Dutch still life. Adventures of one glass

The first easel still lifes appeared in the 1600s in the work of Jan Brueghel and Ambrosius Bosschaert and were artfully arranged compositions of many flowers, often placed in a precious Venetian glass vase or Chinese porcelain.


Jan Brueghel Velvet. "Still life". 1598. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

Ambrosius Bosshart "Flowers in a Vase". 1619.Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Balthasar van der Ast. "Still Life with Flowers".1632. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Despite the fact that the name of the genre translated from French means “dead nature”. Why, in the mouths of the Dutch, did compositions of inanimate objects, colorfully displayed on canvas, signify life? Yes, these images were so bright, reliable and expressive that even the most inexperienced connoisseurs admired the realism and tangibility of the details. But it's not only that.

Dutch still life is an attempt to talk about how alive and closely every object is, every particle of this world is woven into complex world person and participates in it. Dutch masters created ingenious compositions and were able to so accurately depict the shape, color tints, volume and texture of objects that they seemed to store the dynamics of human actions. Here is a pen that has not yet cooled down from the poet’s hand with a glittering drop of ink, here is a cut pomegranate dripping with ruby ​​juice, and here is a loaf bitten and thrown onto a crumpled napkin... And at the same time, this is an invitation to enchantedly admire and enjoy the splendor and diversity of nature.

Themes and picturesque images

Dutch still life is inexhaustible in its abundance of themes. Some painters shared a passion for flowers and fruits, others specialized in the rough verisimilitude of pieces of meat and fish, others lovingly created kitchen utensils on canvas, and others devoted themselves to the theme of science and art.

Dutch still life from the early 17th century is distinguished by its commitment to symbolism. Items are strictly specific place and meaning. The apple in the center of the image tells the story of the fall of the first man, while the bunch of grapes covering it tells the story of the atoning sacrifice of Christ. An empty shell, which once served as a home for a sea mollusk, speaks of the frailty of life, drooping and dried flowers - of death, and a butterfly fluttering out of a cocoon heralds resurrection and renewal. Balthasar Ast writes in this manner.

Artists of the new generation have already proposed a slightly different Dutch still life. Painting “breathes” with the elusive charm hidden in ordinary things. A half-filled glass, serving items scattered on the table, fruits, a cut pie - the authenticity of the details is perfectly conveyed by color, light, shadows, highlights and reflections, convincingly associated with the texture of fabric, silver, glass and food. These are the paintings of Pieter Claes Heda.

By the early 18th century, Dutch still life gravitated toward an impressive aesthetic of detail. Elegant porcelain bowls with gilding, goblets made of intricately curled shells, and fruits exquisitely arranged on a dish reign here. It is impossible to look at the canvases of Willem Kalf or Abraham van Beyeren without fading. Dutch is becoming unusually widespread, captured by the hand of a master, speaking in a special, sensual language and communicating painting harmony and rhythm. The lines, weaves and shades of stems, buds, open inflorescences present in the still life seem to create a complex symphony, forcing the viewer not only to admire, but also to excitedly experience the incomprehensible beauty of the world.

An amazing phenomenon in the history of world fine art took place in Northern Europe XVII century. It is known as the Dutch still life and is considered one of the pinnacles of oil painting.

Connoisseurs and professionals have a firm belief that such a quantity magnificent masters Those who possessed the highest technology and created so many world-class masterpieces, while living on a small patch of the European continent, have never been seen in the history of art.

New meaning of the artist's profession

The particular importance that the profession of an artist acquired in Holland from the beginning of the 17th century was the result of the emergence, after the first anti-feudal revolutions, of the beginnings of a new bourgeois system, the formation of a class of urban burghers and wealthy peasants. For painters, these were potential customers who shaped the fashion for works of art, making Dutch still life a sought-after product in the emerging market.

In the northern lands of the Netherlands, reformist movements of Christianity, which arose in the struggle against Catholicism, became the most influential ideology. This circumstance, among others, made the Dutch still life the main genre for entire art guilds. The spiritual leaders of Protestantism, in particular the Calvinists, denied the soul-saving significance of sculpture and painting on religious subjects, they even expelled music from the church, which forced painters to look for new subjects.

In neighboring Flanders, which remained under Catholic influence, art developed according to different laws, but the territorial proximity caused inevitable mutual influence. Scientists - art historians - find a lot that unites Dutch and Flemish still life, noting their inherent fundamental differences and unique features.

Early floral still life

The “pure” genre of still life, which appeared in the 17th century, in Holland takes on special forms and the symbolic name “quiet life” - stilleven. In many ways, Dutch still life was a reflection of the vigorous activity of the East India Company, which brought luxury goods from the East, previously unseen in Europe. From Persia the company brought the first tulips, which later became a symbol of Holland, and it was the flowers depicted in the paintings that became the most popular decoration of residential buildings, numerous offices, shops and banks.

The purpose of masterfully painted floral arrangements was varied. Decorating homes and offices, they emphasized the well-being of their owners, and for sellers of flower seedlings and tulip bulbs, they were what is now called a visual advertising product: posters and booklets. Therefore, the Dutch still life with flowers is, first of all, a botanically accurate depiction of flowers and fruits, at the same time filled with many symbols and allegories. These are the best paintings of entire workshops, headed by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder, Jacob de Geyn the Younger, Jan Baptist van Fornenburg, Jacob Wouters Vosmar and others.

Set tables and breakfasts

Painting in Holland in the 17th century could not escape the influence of new public relations, and economic development. Dutch still life painting of the 17th century was a profitable commodity, and large workshops were organized to “produce” paintings. In addition to the painters, among whom strict specialization and division of labor appeared, those who prepared the base for the paintings - boards or canvas, primed, made frames, etc. worked there. Fierce competition, as in any market relations, led to an increase in the quality of still lifes to very high level.

The genre specialization of artists also took on a geographical character. Floral compositions were painted in many Dutch cities - Utrecht, Delft, The Hague, but it was Haarlem that became the center for the development of still lifes depicting set tables, products and ready-made dishes. Such paintings can be varied in scale and character, from complex and multi-subject to laconic. “Breakfasts” appeared - still lifes by Dutch artists depicting different stages of a meal. They depict the presence of a person in the form of crumbs, bitten buns, etc. They told interesting stories, filled with allusions and moralizing symbols common to paintings of that time. The paintings of Nicholas Gillies, Floris Gerrits van Schoten, Clara Peters, Hans Van Essen, Roelof Coots and others are considered particularly significant.

Tonal still life. Pieter Claes and Willem Claes Heda

For contemporaries, the symbols that filled the traditional Dutch still life were relevant and understandable. The contents of the paintings were similar to multi-page books and were especially valued for this. But there is a concept that is no less impressive to both modern connoisseurs and art lovers. It is called a “tonal still life”, and the main thing in it is the highest technical skill, amazingly refined color, amazing skill in conveying the subtle nuances of lighting.

These qualities are fully consistent with the paintings of two leading masters, whose paintings are considered among the best examples of tonal still life: Peter Claes and Willem Claes Heed. They chose compositions from a small number of objects, devoid of bright colors and special decorativeness, which did not prevent them from creating things of amazing beauty and expressiveness, the value of which does not decrease over time.

Vanity

The theme of the frailty of life, the equality before death of both the king and the beggar, was very popular in the literature and philosophy of that transitional time. And in painting it found expression in paintings depicting scenes in which the main element was the skull. This genre is called vanitas - from Latin “vanity of vanities”. The popularity of still lifes, similar to philosophical treatises, was facilitated by the development of science and education, the center of which was the university in Leiden, famous throughout Europe.

Vanitas occupies a serious place in the works of many Dutch masters of that time: Jacob de Gein the Younger, David Gein, Harmen Steenwijk and others. The best examples of “vanitas” are not simple horror stories, they do not evoke unconscious horror, but calm and wise contemplation, filled with thoughts about the most important issues being.

Trick paintings

Paintings are the most popular decoration of the Dutch interior since the late Middle Ages, which the growing population of cities could afford. To interest buyers, artists resorted to various tricks. If their skill allowed, they created “trompe l’oeil”, or “trompe l’oeil”, from the French trompe-l'oeil - an optical illusion. The point was that a typical Dutch still life - flowers and fruits, dead birds and fish, or objects related to science - books, optical instruments, etc. - contained a complete illusion of reality. A book that has moved out of the space of the picture and is about to fall, a fly that has landed on a vase that you want to slam - typical subjects for a decoy painting.

Paintings by leading masters of still life in the trompe l'oeil style - Gerard Dou, Samuel van Hoogstraten and others - often depict a niche recessed into the wall with shelves on which there is a mass of various things. The artist's technical skill in conveying textures and surfaces, light and shadow was so great that the hand itself reached for a book or glass.

Heyday and sunset time

By the middle of the 17th century, the main types of still life in the paintings of Dutch masters reached their peak. “Luxurious” still life is becoming popular, because the welfare of the burghers is growing and rich dishes, precious fabrics and food abundance do not look alien in the interior of a city house or a rich rural estate.

The paintings increase in size, they amaze with the number of different textures. At the same time, the authors are looking for ways to increase entertainment for the viewer. To achieve this, the traditional Dutch still life - with fruits and flowers, hunting trophies and dishes of various materials - is complemented by exotic insects or small animals and birds. In addition to creating the usual allegorical associations, the artist often introduced them simply for positive emotions, to increase the commercial attractiveness of the plot.

The masters of “luxurious still life” - Jan van Huysum, Jan Davids de Heem, Francois Reichals, Willem Kalf - became the harbingers of the coming time, when increased decorativeness and the creation of an impressive impression became important.

End of the golden age

Priorities and fashion changed, the influence of religious dogmas on the choice of subjects for painters gradually became a thing of the past, and the very concept of the golden age that Dutch painting knew became a thing of the past. Still lifes entered the history of this era as one of the most important and impressive pages.

Dutch still life of the 16th–17th centuries is a kind of intellectual game in which the viewer was asked to unravel certain signs. What was easily understood by contemporaries is not clear to everyone today and not always.

What do the objects depicted by the artists mean?

John Calvin (1509-1564, French theologian, church reformer, founder of Calvinism) taught that everyday things have hidden meanings, and behind every image there should be a moral lesson. Objects depicted in still life have multiple meanings: they were endowed with edifying, religious or other connotations. For example, oysters were considered an erotic symbol, and this was obvious to contemporaries: oysters allegedly stimulated sexual potency, and Venus, the goddess of love, was born from a shell. On the one hand, oysters hinted at worldly temptations, on the other, an open shell meant a soul ready to leave the body, that is, it promised salvation. Of course, there were no strict rules on how to read a still life, and the viewer guessed exactly the symbols on the canvas that he wanted to see. In addition, we must not forget that each object was part of the composition and could be read in different ways - depending on the context and the overall message of the still life.Floral still life

Until the 18th century, a bouquet of flowers, as a rule, symbolized frailty, because earthly joys are as transitory as the beauty of a flower. The symbolism of plants is especially complex and ambiguous, and books of emblems, popular in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, helped to grasp the meaning, where allegorical illustrations and mottos were accompanied by explanatory texts. Floral arrangements were not easy to interpret: the same flower had many meanings, sometimes directly opposite. For example, the narcissus indicated narcissism and was at the same time considered a symbol of the Mother of God. In still lifes, as a rule, both meanings of the image were preserved, and the viewer was free to choose one of the two meanings or combine them.

Floral arrangements were often supplemented with fruits, small objects, and images of animals. These images expressed the main idea of ​​the work, emphasizing the motif of transience, decay, the sinfulness of everything earthly and the incorruptibility of virtue.

Jan Davids de Heem.
Flowers in a vase.

In the painting by Jan Davids de Heem, at the base of the vase, the artist depicted symbols of frailty: withered and broken flowers, crumbling petals and dried pea pods. Here is a snail - it is associated with the soul of a sinner. In the center of the bouquet we see symbols of modesty and purity: wildflowers, violets and forget-me-nots. They are surrounded by tulips, symbolizing fading beauty and senseless waste (growing tulips in Holland was considered one of the most vain activities and, moreover, expensive); lush roses and poppies, reminiscent of the fragility of life. The composition is crowned with two large flowers that have a positive meaning. The blue iris represents remission of sins and indicates the possibility of salvation through virtue. The red poppy, which was traditionally associated with sleep and death, changed its interpretation due to its location in the bouquet: here it signifies the atoning sacrifice of Christ.

Other symbols of salvation are ears of bread, and a butterfly sitting on a stalk represents the immortal soul.

Jan Bauman.
Flowers, fruits and a monkey. First half of the 17th century.

Painting by Jan Bauman “Flowers, Fruits and a Monkey” - good example semantic multi-layeredness and ambiguity of the still life and the objects on it. At first glance, the combination of plants and animals seems random. In fact, this still life also reminds us of the transience of life and the sinfulness of earthly existence. Each depicted object conveys a certain idea: the snail and lizard in this case indicate the mortality of all earthly things; a tulip lying near a bowl of fruit symbolizes rapid fading; shells scattered on the table hint at an unwise waste of money; and the monkey with the peach points to original sin and depravity. On the other hand, a fluttering butterfly and fruits: bunches of grapes, apples, peaches and pears speak of the immortality of the soul and the atoning sacrifice of Christ. On another, allegorical level, the fruits, fruits, flowers and animals presented in the picture represent four elements: shells and snails - water; butterfly - air; fruits and flowers - earth; monkey - fire.

Still life in a butcher shop

Peter Aartsen.
The Butcher Shop, or the Kitchen with the Flight to Egypt Scene. 1551

The image of a butcher shop has traditionally been associated with the idea physical life, personification of the element of earth, as well as gluttony. Painted by Peter Aartsen

Almost the entire space is occupied by a table laden with food. We see many types of meat: killed poultry and dressed carcasses, liver and ham, hams and sausages. These images symbolize excess, gluttony and attachment to carnal pleasures. Now let's turn our attention to the background. On the left side of the picture, in the window opening, there is a gospel scene of the flight to Egypt, which contrasts sharply with the still life in the foreground. The Virgin Mary hands the last loaf of bread to a beggar girl. Note that the window is located above the dish, where two fish lie crosswise (symbol of the crucifixion) - a symbol of Christianity and Christ. On the right in the background is a tavern. A cheerful group sits at a table by the fire, drinks and eats oysters, which, as we remember, are associated with lust. A butchered carcass hangs next to the table, indicating the inevitability of death and the fleeting nature of earthly joys. A butcher in a red shirt dilutes wine with water. This scene echoes the main idea of ​​the still life and refers to the Parable of prodigal son. The scene in the tavern, as well as the butcher shop full of dishes, speaks of an idle, dissolute life, attachment to earthly pleasures, pleasant for the body, but destructive for the soul. In the scene of the flight to Egypt, the characters practically turn their backs to the viewer: they move deeper into the picture, away from the butcher shop. This is a metaphor for escape from a dissolute life full of sensual pleasures. Giving up them is one of the ways to save the soul.

Still life in a fish shop

The fish still life is an allegory of the water element. These kinds of works, like butchers' shops, were often part of the so-called cycle of primordial elements and, as a rule, were created to decorate palace dining rooms. In the foreground of Frans Snyders's painting "The Fish Shop" there are many fish depicted. There are perches and sturgeons, crucian carp, catfish, salmon and other seafood. Some have already been cut up, some are waiting their turn. These images of fish do not carry any subtext - they glorify the wealth of Flanders.

Frans Snyders.
Fish shop. 1616

Next to the boy we see a basket with gifts that he received for St. Nicholas Day. This is indicated by the wooden red shoes tied to the basket. In addition to sweets, fruits and nuts, the basket contains rods - as a hint at education with “carrot and stick”. The contents of the basket speak of the joys and sorrows of human life, which constantly replace each other. The woman explains to the child that obedient children receive gifts, and bad children receive punishment. The boy recoiled in horror: he thought that instead of sweets he would receive blows with rods. On the right we see a window opening through which we can see the city square. A group of children stands under the windows and joyfully greets the puppet jester on the balcony. The jester is an integral attribute of folk holiday festivities.

Still life with a set table

In numerous variations of table settings on the canvases of Dutch masters we see bread and pies, nuts and lemons, sausages and hams, lobsters and crayfish, dishes with oysters, fish or empty shells. These still lifes can be understood depending on the set of objects.

Gerrit Willems Heda.
Ham and silverware. 1649

In Gerrit Willems Heda's painting we see a dish, a jug, a tall glass goblet and an overturned vase, a mustard pot, a ham, a crumpled napkin and a lemon. This is Heda's traditional and favorite set. The arrangement of objects and their choice are not random. Silverware symbolizes earthly riches and their futility, ham symbolizes carnal pleasures, and an attractive-looking but sour inside lemon represents betrayal. An extinguished candle indicates frailty and fleetingness. human existence, a mess on the table is for destruction. A tall glass “flute” glass (in the 17th century such glasses were used as a measuring container with marks) is as fragile as human life, and at the same time symbolizes moderation and a person’s ability to control his impulses. In general, in this still life, as in many other “breakfasts,” the theme of vanity and the meaninglessness of earthly pleasures is played out with the help of objects.

Peter Claes.
Still life with a brazier, herring, oysters and a smoking pipe. 1624

Most of the objects depicted in Peter Claes's still life are erotic symbols. Oysters, pipe, wine refer to brief and dubious carnal pleasures. But this is just one option for reading a still life. Let's look at these images from a different angle. Thus, shells are symbols of the frailty of the flesh; a pipe, with which they not only smoked, but also blew soap bubbles, is a symbol of the suddenness of death. Claes's contemporary, the Dutch poet Willem Godschalk van Fockenborch, wrote in the poem “My Hope is Smoke”:

As you can see, being is akin to smoking a pipe,
And I really don’t know what the difference is:
One is just a breeze, the other is just a smoke.

The theme of the transience of human existence is contrasted with the immortality of the soul, and signs of frailty suddenly turn out to be symbols of salvation. The bread and glass of wine in the background are associated with the body and blood of Jesus and indicate the sacrament of the sacrament. Herring - another symbol of Christ - reminds us of fasting and Lenten food. And open shells with oysters can change their negative meaning to the exact opposite, denoting human soul, separated from the body and ready to enter into eternal life.

Different levels of interpretation of objects subtly tell the viewer that a person is always free to choose between the spiritual and eternal and the earthly transitory.

Vanitas, or "Scientist" still life

The genre of the so-called “scientific” still life was called vanitas - translated from Latin it means “vanity of vanities”, in other words - “memento mori” (“remember death”). This is the most intellectual type of still life, an allegory of the eternity of art, the frailty of earthly glory and human life

Jurian van Streck.
Vanity. 1670

The sword and helmet with a luxurious plume in the painting by Jurian van Streck indicate the fleeting nature of earthly glory. The hunting horn symbolizes wealth that cannot be taken with you into another life. In “scientific” still lifes there are often images of open books or carelessly lying papers with inscriptions. They not only invite you to think about the depicted objects, but also allow you to use them for their intended purpose: read open pages or perform a written note. music notebook music. Van Streck depicted a sketch of a boy's head and an open book: this is Sophocles' tragedy Electra, translated into Dutch. These images indicate that art is eternal. But the pages of the book are curled and the drawing is wrinkled. These are signs of the beginning of corruption, hinting that after death even art will not be useful. The skull also speaks of the inevitability of death, but the ear of grain entwined around it symbolizes the hope of resurrection and eternal life. By the middle of the 17th century, a skull entwined with an ear of grain or evergreen ivy would become a mandatory subject for depiction in still lifes in the vanitas style.

Having gone through a series of stages, each of which had its own specific and original significance, Dutch still life widely embraced the world of things and organic nature. From the first stage in the work of artists of the beginning of the century, with the recording of things displayed as if on display, the painters of the next generation moved on to modest “breakfasts” with metal and glass objects grouped on a white tablecloth (Klas, Heda). These “breakfasts” are distinguished by the simplicity of the things depicted: a bun, pewter dishes, glass vessels - these are the main components of the images in a grayish colorful palette. Several fish in the paintings of Ormea and Putter, a kitchen still life by the Rotterdam artists reflect the modest Puritan tastes of the democratic strata in the first half of the century.

But as the republican system was established and the subsequent strengthening of power bourgeois class, and then its gradual aristocratization, the requirements for art also change. Still life loses its modest, simple character. “Breakfasts” become more luxurious and lush, striking in their richness of color. They are now built on a combination of warm tones of carpet tablecloths and orange, yellow, red fruits laid out on dishes of Delft earthenware or Chinese porcelain, enlivened by the sparkle of gilded goblets and glass glasses, on the surface of which light plays. Evidence of full mastery of the transfer of material and lighting, rich in color, still lifes by Kalf, Beyeren, Streck characterize the time of the highest flowering of still life.

Not only time influenced the theme and development of still life, but also much more: local features, economic structure, typical for a particular city, often determine the theme and even the interpretation of the work of a local artist. It is by no means accidental that in the rapidly developing Haarlem with its strong associations of citizens, the type of tonal still life first developed, and in the center of economic and cultural life Holland - Amsterdam - was where the activities of the creators of luxurious desserts Kalf and Strek took place. The proximity of the Scheveningen coast inspired Beyeren, who lives in The Hague, to create a still life with fish, and in the university center - Leiden - a thoughtful still life with the image of a skull and hourglass, which should remind us of the frailty of earthly existence. Paintings depicting a scientist surrounded by tomes, globes and other scientific objects, often filling the entire foreground, were also widespread.”

A strict division of still lifes into genres is impossible, since several motifs were often combined in one picture, however, the most common genres can be identified.

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Flower still life

In flower still lifes, artists depicted tulips, roses, gladioli, hyacinths, carnations, lilies, irises, lilies of the valley, forget-me-nots, violets, violas, daisies, nigella, rosemary, anemones, calendula, gillyflowers, mallows and other flowers.

One of the first seventeenth-century artists to paint vases with flowers was Jacob (Jacques) de Ghein the Younger (1565-1629). His work is characterized by an elongated vertical format of paintings, a multi-tiered arrangement of flowers with alternating large and small plants, as well as the use of techniques that would become very popular among artists of this genre: embedding a bouquet of flowers in a niche and depicting small animals next to a vase.

The appearance of insects, animals and birds, and shells as auxiliary details in floral still lifes is a reflection of the tradition of using hidden meanings of depicted objects that have symbolic meaning. Various symbols appear in still lifes of all genres.

The followers of Jacob de Geyn the Younger were Jan Baptist van Fornenburg (1585-1649) and Jacob Wouters Vosmar (1584-1641).

Fornenburg painted bouquets of tulips, daffodils, roses, and physalis, while in his paintings there are motifs of “vanity of vanities” and the classic “deception.”

Characteristic feature Vosmar's paintings also feature a motif of “vanity of vanities” in the form of a drooping rose. He often depicted in still lifes a fly, a wren butterfly, a cabbage butterfly, a dragonfly and a bee.

The founder of a whole dynasty of masters of still lifes with flowers and fruit was Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder (1573-1621). The dynasty included three sons (Johannes, Abraham and Ambrosius), two brothers-in-law (Johannes and Balthasar van der Asty) and a son-in-law (Hieronymus Swerts).

Bosshart painted small still lifes with a bouquet in a vase (in some cases it was a vase made of Chinese porcelain), placed in a niche or on the window sill. In addition to small animals, shells are also used as an entourage in his paintings.

Among Bosschaert's sons, the artist's talent most clearly manifested itself in Johannes Bosschaert (1610/11 - after 1629). Distinctive features his creativity - the arrangement of objects diagonally in the picture and the matte metallic color.

Ambrosius Bosschaert the Younger (1609-1645) used the techniques of cut-off modeling of the Utrecht Caravaggists.

Abraham Bosshart (1612/1613 - 1643) copied the techniques of his brothers.

The brothers of Ambrosius Bosschaert's wife, Johannes and Balthasar van der Asta, continued the traditions of Bosschaert.

Only one painting by Johannes van der Ast is known.

Of great importance for the development of still life was the work of the eldest of the brothers, Balthasar van der Ast (1593/1594 - 1657), who left a rich creative heritage- more than 125 paintings. He liked to depict a basket of flowers or a dish of fruit on the table, and in the foreground along the edge of the table he placed shells, fruits and butterflies. Some of his paintings depict parrots.

Roelant Saverey (1576-1639) belongs to the school of Ambrosius Bosshart the Elder. His still lifes are built on the principle of a bouquet of flowers located in a niche. He added “vanity of vanities” motifs to his paintings; the gravedigger beetle, dung fly, death’s-head butterfly and other insects, as well as lizards, were used as an entourage.

The work of Ambrosius Bosschaert influenced such artists as Anthony Claes I (1592-1636), his namesake Antoni Claes II (1606/1608 - 1652) and Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder's son-in-law Hieronymus Swerts.

In the works of Hans Bollongier (around 1600 - after 1670), techniques of Utrecht Caravaggism were widely used. Using chiaroscuro, the artist highlighted the flowers against the background of twilight.

The further development of floral still life was observed in the work of Middelburg masters: Christoffel van den Berghe (about 1590 - after 1642), who depicted elements of “vanity of vanities” in floral still lifes: a bottle of wine, a snuff box, a smoking pipe, playing cards and skull; and Johannes Goodart, who widely used insects and birds as surroundings.

The school of Dordrecht masters of floral still life includes Bartholomeus Abrahams Asstein (1607(?) - 1667 or later), Abraham van Kalrath (1642-1722), the father of the famous landscape painter and animal painter Albert Cuyp, Jacob Gerrits Cuyp (1594 - 1651/1652). Their work is characterized by extensive use of chiaroscuro.

“Served tables” (“Breakfasts”, “Desserts”, “Banquets”)

The birthplace and center of "set tables" was Haarlem. The prerequisite for the creation of this type of still life was the widespread distribution in the 16th century of portraits of members of shooting guilds during a banquet. Gradually, the image of a set table became an independent genre.

The set of objects forming the still life initially included traditional Dutch products: cheese, ham, buns, fruit, beer. However, later, in still lifes, dishes typical of special occasions or tables of wealthy townspeople began to appear more and more: game, wine, pies (the most expensive was blackberry pie). In addition to traditional herring, lobsters, shrimp, and oysters appeared.

Expensive dishes made of silver and Chinese porcelain, jugs, and tatsas also began to be used. The artists received special attention from the following glasses: Römer, Berkemeier, pass glass, flute glass, Venetian glass, akeley glass. The most exquisite was the “nautilus” cup.

Frequent attributes of still lifes were a salt shaker and a table knife. Half-peeled lemon was often used as a colorful spot.

One of the earliest still lifes showing Dutch table setting is The Table Set by Nicholas Gillies (c. 1580 - after 1632). The artist used an elevated point of view in his paintings.

The still lifes of Floris Gerrits van Schouten (c. 1590 - after 1655) are characterized by complexity, he used a large number of objects, and the main subject was often a pile of cheeses. In a number of cases, he used the technique of moving the emphasis of the still life group away from the geometric center of the picture.

A significant figure in this type of still life painting was Floris van Dyck (1575-1651). The center of his paintings was a pyramid of cheeses, the background dissolving into haze.

Clara Peters (1594-1657) specialized in this same type of still life. She often depicted expensive, exquisite tableware, lobsters and oysters. In some of her still lifes she used a lowered point of view, almost at table level.

Compositions close to Peters were created by Hans van Essen (1587/1589 - after 1648).

Roelof Coots (1592/1593 - 1655) used the technique of deliberate negligence, the plate or knife in his paintings hung halfway from the edge of the table. He was one of the first to create canvases depicting not a set table, but a table with traces of the finished breakfast, introducing motifs of “vanity of vanities” into the paintings: clocks, books, fallen grapes.

On early stage Peter Klas also created paintings of this genre in his work.

Tonal still life

The tonal Dutch still life was led by Pieter Claes and Willem Claes Heda, who lived in Haarlem.

The tradition of depicting the mistress of the house, cook or servants has been preserved, although they increasingly moved to the background. In the foreground were cookware and brought into the kitchen meat, fish and many vegetables: pumpkin, turnips, rutabaga, cabbage, carrots, peas, beans, onions and cucumbers. Wealthier people had cauliflower, melons, artichokes and asparagus on their tables.

Pieter Cornelis van Ryck (1568-1628) painted in the tradition of the 16th century, sometimes with biblical scenes in the background.

Cornelis Jacobs Delff (1571-1643) used an elevated point of view and liked to place kitchen utensils in the foreground.

Wrote kitchen scenes and famous master“set tables” by Floris Gerrits van Schoten, sometimes he included genre motifs in his still lifes.

Cornelis Pieters Begi (1631/1632 - 1664) went even further by including a satyr who came to visit the peasants in the still life.

The genre and portrait painter Gottfried Schalcken (1643-1706) depicted a storeroom with barrels of wine and supplies.

Group of masters everyday genre brothers Cornelis and Hermann Saftleven (1607/1608 - 1681 and 1609-1685), Pieter de Blot (1601-1658), Hendrik Martens Sorg (1611-1670) and Ecbert van der Poel (1621-1664) also painted “kitchen” still lifes with genre motifs, but everyday objects still dominated in their paintings.

The still lifes of the famous master of “peasant breakfasts” Philips Angel are also close to the works of Rotterdam genre painters.

Unlike artists who depicted the kitchens of a wealthy burgher with its cleanliness and order, Francois Reykhals (after 1600 - 1647) painted poor peasant kitchens.

The famous master of “luxurious” still lifes, Willem Kalf, dedicated more than 60 of his works to the theme of kitchen still life.

"Fish" still life

The Hague became the cradle of still life with fish. The proximity of Scheveningen encouraged artists not only to paint marines, but also to create a special type of still life painting - paintings depicting fish and sea animals.

The founders of this type of still life were: Pieter de Putter, Pieter van Schijenborg and Pieter van Noort.

Pieter de Putter (1600-1659) chose a high point of view from which the table with fish was clearly visible, sometimes a net was added to the still life.

Pieter van Schijenborg (? - after 1657) painted fish on a gray or yellow-brown background.

The paintings of Pieter van Noort (about 1600 - ?), who colorfully conveyed the shine of scales, had a special color.

The main representative of this direction of painting was Abraham van Beyeren (1620/1621 - 1690), who worked in many other genres of still life, and also painted marinas. He depicted fish both on the table and on the seashore.

Perhaps van Beyeren's student was Isaac van Duinen (1628 - 1677/1681).

Landscape painter Albert Cuyp (1620-1691) can also be counted among the masters of “fish” still life.

Utrecht masters Willem Ormea (1611-1673) and his student Jacob Gillig (about 1630 - 1701) were fond of “fish” still life.

“Vanity of vanities” (Vanitas, Memento mori, “scientific” still life)

Important place The philosophical and moral still life, which received the Latin name “vanitas” (“vanity of vanities”), occupied the place in Dutch painting.

“The ideological foundations of this movement uniquely intertwine medieval ideas about the frailty of all earthly things, the moralizing tendencies of Calvinism and the humanistic ideal of a wise man striving for truth and beauty.”

The most common symbols of mortality in “vanity of vanities” still lifes were: a skull, an extinguished candle, a clock, books, musical instruments, wilted flowers, overturned or broken dishes, playing cards and dice, smoking pipes, soap bubbles, stamps, globe, etc. Sometimes the artist included in the work a sheet of parchment with a Latin saying on the theme “vanity of vanities.”

The first still life of the 17th century that has come down to us, belonging to the “vanity of vanities” genre, was painted by Jacob de Geyn the Younger.

“In the upper part of the niche, on the capitals of the pylons flanking it, there are sculptural images of female and male figures, and on the keystone of the arch of the niche there is an engraved latin inscription: “HUMANA VANA”, which can be translated as “human vanity is in vain.” This motto allows us to understand the symbolism of the figures, of which the first, as if warning about the ephemerality of the soap sphere, points a finger at it, and the second, as if reflecting on the futility of human actions, in thought rested its head on its arm bent at the elbow. The validity of the Latin saying is confirmed by the image of a skull - a symbol of death, stopping both good and evil human deeds, and a soap bubble, expressing the tragic fate of natural matter, doomed to disappear in the whirlpool of existence."

Jacob de Geyn the Younger lived in Leiden, the city in which the first Dutch university was opened and which was the center of book printing. It was Leiden that became the center of “scientific” still life.

The development of still life of the “vanity of vanities” type was greatly influenced by the activities of the Leiden resident David Bayley and the masters grouped around him.

The pioneer of a new type of still life genre was Jan Davids de Hem (1606-1684). He tried himself in various genres: floral, scientist, kitchen still lifes. In 1636 the artist moved to Antwerp and came under the influence of Flemish painting. He began to create luxurious still lifes, overloaded with bright and colorful fruits, lobsters, parrots... Flower still lifes also had a clear Flemish trace, distinguished by a baroque symphony of colors.

Jan Davids de Hem had a workshop with a large number of students and assistants. In addition to the master's son Cornelis de Hem, his direct students were Pieter de Ring, Nicholas van Gelder, Johannes Borman, Martinus Nellius, Matthijs Naive, Jan Mortel, Simon Luttihuis, Cornelis Kik. In turn, Kik raised gifted students - Elias van den Broek and Jacob van Walskapelle.

The techniques of Jan Davids de Hem were well mastered by his son Cornelis de Hem (1631-1695). At the same time, there is more air in his paintings.

The most gifted student of Jan Davids de Hem was Pieter de Ring (1615-1660). A distinctive feature of his still lifes was the indispensable presence of a signet ring, hinting at the artist’s surname (ring in Dutch).

Another outstanding student of Jan Davids de Hem was Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - c. 1676), who created his still lifes under the influence of the work of Willem Kalf.

More simple and intimate are the still lifes of the followers of Jan Davids de Hem - Johannes Bormann and Martinus Nellius (? - after 1706).

Simon Lüttihuis (1610 - ?) also created luxurious still lifes, adding to them motifs of “vanity of vanities.”

Another student of Jan Davids de Hem, Cornelis Kick (1631/1632 - 1681), used outdoor sketches in his paintings. He passed on his plein air techniques to his students Elias van den Broek (1650-1708) and Jacob van Walskapelle (1644-1727), whose still lifes are characterized by a subtle rendering of the light-air environment.

From the workshop of Jan Davids de Hem also came the master of vanity of vanities still lifes Maria van Oosterwijk, and two masters of late floral still lifes, Jacob Rotius (1644 - 1681/1682) and Abraham Mignon.

During the first “luxurious” still lifes of Jan Davids de Heem, a few works on this topic were also written by François Reichals.

The desire for color is characteristic of Abraham van Beyeren's luxurious still lifes. An indispensable attribute of these paintings was a pocket watch.

One of Beyeren's few followers, Abraham Susenir, loved to depict silver dishes.

The “luxurious” still lifes of Willem Kalf (1619-1693) had a great influence on artists. In them, Kalf often used vessels made of gold, silver and Chinese porcelain. At the same time, the paintings were equipped with symbols of “vanity of vanities”: a candlestick and a pocket watch. Kalf often chose a vertical format. His work splits into periods of stay in France and return to Amsterdam. The late period is characterized by a decrease in the number of objects depicted in the picture and a gloomy background.

Kalf's followers were Jurian van Streek, his son Hendrik van Streek (1659 - ?), Christian Jans Streep (1634-1673) and Barent van der Meer (1659 - to 1702).

Another follower of Kalf, Peter Gerrits Rustraten (1627-1698), took the path of bringing “luxurious” still lifes closer to “deceptive” ones.

Along with Aalst, Matthaus Bloom is one of the pioneers of still life with hunting trophies.

A number of paintings on this topic were performed by Nicholas van Gelder (1623/1636 - around 1676).

Melchior de Hondecoeter also depicted hunting trophies.

The theme of hunting still life was touched upon by the famous landscape master Jan Baptist Venix (1621-1660), who depicted killed roe deer and swans. His son Jan Weniks created at least a hundred paintings with images of slaughtered hares against the backdrop of a stone niche or a park landscape.

Another student of Jan Baptist Weenix was Willem Frederik van Rooyen (1645/1654 - 1742), who also incorporated images of animals into the landscape.

Dirk de Bray was also a supporter of the ceremonial hunting still life, like Aalst and Royen. He represented the trophies of falconry, the entertainment of aristocrats and wealthy burghers.

Along with decorative canvases of “hunting trophies,” “chamber” hunting still lifes also became widespread. Jan Vonk (about 1630 - 1660?), Cornelis Lelienberg (1626 - after 1676), Aalst's student Willem Gau Ferguson (about 1633 - after 1695), Hendrik de Fromenthue (1633/1634 - after 1694) and Pieter Harmens Verelst (1618-1678), as well as his son Simon Peters Verelst (1644-1721).

“Chamber” hunting still lifes were created by painters who worked in other genres of still life: Abraham Mignon, Abraham van Beyeren, Jacob Biltius. The famous landscape painter Salomon van Ruisdael (1600/1603 - 1670), who wrote “Still Life with Killed Game” (1661) and “Hunting Trophies” (1662), and the genre painter, student of Adrian van Ostade, Cornelis Dusart (1660-1704) paid tribute to the hunting still life. .

Still life with animals

The founders of the genre were Otto Marceus van Scrieck (1619/1620 - 1678) and Matthias Withos (1627-1703).

Skrik started a terrarium on his estate with insects, spiders, snakes and other animals, which he depicted in his paintings. He loved to create complex compositions with exotic plants and animals, introducing philosophical overtones into them. For example, in the Dresden painting “The Snake at the Bird’s Nest,” butterflies collect nectar from flowers, a thrush catches butterflies and feeds them to its chick, another chick is swallowed by a snake, which is hunted by an ermine.

Vithos preferred to depict thistles and other plants in the foreground of his paintings, among which snakes, lizards, spiders and insects crawl. As a background, he depicted an Italian landscape, a memory of a trip to Italy.

Christian Jans Streep painted Thistles and Moles in the manner of Skrick.

Abraham de Heus very carefully and close to life depicted various species of moles, lizards, snakes and butterflies.

Willem van Aalst has several paintings dedicated to the depiction of animals. His student Rachel Reusch creative career started out by imitating Skrik, but then developed own style, which is characterized by the image of small animals against the backdrop of a golden landscape.