Geographical envelope of the earth. Geographical envelope

The geographic envelope is an integral, continuous near-surface part of the Earth, within which there is intense interaction between four components: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the biosphere (living matter). This is the most complex and diverse material system of our planet, which includes the entire hydrosphere, the lower layer of the atmosphere (troposphere), the upper part of the lithosphere and the living organisms inhabiting them. The spatial structure of the geographic shell is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.

Boundaries of the geographical envelope fuzzy. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens and then completely disappears. Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical envelope in different ways. The upper limit is often taken to be the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays, which have a detrimental effect on living organisms, are retained. However, some researchers carry it out along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which interacts most actively with the earth's surface. The lower boundary on land is usually taken to be the base of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick, and in the ocean - the ocean floor.

The geographic envelope consists of structural parts - components. These are rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils. They differ in physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (nonliving, living, bioinert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).

The geographic shell has a vertical structure consisting of individual spheres. The lower tier is composed of dense material of the lithosphere, and the upper ones are represented by lighter material of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. This structure is the result of differentiation of matter with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth, and lighter matter along the periphery. The vertical differentiation of the geographical envelope served as the basis for F.N. Milkov to highlight the landscape sphere within it - a thin layer (up to 300 m), where contact and active interaction of the earth’s crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere occurs.

The geographical envelope in the horizontal direction is divided into separate natural complexes, which is determined by the uneven distribution of heat in different parts of the earth's surface and its heterogeneity. I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - squall. The geographic envelope is a natural complex of the highest planetary rank. On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and such natural formations as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazon Lowland, etc. The smallest natural-territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered physiographic region. It is a block of the earth's crust connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife. This block must be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and localities.

The geographic envelope has a unique spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical. This is the zone of the most active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens and then disappears altogether. This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographical envelope - fuzzy. Therefore, researchers draw its upper and lower boundaries differently. The ozone layer, which lies at an altitude of 25-30 km, is often taken as the upper limit. This layer absorbs ultraviolet rays, so life is possible below it. However, some researchers draw the boundary of the shell lower - along the upper boundary of the troposphere, taking into account that the troposphere interacts most actively with the earth's surface. Therefore, it shows geographical zonality and zonality.

The lower boundary of the geographic shell is often drawn along the Mohorovicic section, that is, along the asthenosphere, which is the base of the earth’s crust. In more modern works, this boundary is drawn higher and limits from below only the part of the earth’s crust that is directly involved in interaction with water, air and living organisms. As a result, a weathering crust is created, in the upper part of which there is soil.

The zone of active transformation of mineral matter on land has a thickness of up to several hundred meters, and under the ocean only tens of meters. Sometimes the entire sedimentary layer of the lithosphere is referred to as the geographic envelope.

The earth includes several concentric shells. Geographical envelope is called a special shell of the Earth, where the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere touch and interact, within the boundaries of which living organisms develop. As already noted, Of the planets of the solar system, the geographical envelope is characteristic only of the Earth.

The exact boundaries of the geographical envelope are not precisely defined. It is generally accepted that it extends upward to the “ozone screen”, that is, to a height of 25 km. The hydrosphere is included in the entire geographical envelope, and the lithosphere is included only in its upper layers, to a depth of several kilometers. Thus, within its boundaries, the geographical envelope almost coincides with the biosphere.

The specific features of the geographical envelope are a wide variety of material composition and types of energy, the presence of life, the existence of human society.

The existence and development of the geographical envelope is associated with a number of patterns, the main of which are integrity, rhythm And zoning.

Integrity of the geographical envelope is caused by the mutual penetration of its components into each other. Changing one of them leads to changes in the others. An example is the Quaternary glaciations. The cooling of the climate led to the formation of thick layers of snow and ice that covered the northern parts of Eurasia and North America. As a result of glaciation, new forms of relief arose, soils, vegetation, and fauna changed.

Manifestation integrity of the geographical envelope is a system of gyres. All shells of the Earth are covered by a large water cycle. In the process of biological cycle, green plants convert the energy of the Sun into the energy of chemical bonds. From inorganic substances ( CO2 And H2O) organic (starch) are formed. Animals, not having this ability, use ready-made organic substances by eating plants or other animals. Microorganisms break down the organic matter of dead plants and animals into simple compounds. They will be used again by plants.

The recurrence of certain natural phenomena over time is called rhythmicity. There are rhythms of different durations. The most obvious daily allowance And seasonal rhythm. The daily rhythm is determined by the movement of the Earth around its axis, the seasonal rhythm is determined by the orbital movement. In addition to daily and annual rhythms, longer rhythms also occur, or cycles. Thus, in Neogene-Quaternary times, glacial and interglacial periods repeatedly succeeded each other. There are several cycles of mountain-building processes in the history of the Earth.

Zoning- one of the main laws of geographies physical shell. It manifests itself in an orderly pattern of natural components as it moves from the poles to the equator. Zoning is based on the unequal amount of solar heat and light received by different parts of the earth's surface. Many components of nature are subject to zonation: climate, land waters, small relief forms formed by the action of external forces, soils, vegetation, and fauna. The manifestations of the Earth's external forces, the peculiarities of the movement and structure of the earth's crust and the associated placement of large relief forms do not obey the law of zonation.

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GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT, genetically and functionally integral shell of the Earth, covering the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper layers of the earth's crust, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. All these geospheres, penetrating each other, are in close interaction. The geographic shell differs from other shells in the presence of life, various types of energy, as well as increasing and transformative anthropogenic influences. In this regard, the geographical shell includes the sociosphere, technosphere, and noosphere. The geographical envelope has its own spatiotemporal structure as a result of natural historical development. The main sources of all processes occurring in the geographic shell are: the energy of the Sun, which determines the presence of a heliothermal zone, the internal heat of the Earth and gravitational energy. Within the heliothermal zone (several tens of meters thick), daily and annual temperature fluctuations are determined by the flow of solar energy. The earth at the upper boundary of the atmosphere receives 10,760 MJ/m2 per year, and is reflected from the earth's surface at 3,160 MJ/m per year, which is several thousand times more than the heat flow from the interior of the Earth to the surface. The uneven supply and distribution of solar energy over the spherical surface of the Earth leads to global spatial differentiation of natural conditions (see Geographical zones). The internal heat of the Earth has a significant influence on the formation of the geographic shell; The heterogeneity of the macrostructure of the lithosphere (the emergence and development of continents, mountain systems, vast plains, ocean basins, etc.) is associated with the influence of endogenous factors. The boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly defined. A number of Russian geographers (A. A. Grigoriev, S. V. Kalesnik, M. M. Ermolaev, K. K. Markov, A. M. Ryabchikov) draw the upper limit in the stratosphere (at an altitude of 25-30 km, at the level of maximum concentrations of the ozone layer), where hard ultraviolet radiation is absorbed, the thermal effect of the earth's surface is affected and living organisms can still exist. Other Russian scientists (D. L. Armand, A. G. Isachenko, F. N. Milkov, Yu. P. Seliverstov) determine the upper limit along the boundary of the troposphere and stratosphere - the tropopause (8-18 km), taking into account the close connection processes in the troposphere with the properties of the underlying surface of the Earth. The lower boundary is often combined (A.G. Isachenko, S.V. Kalesnik, I.M. Zabelin) with the lower limit of the hypergenesis zone (depth of several hundred meters or more) in the upper part of the lithosphere. A significant part of Russian scientists (D. L. Armand, A. A. Grigoriev, F. N. Milkov, A. M. Ryabchikov, Yu. P. Seliverstov, etc.) take the average depth of seismic or volcanic sources as the lower boundary of the geographic shell , the bottom of the earth's crust (Mohorovicic boundary). The two types of earth's crust (continental and oceanic) correspond to different limits of the lower boundary - from 70-80 to 6-10 km. The geographic envelope was formed as a result of the long (4.6 billion years) evolution of the Earth, when the main “mechanisms” of planetary processes manifested themselves with varying degrees of intensity and significance: volcanism; formation of movable belts; buildup and spreading (spreading) of the lithosphere; geomorphological cycle; development of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, vegetation and wildlife; human economic activity, etc. Integral processes are the geological circulation of matter, the biological cycle and moisture circulation. The geographic envelope is characterized by a tiered structure with an increase in the density of matter downwards. The geographical envelope is in constant change, and its development and complexity proceed unevenly in time and space. The geographical envelope is characterized by the following features:

1. Integrity, due to the continuous exchange of matter and energy between its component parts, since the interaction of all components connects them into a single material system, in which a change in even one link entails a concomitant change in all the others.

2. The presence of a number of cycles of matter (and associated energy), ensuring multiple repetitions of the same processes and phenomena. The complexity of cycles varies, including mechanical movements (atmospheric circulation, a system of sea surface currents), changes in the state of aggregation of matter (moisture circulation) and biochemical transformation (biological cycle).

3. Cyclical (rhythmic) manifestation of many natural processes and phenomena. There are daily rhythms (change of day and night), annual (change of seasons), intrasecular (cycles of 25-50 years, observed in fluctuations in climate, glaciers, lake levels, river water flow, etc.), supersecular (change every 1800-1900 years, phases of cool-humid climates, phases of dry and warm climates) and the like.

4. The continuity of development of the geographical shell and its geographical focus - the landscape sphere of the Earth - occurs under the influence of the interaction of exogenous and endogenous forces. The consequences of this development are:

a) territorial differentiation of the land surface, ocean and seabed into areas that differ in internal features and external appearance (landscapes, geocomplexes); special forms of territorial differentiation - geographic zoning and altitudinal zonation of landscapes;

b) significant differences in nature in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, in the distribution of land and sea (the predominant part of the land is in the Northern Hemisphere), climate, composition of flora and fauna, in the nature of landscape zones, etc.;

c) heterochronic development of the geographical envelope, due to the spatial heterogeneity of the nature of the Earth, as a result of which at the same moment different territories are either in different phases of an equally directed evolutionary process, or differ from each other in the direction of development (examples: ancient glaciation began in different regions of the Earth and ended at the same time; in some geographical zones the climate becomes drier, in others at the same time it becomes wetter, and the like).

The idea of a geographical envelope was first approached by Russian scientists P. I. Brounov (1910) and R. I. Abolin (1914). The term was introduced and substantiated by A. A. Grigoriev (1932). Concepts similar to the geographic envelope exist in foreign geography (“earth envelope” by the German scientist A. Goethner and the American scientist R. Hartshorn; “geosphere” by the Austrian geographer G. Karol, etc.), in which it is usually considered not as a natural system, but as a combination of natural and social phenomena.

Lit.: Abolin R.I. Experience in epigenological classification of swamps // Swamp science. 1914. No. 3; Brownov P.I. Course of physical geography. P., 1917; Grigoriev A. A. Experience in analytical characterization of the composition and structure of the physical-geographical shell of the globe. L.; M., 1937; aka. Regularities of the structure and development of the geographical environment. M., 1966; Markov K.K. Polar asymmetry of the geographic envelope // Izv. All-Union Geographical Society. 1963. T. 95. Issue. 1; aka. Space and time in geography // Nature. 1965. No. 5; Carol N. Zur Theorie der Geographie // Mitteilungen der Osterreichischen Geographischen Gessellschaft. 1963. Bd 105. N. 1-2; Kalesnik S.V. General geographical patterns of the Earth. M., 1970; Isachenko A. G. Systems and rhythms of zoning // Izv. All-Union Geographical Society. 1971. T. 103. Issue. 1.

K. N. Dyakonov.

Geographical envelope, its properties and integrity

The geographic envelope is the entire shell of the Earth, where its components (the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere) interact closely, exchanging matter and energy. The geographic envelope has a complex composition and structure. It is studied by physical geography.

The upper boundary of the geographic envelope is the stratopause; before it, the thermal influence of the earth's surface on atmospheric processes manifests itself.

The lower boundary of the geographic shell is considered to be the foot of the stratisphere in the lithosphere, that is, the upper zone of the earth's crust.

Thus, the geographic envelope includes the entire hydrosphere, the entire biosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere and the upper lithosphere. The greatest vertical thickness of the geographic shell reaches 40 km.

The geographic envelope of the Earth is formed under the influence of terrestrial and cosmic processes.

It contains various types of free energy. Substance is available in any aggregate state, and the degree of aggregation of the substance is varied - from free elementary particles to chemical substances and complex biological organisms. The heat flowing from the Sun is accumulated, and all natural processes in the geographic envelope occur due to the radiant energy of the Sun and the internal energy of our planet.

In this shell, human society develops, drawing resources for its life activity from the geographical shell and influencing it both positively and negatively.

Elements, properties

The main material elements of the geographical shell are the rocks that make up the earth's crust, air and water masses, soils and biocenoses.

Ice masses play an important role in northern latitudes and highlands. These elements that make up the shell form various combinations.

The form of a particular combination is determined by the number of incoming components and their internal modifications, as well as the nature of their mutual influences.

The geographic envelope has a number of important properties. Its integrity is ensured thanks to the constant exchange of substances and energy between its components. And the interaction of all components connects them into one material system, in which a change in any element provokes a change in the remaining links.

The cycle of substances continuously takes place in the geographic envelope.

In this case, the same phenomena and processes are repeated many times. Their overall effectiveness remains high, despite the limited number of starting substances. All these processes differ in complexity and structure. Some are mechanical phenomena, for example, sea currents, winds, others are accompanied by the transition of substances from one state of aggregation to another, for example, the water cycle in nature; biological transformation of substances can occur, as in the biological cycle.

It should be noted the repeatability of various processes in the geographic shell over time, that is, a certain rhythm.

It is based on astronomical and geological reasons. There are daily rhythms (day-night), annual (seasons), intrasecular (cycles of 25-50 years), supersecular, geological (Caledonian, Alpine, Hercynian cycles lasting 200-230 million years).

The geographic envelope can be considered as an integral, continuously developing system under the influence of exogenous and endogenous factors. As a result of this constant development, territorial differentiation of the land surface, sea and ocean floor (geocomplexes, landscapes) occurs, and polar asymmetry is expressed, manifested by significant differences in the nature of the geographical envelope in the southern and northern hemispheres.

Related materials:

Geographic Maps

The structure of the geographical shell

The spatial structure of the geographic shell is three-dimensional and spherical. This is a zone of active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest manifestation of physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed.

Boundaries of the geographical envelope fuzzy. Up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components gradually weakens and then completely disappears.

Therefore, scientists draw the boundaries of the geographical envelope in different ways.

The upper limit is often taken to be the ozone layer, located at an altitude of 25 km, where most of the ultraviolet rays, which have a detrimental effect on living organisms, are retained. However, some researchers carry it out along the upper boundary of the troposphere, which interacts most actively with the earth's surface.

The lower boundary on land is usually taken to be the base of the weathering crust up to 1 km thick, and in the ocean - the ocean floor.

The concept of the geographical envelope as a special natural formation was formulated at the beginning of the 20th century.

A.A. Grigoriev and S.V. Kalesnik. They revealed the main features of the geographical shell: 1) the complexity of the composition and diversity of the state of matter; 2) the occurrence of all physical and geographical processes due to solar (cosmic) and internal (telluric) energy; 3) transformation and partial conservation of all types of energy entering it; 4) the concentration of life and the presence of human society; 5) the presence of a substance in three states of aggregation.

The geographical envelope consists of structural parts - components.

These are rocks, water, air, plants, animals and soils. They differ in physical state (solid, liquid, gaseous), level of organization (non-living, living, bio-inert), chemical composition, activity (inert - rocks, soil, mobile - water, air, active - living matter).

The geographic shell has a vertical structure consisting of individual spheres.

The lower tier is composed of dense material of the lithosphere, and the upper ones are represented by lighter material of the hydrosphere and atmosphere. This structure is the result of differentiation of matter with the release of dense matter in the center of the Earth, and lighter matter along the periphery. The vertical differentiation of the geographical shell served as the basis for F.N. Milkov to identify the landscape sphere within it - a thin layer (up to 300 m), where contact and active interaction of the earth’s crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere occurs.

I call natural complexes formed on land territorial, and in the ocean or other body of water - aquatic. The geographic envelope is a natural complex of the highest planetary rank.

On land, it includes smaller natural complexes: continents and oceans, natural zones and such natural formations as the East European Plain, the Sahara Desert, the Amazon Lowland, etc. The smallest natural-territorial complex, in the structure of which all the main components participate, is considered physiographic region. It is a block of the earth's crust connected with all other components of the complex, that is, with water, air, vegetation and wildlife.

This block must be sufficiently isolated from neighboring blocks and have its own morphological structure, that is, include parts of the landscape, which are facies, tracts and localities.

The geographic envelope has a unique spatial structure. It is three-dimensional and spherical.

This is the zone of the most active interaction of natural components, in which the greatest intensity of various physical and geographical processes and phenomena is observed. At some distance up and down from the earth's surface, the interaction of the components weakens and then disappears altogether.

This happens gradually and the boundaries of the geographical envelope are unclear. Therefore, researchers draw its upper and lower boundaries differently. The upper limit is often taken to be the ozone layer, which lies at an altitude of 25-. This layer absorbs ultraviolet rays, so life is possible below it. However, some researchers draw the boundary of the shell lower - along the upper boundary of the troposphere, taking into account that the troposphere interacts most actively with the earth's surface.

Therefore, it shows geographical zonality and zonality.

As a result, a weathering crust is created, in the upper part of which there is soil.

The zone of active transformation of mineral matter on land has a thickness of up to several hundred meters, and under the ocean only tens of meters.

Sometimes the entire sedimentary layer of the lithosphere is referred to as the geographic shell.

Geographer N.A. Solntsev believes that the geographical shell can include the space of the Earth, where matter is in liquid, gas and solid atomic states, or in the form of living matter.

Outside this space, matter is in a subatomic state, forming ionized atmospheric gas or compacted packings of lithosphere atoms.

This corresponds to the boundaries that have already been mentioned above: the upper limit of the troposphere, the ozone screen - up, the lower limit of weathering and the lower limit of the granite layer of the earth's crust - down.

More articles about the geographic envelope

Formation of the geographical envelope

About four billion years ago, a black void surrounded the Earth. During the day, the rocky, cracking earth's surface heated up to 100 degrees or more, while at night the temperature dropped to 100°. There was no air, no water, no life.

Nowadays, approximately the same picture is observed on the Moon.

What happened to the Earth in four billion years? Why did the dead, lifeless desert come to life, and meadows and forests now spread around us, rivers flow, waves of oceans and seas splash, winds blow, and life is rapidly developing everywhere - in the water, in the air, and on the earth?

The fact is that the Earth has gone through a long and difficult path of development.

It is not yet clear to scientists how this development took place, but in general terms it was like this.

First, an atmosphere appeared around our planet. It was not like it is now, but this gas shell covered the Earth, but it did not heat up so much during the day and did not cool down at night. Then water appeared, and the first rains fell on a dry surface that did not know moisture. The climate has already become warmer and, most importantly, more even.

After all, water heats up slowly, but also cools down slowly. During the day, water seems to accumulate solar heat, and at night it gradually consumes it.

Then the greatest event in the development of the Earth occurs: life appears.

It is believed that the first living creatures appeared in water. Millions of years passed, more and more advanced living organisms arose and, finally, man appeared.

Geographical zoning

Heat zones

Natural complexes

In the geographical shell there is a close relationship between all its links, all natural elements (soil, climate, rivers, lakes, vegetation, wildlife, etc.).

d.). These natural elements form natural complexes. The word “complex” translated from Latin into Russian means “plexus”.

Natural areas

see Natural area

Natural zones can serve as an example of large natural complexes. In each zone, all suitable elements are closely interconnected and interdependent.

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Among the main natural zones, the following can be distinguished: ice zone, tundra zone, temperate forest zone, steppe zone, desert zone, savannah zone.

Natural zones within the geographical envelope are distributed not randomly, not chaotically, but strictly in a certain order, which is determined, first of all, by climate. The Earth's natural zones change from the North Pole to the South Pole.

Geographical envelope and man

Human influence on nature

On this page there is material on the following topics:

Geographical zoning report
Geographic envelope of the earth message
Report geographical envelope
Report geographical envelope and man
Geographical zoning abstract

Questions for this article:

What do you know about the geographic envelope?
What determines the distribution of vegetation on the surface of the globe?

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The geographic envelope has come a long and difficult path in its development. It was formed as a result of long-term interaction of natural factors in the conditions of the earth's surface: - penetration of atmospheric gases into water and rocks - evaporation of water into the atmosphere and seepage, filtering it into the earth's crust - dispersion of the smallest particles of rocks in the atmosphere and their dissolution in water - constant the interaction of atmospheric gases, hydrosphere waters and lithosphere rocks with each other. In the test, the correct answer is: d)

The geographic envelope is the complex shell of the Earth, which was formed as a result of the interpenetration and interaction of substances of individual geospheres - the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

The geographical envelope is the environment of human society and, in turn, is subject to significant transformative influence from it.

geographical envelope the shell of the Earth, including the earth's crust, hydrosphere, lower atmosphere, soil cover and the entire biosphere.

The term was introduced by academician A. A. Grigoriev. The upper boundary of the geographic envelope is located in the atmosphere at a height. 20–25 km below the ozone layer, which protects living organisms from ultraviolet radiation, the lower one is slightly below the surface of Mohorovicic (at depth.

5–8 km under the ocean floor, 30–40 km on average. under continents, 70–80 km under mountain ranges). Thus, its thickness varies from 50–100 km on continents to 35–45 km within the oceans. The geographic envelope differs from other geospheres in that matter is present in it in three states of aggregation (solid, liquid and gaseous), and development occurs under the influence of both external cosmic and internal energy sources.

Its uniqueness lies in the fact that organic life arose at the junction of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. The geographical shell is characterized by a tiered structure, the circulation of substances and energy, repetition of processes and phenomena with different periodicities (daily and annual rhythms, secular and geological cycles), and continuity of development.

Three stages of its development are distinguished: in the first, differentiation of land and ocean took place and an atmosphere was formed, in the second, organic life appeared, which significantly changed all previously occurring processes, in the third, human society arose. The geographical envelope as a whole is studied by physical geography.

As a result of close contact and mutual influence of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere, a special shell of the Earth was formed - the geographic shell.

The geographic envelope of the Earth is a thin shell of its substance, within which the hydrosphere, biosphere, lower layers of the atmosphere and upper layers of the lithosphere penetrate each other and interact. The thickness of the geographical shell is about 55 km. It has no exact boundaries.

Life on Earth appeared later, so initially the geographic shell consisted of only three shells: the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and the lithosphere.

The emergence of life significantly transformed the geographical envelope.

Thanks to plants, oxygen appeared in the atmosphere and the amount of carbon dioxide decreased. An ozone layer has formed in the atmosphere, preventing the penetration of ultraviolet rays harmful to organisms. Dying plants and animals formed minerals (peat, coal, oil) and a number of rocks (limestones).

As a result of the activity of living organisms, soil appeared.

Life on Earth turned out to be capable of adapting to most living conditions and spread across almost the entire planet. In the process of evolution, the diversity of organisms has increased, and the structure of many of them has become more complex.

Humanity lives in a geographical shell and influences it, often negatively.

Thanks to the existence of life, liquid water and some other factors, the geographical envelope of the Earth is a unique phenomenon.

There is nothing like this on other planets.
All processes occurring in the geographic envelope require energy. For the most part, processes on Earth are caused by solar energy, and to a lesser extent by internal sources of energy of the Earth.

Geography is the science of the internal and external structure of the Earth, studying the nature of all continents and oceans. The main object of study is various geospheres and geosystems.

Introduction

Geographical envelope or GE is one of the basic concepts of geography as a science, introduced into circulation at the beginning of the 20th century. It denotes the shell of the entire Earth, a special natural system. The geographical shell of the Earth is a complete and continuous shell consisting of several parts that interact with each other, penetrate each other, and constantly exchange substances and energy with each other.

Fig 1. Geographical shell of the Earth

There are similar terms, with narrow meanings, used in the works of European scientists. But they do not designate a natural system, only a set of natural and social phenomena.

Stages of development

The geographical shell of the earth has gone through a number of specific stages in its development and formation:

geological (prebiogenic)– the first stage of formation, which began about 4.5 billion years ago (lasted about 3 billion years);
biological– the second stage, which began about 600 million years ago;
anthropogenic (modern)- a stage that continues to this day, which began about 40 thousand years ago, when humanity began to have a noticeable impact on nature.

Composition of the Earth's geographic envelope

Geographical envelope- this is a planetary system, which, as is known, has the shape of a ball, flattened on both sides by pole caps, with an equator length of more than 40 tons km. GO has a certain structure. It consists of environments interconnected with each other.

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Some experts divide civil defense into four areas (which in turn are also divided):

atmosphere;
lithosphere;
hydrosphere;
biosphere.

The structure of the geographical envelope is not arbitrary in any case. It has clear boundaries.

Upper and lower limits

A clear zonation can be traced throughout the entire structure of the geographic shell and geographic environments.

The law of geographical zoning provides not only for the division of the entire shell into spheres and environments, but also for the division into natural zones of land and oceans. Interestingly, this division is naturally repeated in both hemispheres.

Zoning is determined by the nature of the distribution of solar energy across latitudes and the intensity of moisture (different in different hemispheres and continents).

Naturally, it is possible to determine the upper and lower boundaries of the geographic envelope. Upper limit located at an altitude of 25 km, and bottom line The geographical envelope passes at a level of 6 km under the oceans and at a level of 30-50 km on the continents. Although, it should be noted that the lower limit is arbitrary and there are still debates about its installation.

Even if we take the upper limit in the region of 25 km, and the lower one in the region of 50 km, then, compared to the overall size of the Earth, we get something like a very thin film that covers the planet and protects it.

Basic laws and properties of the geographical shell

Within these boundaries of the geographic envelope, there are basic laws and properties that characterize and define it.

Interpenetration of components or intra-component movement– basic property (there are two types of intracomponent movement of substances – horizontal and vertical; they do not contradict or interfere with each other, although in different structural parts of the GO the speed of movement of components is different).
Geographical zoning- the basic Law.
Rhythm– repeatability of all natural phenomena (daily, annual).
Unity of all parts of the geographical envelope due to their close relationship.

Characteristics of the Earth's shells included in the GO

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is important for maintaining heat, and therefore life on the planet. It also protects all living things from ultraviolet radiation and affects soil formation and climate.

The size of this shell is from 8 km to 1 t km (or more) in height. It includes:

gases (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, ozone, helium, hydrogen, inert gases);
dust;
water vapor

The atmosphere, in turn, is divided into several interconnected layers. Their characteristics are presented in the table.

All the shells of the earth are similar. For example, they contain all types of aggregate states of substances: solid, liquid, gaseous.

Figure 2. Structure of the atmosphere

Lithosphere

The hard shell of the earth, the earth's crust. It has several layers, which are characterized by different thickness, thickness, density, composition:

upper lithospheric layer;
sigmatic shell;
semi-metallic or ore shell.

The maximum depth of the lithosphere is 2900 km.

What does the lithosphere consist of? From solids: basalt, magnesium, cobalt, iron and others.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere consists of all the waters of the Earth (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, swamps, glaciers and even groundwater). It is located on the surface of the Earth and occupies more than 70% of the space. Interestingly, there is a theory according to which the earth’s crust contains large reserves of water.

There are two types of water: salty and fresh. As a result of interaction with the atmosphere, during condensation, the salt evaporates, thereby providing the land with fresh water.

Figure 3. Hydrosphere of the Earth (view of the oceans from space)

Biosphere

The biosphere is the most “living” shell of the earth. It includes the entire hydrosphere, lower atmosphere, land surface and upper lithospheric layer. It is interesting that living organisms inhabiting the biosphere are responsible for the accumulation and distribution of solar energy, for the migration processes of chemicals in the soil, for gas exchange, and for redox reactions. We can say that the atmosphere exists only thanks to living organisms.

Figure 4. Components of the Earth's biosphere

Examples of interaction between the Earth's media (shells)

There are many examples of interaction between environments.

During the evaporation of water from the surface of rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, water enters the atmosphere.
Air and water, penetrating through the soil into the depths of the lithosphere, make it possible for vegetation to rise.
Vegetation provides photosynthesis, enriching the atmosphere with oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide.
The surface of the earth and oceans heat the upper atmosphere, creating a climate that supports life.
Living organisms die and form soil.

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The geographic envelope is the shell of the Earth, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper parts of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the biosphere mutually penetrate each other and are in close interaction (Fig. 1).

The idea of the geographic shell as the “outer sphere of the earth” was introduced by the Russian meteorologist and geographer P. I. Brounov (1852-1927) back in 1910, and the modern concept was developed by the famous geographer, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. A. Grigoriev.

Troposphere, earth's crust, hydrosphere, biosphere - these are the structural parts geographic envelope, and the substance contained in them is its Components.

Rice. 1. Scheme of the structure of the geographical shell

Despite the significant differences in the structural parts of the geographical shell, they have one common, very significant feature - the continuous process of movement of matter. However, the rate of intracomponent movement of matter in different structural parts of the geographic envelope is not the same. The highest speeds are observed in the troposphere. Even when there is no wind, there is no completely still surface air. Conventionally, the average speed of movement of matter in the troposphere can be taken as 500-700 cm/s.

In the hydrosphere, due to the higher density of water, the speed of movement of matter is lower, and here, unlike the troposphere, there is a general natural decrease in the speed of movement of water with depth. In general, the average speeds of water transfer in the World Ocean are (cm/s): on the surface - 1.38, at a depth of 100 m - 0.62, 200 m - 0.54, 500 m - 0.44, 1000 m - 0 .37, 2000 m - 0.30, 5000 m -0.25.

In the earth's crust, the process of matter transfer is so slow that special research is required to establish it. The speed of movement of matter in the earth's crust is measured in several centimeters or even millimeters per year. Thus, the rate of expansion of the mid-ocean ridge varies from 1 cm/year in the Arctic Ocean to 6 cm/year in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. The average rate of expansion of the oceanic crust is approximately 1.3 cm/year. The established vertical speed of modern tectonic movements on land is of the same order.

In all structural parts of the geographic shell, the intracomponent movement of matter occurs in two directions: horizontal and vertical. These two directions do not oppose each other, but represent different sides of the same process.

There is an active and continuous exchange of matter and energy between the structural parts of the geographic shell (Fig. 2). For example, water enters the atmosphere as a result of evaporation from the surface of the ocean and land; solid particles enter the air envelope during volcanic eruptions or with the help of wind. Air and water, penetrating through cracks and pores deep into rock formations, enter the lithosphere. Gases from the atmosphere are constantly entering reservoirs, as well as various solid particles, which are carried away by water flows. The upper layers of the atmosphere are heated from the Earth's surface. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen into it, which is necessary for breathing for all living beings. Living organisms die and form soils.

Rice. 2. Diagram of connections in the geographic shell system

The vertical boundaries of the geographic envelope are not clearly expressed, so scientists define them differently. A. A. Grigoriev, like most scientists, drew the upper boundary of the geographic envelope in the stratosphere at an altitude of 20-25 km, below the layer of maximum ozone concentration that blocks ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Below this layer, air movements associated with the interaction of the atmosphere with land and ocean are observed; above, atmospheric movements of this nature disappear. The greatest controversy among scientists is the lower limit of the geographical envelope.

Most often it is carried out at the base of the earth's crust, i.e. at a depth of 8-10 km under the oceans and 40-70 km under the continents. Thus, the total thickness of the geographic envelope is about 30 km. Compared to the size of the Earth, it is a thin film.