature
- cult of innate moral purity, innocence
- affirmation of the rich spiritual world of representatives of the lower classes
- attention is paid to the spiritual world of a person, and feelings come first, not reason and great ideas
Sentimentalism (from the French sentiment - feeling) - a movement in literature and art of the second half of the XVIII century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and acute emotional attitude to the surrounding world. (“A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy by Stern, “The New Heloise” by Rousseau, “Poor Liza” by Karamzin). The innovation of sentimentalism lies in its exclusive attention to the mental state of the individual and appeal to the experiences of a simple, humble person. Karamzin owns remarkable words in this regard: “...And peasant women know how to love” (“Poor Liza”) Others argued that a commoner, close to nature, not perverted by aristocratic prejudices, is morally superior to any nobleman.
In the mid-18th century, the process of decomposition of classicism began in Europe (in connection with the destruction of the absolute monarchy in France and other countries), as a result of which a new literary direction- sentimentalism. England is considered to be its homeland, since its typical representatives were English writers. The term “sentimentalism” itself appeared in literature after the publication of “A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy” by Laurence Stern.
Vault of Catherine the Great
In the 60-70s, the rapid development of capitalist relations began in Russia, resulting in the growing phenomenon of the bourgeoisie. The growth of cities increased, which led to the emergence of the third estate, whose interests are reflected in Russian sentimentalism in literature. At this time, that layer of society, which is now called the intelligentsia, begins to form. The growth of industry turns Russia into a strong power, and numerous military victories contribute to the rise national identity. In 1762, during the reign of Catherine II, nobles and peasants received many privileges. The Empress thereby tried to create a myth about her reign, showing herself to be an enlightened monarch in Europe.
The policies of Catherine the Second largely impeded progressive phenomena in society. So, in 1767, a special commission was convened to examine the state of the new code. In her work, the empress argued that an absolute monarchy is necessary not to take away freedom from people, but to achieve a good goal. However, sentimentalism in literature meant the depiction of life precisely common people, therefore, not a single writer mentioned Catherine the Great in his works.
The most important event of this period was the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev, after which many nobles sided with the peasants. Already in the 70s, mass societies began to appear in Russia, whose ideas of freedom and equality influenced the formation of a new movement. Under such conditions, Russian sentimentalism in literature began to take shape.
Conditions for the emergence of a new direction
In the second half of the 18th century there was a struggle against feudal orders in Europe. Enlightenmentists defended the interests of the so-called third estate, which often found itself oppressed. Classicists glorified the merits of monarchs in their works, and sentimentalism (in Russian literature) became the opposite direction in this regard several decades later. Representatives advocated the equality of people and put forward the concept of a natural society and natural man. They were guided by the criterion of reasonableness: feudal system, in their opinion, was unreasonable. This idea was reflected in Daniel Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe, and later in the works of Mikhail Karamzin. In France a shining example and the manifesto becomes the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau “Julia, or the new Heloise”; in Germany - “The Sorrows of Young Werther” by Johann Goethe. In these books, the tradesman is portrayed as an ideal person, but in Russia everything is different.
Sentimentalism in literature: features of the movement
Style is born in a fierce ideological struggle with classicism. These currents oppose each other in all positions. If the state was depicted by classicism, then a person with all his feelings was depicted by sentimentalism.
Representatives in the literature introduce new genre forms: love story, psychological story, as well as confessional prose (diary, travel notes, travel). Sentimentalism, unlike classicism, was far from poetic forms.
The literary direction asserts transcendental value human personality. In Europe, the tradesman was portrayed as an ideal person, while in Russia the peasants were always oppressed.
Sentimentalists introduce alliteration and descriptions of nature into their works. The second technique is used to display psychological state person.
Two directions of sentimentalism
In Europe, writers smoothed over social conflicts, while in the works of Russian authors they, on the contrary, became more acute. As a result, two directions of sentimentalism were formed: noble and revolutionary. The representative of the first is Nikolai Karamzin, known as the author of the story “Poor Liza.” Despite the fact that the conflict occurs due to the clash of interests of a high and low class, the author puts the conflict in the first place as a moral one, not a social one. Noble sentimentalism did not advocate the abolition of serfdom. The author believed that “even peasant women know how to love.”
Revolutionary sentimentalism in literature advocated the abolition of serfdom. Alexander Radishchev chose just a few words as the epigraph for his book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”: “The monster barks, mischievously, laughs and barks.” This is how he imagined a collective image of serfdom.
Genres in sentimentalism
In this literary direction, the leading role was given to works written in prose. There were no strict boundaries, so genres were often mixed.
N. Karamzin, I. Dmitriev, A. Petrov used private correspondence in their work. It is worth noting that not only writers turned to him, but also personalities who became famous in other areas, such as M. Kutuzov. A novel-journey in its own way literary heritage left by A. Radishchev, and the novel-education by M. Karamzin. Sentimentalists also found application in the field of drama: M. Kheraskov wrote “tearful dramas”, and N. Nikolev - “comic operas”.
Sentimentalism in the literature of the 18th century was represented by geniuses who worked in several other genres: satirical fairy tales and fables, idylls, elegy, romance, song.
"Fashionable wife" by I. I. Dmitriev
Often sentimentalist writers turned to classicism in their work. Ivan Ivanovich Dmitriev preferred to work with satirical genres and odes, so his fairy tale called “The Fashionable Wife” was written in poetic form. General Prolaz, in his old age, decides to marry a young girl who is looking for an opportunity to send him for new things. In the absence of her husband, Premila receives her lover Milovzor right in her room. He is young, handsome, a ladies' man, but a naughty man and a talker. The remarks of the heroes of "The Fashionable Wife" are empty and cynical - with this Dmitriev is trying to portray the depraved atmosphere prevailing in the noble class.
"Poor Liza" by N. M. Karamzin
In the story, the author talks about the love story of a peasant woman and a master. Lisa is a poor girl who became a victim of betrayal by the rich young man Erast. The poor thing lived and breathed only for her lover, but did not forget the simple truth - a wedding between representatives of different social classes cannot take place. A rich peasant wooes Lisa, but she refuses him, expecting exploits from her lover. However, Erast deceives the girl, saying that he is going to serve, and at that moment he is looking for a rich widowed bride. Emotional experiences, impulses of passion, loyalty and betrayal are feelings that sentimentalism often depicted in literature. During the last meeting, the young man offers Lisa one hundred rubles as a token of gratitude for the love she gave him during their dating days. Unable to bear the breakup, the girl commits suicide.
A. N. Radishchev and his “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”
The writer was born into a wealthy noble family, but despite this, he was interested in the problem of inequality of social classes. His famous work“Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” in the genre direction can be attributed to travel popular at that time, but the division into chapters was not a mere formality: each of them examined a separate side of reality.
Initially, the book was perceived as travel notes and successfully passed through the censors, but Catherine the Second, having familiarized herself with its contents personally, called Radishchev “a rebel worse than Pugachev.” The chapter "Novgorod" describes the depraved morals of society, in "Lyuban" - the problem of the peasantry, in "Chudovo" we're talking about about the indifference and cruelty of officials.
Sentimentalism in the works of V. A. Zhukovsky
The writer lived at the turn of two centuries. At the end of the 18th century, the leading genre in Russian literature was sentimentalism, and in the 19th it was replaced by realism and romanticism. Early works Vasily Zhukovsky were written in accordance with the traditions of Karamzin. “Maryina Roshcha” is a beautiful story about love and suffering, and the poem “To Poetry” sounds like a heroic call to accomplish feats. In his best elegy, “Rural Cemetery,” Zhukovsky reflects on the meaning human life. Big role The emotional coloring of the work is played by an animated landscape, in which a willow slumbers, oak groves tremble, and the day turns pale. Thus, sentimentalism in the literature of the 19th century is represented by the work of a few writers, among whom was Zhukovsky, but in 1820 the movement ceased to exist.
FEATURES OF RUSSIAN SENTIMENTALISM AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Also in late XVIII century in Russian literature, to replace the dominant direction of classicism, a new movement arose, called sentimentalism, which came from French word sens, meaning feeling.
Sentimentalism as an artistic movement, generated by the process of struggle against absolutism, appeared in the second half of the 18th century in a number of Western European countries, primarily in England (the poetry of D. Thomson, the prose of L. Stern and Richardson), then in France (the work of J.-J. . Rousseau) and Germany (the early work of J. V. Goethe, F. Schiller). Sentimentalism, which arose on the basis of new socio-economic relations, was alien to the glorification of statehood and class limitations inherent in classicism. In contrast to the latter, it brought issues to the fore. personal life, the cult of sincere pure feelings and nature. Sentimentalists contrasted the idyll with the empty social life and depraved morals of high society. village life, selfless friendship, touching love near the family hearth, in the lap of nature. These feelings were reflected in numerous “Travels”, which came into fashion after Stern’s novel “Sentimental Journey”, which gave its name to this literary movement. In Russia, one of the first works of this kind was the famous “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” by A. N. Radishchev (1790). Karamzin also paid tribute to this fashion, publishing “Letters of a Russian Traveler” in 1798, followed by “Travel to the Crimea and Bessarabia” by P. Sumarokov (1800), “Journey to Midday Russia” by V.V. Izmailov and “Another Journey to Little Russia” by Shalikov (1804). The popularity of this genre was explained by the fact that the author could freely express thoughts here that gave rise to new cities, meetings, and landscapes. These reflections were characterized for the most part by increased sensitivity and moralism.
But, in addition to this “lyrical” orientation, sentimentalism also had a certain social order. Having emerged in the Age of Enlightenment, with its inherent interest in the personality and spiritual world of man, moreover, an ordinary, “little” man, sentimentalism also adopted some features of the ideology of the “third estate,” especially since during this period representatives of this estate also appeared in Russian literature - - common writers. Thus, sentimentalism brings to Russian literature a new idea of honor, this is no longer the antiquity of the family, but the high moral dignity of a person. In one of the stories, the “villager” notes that only a person with a clear conscience can have a good name. “For the “little” man - both the hero and the commoner writer who came to literature, the problem of honor takes on special significance; It is not easy for him to defend his dignity in a society where class prejudices are so strong.”3 Characteristic of sentimentalism is also the assertion of the spiritual equality of people, regardless of their position in society. N. S. Smirnov, a former runaway serf, then a soldier, the author of the sentimental story “Zara,” prefaced her with an epigraph from the Bible: “And I have a heart, just like you.” sentimentalism Karamzin story
Russian sentimentalism found its most complete expression in the works of Karamzin. His “Poor Liza,” “Notes of a Traveler,” “Julia” and a number of other stories are distinguished by all the features characteristic of this movement. Like the classic of French sentimentalism J.-J. Rousseau, in whose works Karamzin, by his own admission, was attracted by “sparks of passionate philanthropy” and “sweet sensitivity,” his works are filled with humane sentiments. Karamzin evoked the sympathy of readers for his characters, excitedly conveying their experiences. Karamzin's heroes are moral people, gifted with great sensitivity, selfless, for whom affection is more important than worldly well-being. Thus, the heroine of Karamzin’s story “Natalya, the Boyar’s Daughter” accompanies her husband to the war so as not to be separated from her beloved. Love for her is higher than danger or even death. Alois from the story “Sierra Morena” takes his own life, unable to bear the betrayal of his bride. In the traditions of sentimentalism, the spiritual life of the characters in Karamzin’s literary works takes place against the backdrop of nature, the phenomena of which (thunderstorm, storm or gentle sun) accompany people’s experiences as an accompaniment.
By sentimentalism we understand that direction of literature that developed at the end of the 18th century and colored the beginning of the 19th century, which was distinguished by the cult of the human heart, feelings, simplicity, naturalness, special attention to the inner world, and a living love for nature. In contrast to classicism, which worshiped reason, and only reason, and which, as a result, built everything in its aesthetics on strictly logical principles, on a carefully thought-out system (Boileau’s theory of poetry), sentimentalism provides the artist with freedom of feeling, imagination and expression and does not require his impeccable correctness in the architectonics of literary creations. Sentimentalism is a protest against the dry rationality that characterized the Age of Enlightenment; he values in a person not what culture has given him, but what he has brought with him in the depths of his nature. And if classicism (or, as it is more often called here in Russia, false classicism) was interested exclusively in representatives of the highest social circles, royal leaders, the sphere of the court and all kinds of aristocracy, then sentimentalism is much more democratic and, recognizing the fundamental equivalence of all people, is omitted into the valleys of everyday life - into that environment of the bourgeoisie, the bourgeoisie, the middle class, which at that time had just advanced in purely economic terms and began - especially in England - to play an outstanding role on the historical stage.
For a sentimentalist, everyone is interesting, because in everyone there is warmth, light and warmth. intimate life; and you don’t need special events, stormy and bright activity, in order to be honored with getting into literature: no, it turns out to be hospitable in relation to the most ordinary people, to the most ineffective biography, it depicts the slow passing of ordinary days, the peaceful backwaters of nepotism, the quiet a trickle of everyday worries. Sentimental literature is in no hurry; her favorite form is the “long, moralizing and decorous” novel (in the style of Richardson’s famous works: “Pamela”, “Clarissa Harlowe”, “Sir Charles Grandison”); heroes and heroines keep diaries, write endless letters to each other, and indulge in heartfelt outpourings. It is in connection with this that the sentimentalists gained credit for themselves in the field psychological analysis: they transferred the center of gravity from external to internal; in fact, that’s exactly what it’s all about main meaning the very term “sentimental”: the whole movement took its name from Daniel Stern’s essay “Sentimental Journey”, that is, a description of a journey that focuses on impressions X the traveler, not so much on what he encounters, but on what he experiences.
Sentimentalism directs its quiet rays not at the objects of reality, but at the subject who perceives them. He places the sensitive person at the forefront and is not only not ashamed of sensitivity, but, on the contrary, exalts it as the highest value and dignity of the spirit. Of course, this had its downside, since the cherished sensitivity crossed the proper boundaries, became cloying and sugary, and became detached from the courageous will and reason; but the very essence, the very principle of sentimentalism does not necessarily include the fact that the feeling is so exaggerated and takes on an illegally self-sufficient character. True, in practice, many of the confessors of this school suffered from a similar expansion of the heart. Be that as it may, sentimentalism knew how to be touching, touched the tender strings of the soul, evoked tears, and brought undoubted gentleness, tenderness, and kindness among readers and, mainly, female readers. It is undeniable that sentimentalism is philanthropism, it is a school of philanthropy; It is indisputable that, for example, in Russian literature the line of continuity to Dostoevsky’s “Poor People” comes from Karamzin’s “Poor Liza,” who is our most notable representative of sentimentalism (especially as the author of stories and “Letters of a Russian Traveler”). Naturally, sentimentalist writers, sensitively listening, so to speak, to the beating of the human heart, should have, among other feelings that make up the content of his inner life, especially perceive the range of mournful moods - sadness, melancholy, disappointment, melancholy. This is why the flavor of many sentimental works is melancholy. Sensitive souls were nourished by its sweet streams. A typical example in this sense can serve as Gray’s elegy “Rural Cemetery” translated by Zhukovsky from English; and it must be said that the sentimentalist writer generally loved to take his reader to the cemetery, into the sad atmosphere of death, crosses and monuments - following the English poet Jung, the author of "Nights". It is also clear that the original source of suffering, unhappy love, also gave sentimentalism a gracious opportunity to draw abundantly from its tear-waters. Famous novel Goethe "Suffering" young Werther"Filled with this moisture of the heart.
Moralism is also a typical feature of sentimentalism. It is about sentimental novels that Pushkin says: “and at the end of the last part the vice was always punished, the good was given a wreath.” In their vague dreaminess, writers of this trend were certainly inclined to see a certain moral order in the world. They taught, they instilled “good feelings.” In general, the idyllization and idealization of things, even if covered with a mournful haze of sadness, is an essential sign of sentimentalism. And he extends this idyllization and idealization most of all to nature. The influence of Jean-Jacques Rousseau with his denial of culture and exaltation of nature was felt here. If Boileau demanded that the main scene of action in literary works be the city and the courtyard, then sentimentalists often moved their heroes, and with them their readers, to the countryside, to the primitive bosom of nature, within the framework of patriarchal artlessness.
In sentimental novels, nature takes a direct part in the dramas of the heart, in the vicissitudes of love; Many enthusiastic colors are lavished on descriptions of nature, and with tears in their eyes they kiss the ground, admire the moonlight, and are touched by birds and flowers. In general, one must carefully distinguish in sentimentalism its distortions from its healthy core, which consists in admiration for naturalness and simplicity and in recognition of the highest rights of the human heart. To get acquainted with sentimentalism, the book by Alexander N. Veselovsky “V.A. Zhukovsky. Poetry of feeling and heartfelt imagination” is important.
Thus, Russian sentimentalism introduced into literature - and through it into life - new moral and aesthetic concepts, which were warmly received by many readers, but, unfortunately, diverged from life. Readers brought up on the ideals of sentimentalism, which proclaimed human feelings as the highest value, bitterly discovered that the measure of attitude towards people still remained nobility, wealth, and position in society. However, the beginnings of this new ethics, expressed at the beginning of the century in such seemingly naive works of sentimentalist writers, will eventually develop into public consciousness and will contribute to its democratization. In addition, sentimentalism enriched Russian literature with linguistic transformations. The role of Karamzin was especially significant in this regard. However, the principles he proposed for the formation of the Russian literary language aroused fierce criticism from conservative writers and served as the reason for the emergence of the so-called “disputes about language” that captured Russian writers at the beginning of the 19th century.
Sentimentalism is a movement in art and literature that became widespread after classicism. If the cult of reason dominated in classicism, then in sentimentalism the cult of the soul comes first. The authors of works written in the spirit of sentimentalism appeal to the reader’s perception and try to awaken certain emotions and feelings with the help of the work.
Sentimentalism originated in Western Europe at the beginning of the 18th century. This direction reached Russia only towards the end of the century and took a dominant position at the beginning of the 19th century.
The new direction in literature demonstrates completely new features:
- Authors of works main role given to feelings. The most important personality quality is the ability to sympathize and empathize.
- If in classicism the main characters were mainly nobles and rich people, then in sentimentalism they are ordinary people. The authors of works from the era of sentimentalism promote the idea that a person’s inner world does not depend on his social status.
- Adherents of sentimentalism wrote about fundamental human values: love, friendship, kindness, compassion
- The authors of this direction saw their calling in comforting ordinary people, oppressed by deprivation, adversity and lack of money, and open their souls towards virtue.
Sentimentalism in Russia
Sentimentalism in our country had two currents:
- Noble. This direction was quite loyal. Talking about feelings and human soul, the authors did not advocate the abolition of serfdom. Within the framework of this direction, Karamzin’s famous work “Poor Liza” was written. The story was based on class conflict. As a result, the author brings forward precisely human factor, and only then looks at social differences. However, the story does not protest against the existing order of things in society.
- Revolutionary. In contrast to “noble sentimentalism,” the works of the revolutionary movement promoted the abolition of serfdom. They put the person in first place with his right to a free life and a happy existence.
Sentimentalism, unlike classicism, did not have clear canons for writing works. That is why authors working in this direction have created new literary genres, and also skillfully mixed them within one work.
(Sentimentalism in Radishchev's work "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow")
Russian sentimentalism is a special direction, which, due to cultural and historical features Russia, differed from a similar direction in Europe. The main distinguishing features of Russian sentimentalism include the following: the presence of conservative views on social order and tendencies towards enlightenment, instruction, teaching.
The development of sentimentalism in Russia can be divided into 4 stages, 3 of which occurred in the 18th century.
XVIII century
- Stage I
In 1760-1765, the magazines “Useful Amusement” and “Free Hours” began to be published in Russia, which rallied around a group of talented poets led by Kheraskov. It is believed that it was Kheraskov who laid the foundation for Russian sentimentalism.
In the works of poets of this period, nature and sensitivity begin to act as criteria public values. The authors focus their attention on the individual and his soul.
- Stage II (since 1776)
This period marks the heyday of Muravyov’s creativity. Muravyov pays great attention to the human soul and his feelings.
An important event of the second stage was the release of the comic opera “Rosana and Love” by Nikolev. It is in this genre that many works of Russian sentimentalists are subsequently written. The basis of these works was the conflict between the arbitrariness of the landowners and the powerless existence of the serfs. Moreover, the spiritual world of peasants is often revealed as richer and more intense than the inner world of rich landowners.
- III stage (late 18th century)
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This period is considered the most fruitful for Russian sentimentalism. It is at this time that he creates his famous works Karamzin. Magazines began to appear that promoted the values and ideals of the sentimentalists.
19th century
- IV stage (early 19th century)
Crisis stage for Russian sentimentalism. The trend is gradually losing its popularity and relevance in society. Many modern historians and literary scholars believe that sentimentalism became a fleeting transitional stage from classicism to romanticism. Sentimentalism as a literary trend quickly exhausted itself, however, the trend opened the way to the further development of world literature.
Sentimentalism in foreign literature
England is considered the birthplace of sentimentalism as a literary movement. The starting point can be called the work “The Seasons” by Thomson. This collection of poems reveals to the reader the beauty and splendor of the surrounding nature. The author, with his descriptions, tries to evoke certain feelings in the reader, to instill in him a love for the amazing beauties of the world around him.
After Thomson, Thomas Gray began to write in a similar style. In his works, he also paid great attention to the description of natural landscapes, as well as reflections on the difficult life of ordinary peasants. Important figures in this movement in England were Laurence Sterne and Samuel Richardson.
The development of sentimentalism in French literature associated with the names of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Jacques de Saint-Pierre. The peculiarity of the French sentimentalists was that they described the feelings and experiences of their heroes against the backdrop of beautiful natural landscapes: parks, lakes, forests.
European sentimentalism as a literary trend also quickly exhausted itself, however, the trend opened the way to the further development of world literature.
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Russian sentimentalism was part of the pan-European literary movement and at the same time a natural continuation national traditions that took shape in the era of classicism. Works of major European writers associated with the sentimental movement (“New Heloise” by Rousseau, “The Sorrows of Young Werther” by Goethe, “Sentimental Journey” and “The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy” by Sterne, “Nights” by Jung, etc.) very soon after their appearance at home they become well known in Russia; they are read, translated, quoted; the names of the main characters gain popularity and become a kind of identification marks: a Russian intellectual of the late 18th century could not help but know who Werther and Charlotte, Saint-Preux and Julia, Yorick and Tristram Shandy were.
At the same time, in the second half of the 18th century, Russian translations of numerous secondary and even tertiary authors appeared. Some works that have left a not very noticeable mark on their history Russian literature, were sometimes perceived with great interest in Russia if they touched on problems that were relevant to the Russian reader and were reinterpreted in accordance with ideas that had already developed on the basis of national traditions. Thus, the period of formation and flourishing of Russian sentimentalism was distinguished by the extraordinary creative activity of perception European culture. At the same time, Russian translators began to pay primary attention to modern literature, the literature of today
From the history of the term:
Sentimentalism received its name after the publication of the unfinished novel “A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy” (1768) by the English writer L. Stern. At this time, a new meaning of the word “sentimental” was established in English language. If earlier (the first use of this word by the Great Oxford Dictionary dates back to 1749) it meant: 1) “highly moral”, “edifying”; 2) “reasonable”, “sensible” - then by the 1760s a shade associated with the area of feelings was captured in it.
Stern, thus, finally assigns to it the meaning of “sensitive”, “capable of experiencing subtle emotions”
Chronological framework:
Sentimental works first appeared in England in the late 1720s and early 1730s (as a reaction to the revolution of 1688-1689, the entry of the third estate into the arena and its transformation into an influential political and social force). These are the works of J. Thomson “The Seasons” (1726-1730), G. Gray “Elegy Written in a Country Cemetery” (1751), S. Richardson “Pamela” (1740), “Clarissa” (1747-1748), “ History of Sir Charles Grandison" (1754).
Sentimentalism took shape as an independent literary movement in the 1760-1770s in England, France and Germany. From 1764 to 1774, works were published here that created the aesthetic basis of the method and defined its poetics; they can also be considered original aesthetic treatises of a sentimental direction
The chronological framework of Russian sentimentalism is determined more or less approximately. P.A. Orlov, for example, distinguishes 4 stages:
1760 is the date of the appearance of the magazine “Useful Amusement”, which rallied around itself a whole group of young poets led by M. Kheraskov. A continuation of “Useful Amusement” were the magazines “Free Hours” (1763) and “Good Intention” (1764), in which the same authors mainly collaborated.
In poetry, primary attention was paid to love, friendship and family issues. Genres have so far been borrowed from previous classic literature (anacreontic ode, idyll), and ready-made European models have also been used.
Prose is represented by the novels “Letters of Ernest and Doravra” by F. Emin and V.A. Levshin "Mainees of a Lover".
Drama – “tearful plays” by M. Kheraskov.
It should be noted that the history of Russian sentimentalism begins with Kheraskov. It is characterized by a new attitude to the hierarchy of genres: high and low are not only equalized, but, moreover, preference is given to low genres (for example, a song). The term “low genre” itself becomes unacceptable: Kheraskov in this case contrasts “loud” poetry with “quiet”, “pleasant”. A poet and playwright, he focuses his attention on the individual, private person. In this regard, chamber genres begin to attract particular attractiveness to him. For Kheraskov, the singing and dancing shepherdess is “more than a thundering choir.”
Representatives of the first stage have already recognized nature as a criterion for social and spiritual values, and sensitivity as one of its manifestations.
Plays a major role in the social thought of this time Freemasonry (N.I. Novikov, A.M. Kutuzov, I.P. Turgenev, A.A. Petrov, etc.). In this series, the most serious attention deserves, first of all, creative activity A.M. Kutuzova. An analysis of his poetic works, private correspondence, and translations testifies to the artist’s negative attitude toward the rationalistic art of the classicists, attention to the European pre-romantic movement, and a predominant orientation toward the traditions of the English and German literature and ignoring French, interest in the inner world and psychologism. A.M. Kutuzov wrote: “It is not the appearance of the inhabitants, not their caftans and redingotes, not the houses in which they live, not the language they speak, not the mountains, not the sea, not the rising or setting sun that are the subject of our attention, but man and his properties..."
In the mid-70s. The flourishing of M.N. Muravyov’s talent is also observed. In his lyrics, the autobiographical beginning gradually becomes defining. The recipients of the works are friends and relatives, the main genre is the message. Muravyov’s hero is a man with a “sensitive soul”; his ideal is a modest but active life, bringing benefit to society and satisfaction to himself. Muravyov draws attention to the need to penetrate into the inner world of a person. The poet must comprehend the “mysteries of the heart,” the “life of the soul” with its contradictions and transitions from one state to another. In the poet’s mind, the category of time itself appears different. Every moment is unique, and the artist’s task is to capture and capture it. New artistic tasks predetermined the poet’s new attitude to language. G. Gukovsky noted: “Words begin to sound not so much with their usual dictionary meaning, but with their overtones, aesthetic-emotional associations and halos.” In Muravyov’s poetry epithets appear that are also characteristic of the later lyrics of sentimentalism: “sweet current of conversation,” “sweet breath,” “sweet peace,” “gentle ray,” “bashful moon,” “sweet dreaming”; the epithet “quiet” (previously an antonym to the epithet “loud”) acquires new nuances - “pleasant”, “gentle”, “serene” (“quiet sleep”, “quiet trembling”, “quiet lordship”).
An important fact of this period was the release in 1776 of N. Nikolev’s comic opera “Rosana and Lyubim”. According to P. Orlov, it is in this genre first of all receives further development social origin Russian sentimentalism: at the heart of the conflict in such plays are the facts of landowner tyranny over virtuous, “sensitive” peasants, who for the first time appear as the main characters, superior in spiritual development to their offenders.
Third stage
This is the most vibrant and fruitful period in the history of Russian sentimentalism. At this time created best works N. Karamzina. The period as a whole is characterized by the predominance of prose works: novel, story, sentimental journey, epistolary genres (examples of almost all prose genres known to sentimentalism were proposed by Karamzin); Among poetic genres, preference is given to song (Dmitriev, Kapnist, Neledinsky-Meletsky, Lvov), satirical fairy tale and fable (Dmitriev).
Since 1791, the best sentimental periodicals have appeared - “Moscow Journal”, “Pleasant and Useful Pastime of Time”. They discuss questions about the extra-class value of man, the laws of nature and state construction.
The period of crisis of Russian sentimentalism. Only N. Karamzin maintains the former glory of the movement, but he too is gradually abandoning artistic creativity and tries himself as a researcher of Russian history.
Philosophical foundations
The philosophical basis of sentimentalism is sensationalism. Its founder was the English philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704), whose main work was “An Essay on Human Understanding” (1690). According to the philosopher, external world given to man in his physiological sensations - vision, hearing, smell, touch; general ideas arise on the basis of the emotional experience of these sensations and the analytical activity of the mind, which compares, combines and abstracts the properties of things known in a sensitive way.
The ideas of Locke's student A.E.K. Shaftesbury (1671-1713) were also very popular among sentimentalists. The focus of his attention is moral categories. Shaftesbury argued that the moral principle lies in the very nature of man and is associated not with reason, but with a special moral feeling, which alone can show the path to happiness. What motivates a person to act morally is not the awareness of duty, but the dictates of the heart. Happiness, therefore, does not lie in the craving for sensual pleasures, but in the craving for virtue. Thus, the “naturalness” of nature is interpreted by Shaftesbury, and after him by the sentimentalists, not as its “scandalousness,” but as a need and possibility of virtuous behavior, and the heart becomes a special individual sense organ, connecting a specific person with the general harmonious and moral -justified structure of the universe.
On the issue of the essence of sentimentalism as an artistic movement
First of all, it should be noted that not all researchers consider sentimentalism to be an independent scientific direction. English-speaking scholars still mainly use such concepts as “sentimental novel.” "sentimental drama", "sentimental poetry". French and German critics rather highlight “sentimentality” as a special category, to one degree or another inherent works of art of various eras and trends.
Only in Russia, starting from the end of the 19th century, were attempts made to comprehend sentimentalism as an integral historical and cultural phenomenon. It is characterized by the following features:
1) the cult of feelings (or hearts), which in a given belief system become the “measure of good and evil”;
3) in aesthetics, the “sublime” principle is replaced by the category of “touching”;
4) his own type of hero was created: a “sensitive person” who embodies the humanistic ideal of the era, living a complex inner life, notable for his military exploits or state affairs, but with his spiritual qualities, the ability to “feel”. Personal virtues are revealed in a new sphere - the sphere of feelings.
System of sentimental genres
First of all, you need to keep the following in mind:
1) primary attention is paid to prose genres;
2) genres can be mixed.
In the field of prose, in first place is the novel with the following varieties: the novel in letters (Richardson, Rousseau, Emin), the genre of private correspondence associated with the novel in letters (Swift, Voltaire, Diderot, Kutuzov, Petrov, Dmitriev, Karamzin); travel novel (Stern, Karamzin); novel of education (Wieland, Goethe, Karamzin); then the story - philosophical in the West and love-psychological, fairy-tale story, miniature story, philosophical-psychological essay - in Russia (examples of all varieties of the story are presented in Karamzin’s works).
In the field of dramaturgy - “tear drama” (Diderot, Kheraskov), comic opera (Nikolev).
In the field of lyricism - in the West - philosophical and didactic poem, elegy, ballad; in Russia - anacreontic ode, idyll, elegy, song, romance, album verse, satirical tale and fable.
Artistic conquests and discoveries
Sentimentalist writers discovered new types of narrative (psychological landscape sketches, lyrical meditations, elegies in prose); transfer techniques have been developed inner world hero ( lyrical digressions, author's analysis of psychology, internal monologue); the syntax is significantly more complicated (paraphrases, lexical and syntactic repetitions, techniques of musical and rhythmic construction, sound writing); new tropes (psychological epithets) were introduced.
N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) is rightfully considered an outstanding theorist and practitioner of Russian sentimentalism.
The main pathos of Karamzin’s aesthetics is expressed in the article “What does the author need?” (1793). Karamzin declares feeling to be the main engine in her creative process; declares that only “good, tender heart", inspired by the "desire for the common good", sympathy for "everything that is sad, everything that is oppressed, everything that is tearful", gives the writer the right to take up the pen. Remembering that in any work a writer writes, willingly or unwillingly, “a portrait of his soul and heart,” he must first of all ask himself, “in private, without witnesses, sincerely: what am I?” “A bad person cannot be a good author.”
What distinguishes a writer from ordinary people is his ability to transform. Programmatic in this sense is Karamzin’s poem “Proteus, or the Discord of the Poet.”
You want the poet to always think only one thing,
He always sang only one thing: crazy man!
Tell me, who counted the images of Proteus?
Such is the pet of the muses and has been and will forever be.
Isn't it natural for a sensitive soul to change?
She is soft like wax, clear like a mirror,
And all of nature is visible in it with its shades.
She can’t seem like the only one to you
In the variety of natural wonders."
Karamzin bases his beliefs on the idea that it is the ordinary person, endowed with all the weaknesses, forced to struggle with shortcomings, that is a person in the true sense of the word. Human weaknesses are more attractive than non-human virtues.
Cultural progress and moral perfection do not consist in the creation of an ideal person, but in the growth of tolerance, compatibility with other people (positive human properties: tolerance, tolerance, lack of fanaticism). Diversity of characters is a law of human nature. A writer must demonstrate a variety of spiritual qualities and character bends. The writer is a “heart observer by profession.”
