Every year on March 20, International Francophonie Day is celebrated. This day is dedicated to the French language, which is spoken by more than 200 million people around the world.

We took advantage of this opportunity and propose to remember the best French writers of our time, representing France in the international book arena.

Frederic Beigbeder . Prose writer, publicist, literary critic and editor. His literary works, with descriptions modern life, a person’s tossing around in the world of money and love experiences very quickly won fans around the world. The most sensational books, “Love Lives for Three Years” and “99 Francs,” were even filmed. The novels “Memoirs of an Unreasonable Man” also brought well-deserved fame to the writer. young man", "Holidays in a Coma", "Stories on Ecstasy", "Romantic Egoist". Over time, Beigbeder founded his own literary award, the Flora Prize.

Michel Houellebecq . One of the most widely read French writers beginning of the XXI century. His books have been translated into a good three dozen languages, and he is extremely popular among young people. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the writer managed to touch upon pain points modern life. His novel “Elementary Particles” (1998) received the “Grand Prix”, “Map and Territory” (2010) received the Goncourt Prize. They were followed by “Platform”, “Lanzarote”, “The Possibility of an Island”, etc., and each of these books became a bestseller.

The writer's new novel"Submission" tells about the collapse in the near future of modern political system France. The author himself defined the genre of his novel as “political fiction.” The action takes place in 2022. A Muslim president comes to power democratically, and the country begins to change before our eyes...

Bernard Werber . Cult science fiction writer and philosopher. His name on the cover of the book means only one thing - a masterpiece! The total worldwide circulation of his books is more than 10 million! The writer is best known for the trilogies “Ants”, “Thanatonautes”, “We Gods” and “The Third Humanity”. His books have been translated into many languages, and seven novels have become bestsellers in Russia, Europe, America and Korea. The author has a lot to his credit literary prizes, incl. Jules Verne Prize.

One of the most sensational books of the writer -"Empire of Angels" where fantasy, mythology, mysticism and real life the most ordinary people. The main character of the novel goes to heaven, undergoes the “Last Judgment” and becomes an angel on Earth. According to heavenly rules, he is given three human clients, whose lawyer he must subsequently become the Last Judgment…

Guillaume Musso . A relatively young writer, very popular among French readers. Each of his new works becomes a bestseller, and films are made based on his works. The deep psychologism, piercing emotionality and vivid figurative language of the books fascinate readers all over the world. The action of his adventure and psychological novels takes place all over the world - in France, the USA and other countries. Following the heroes, readers go on adventures full of dangers, investigate mysteries, plunge into the abyss of the heroes’ passions, which, of course, gives a reason to look into their inner world.

Based on the writer's new novel"Because I love you" - the tragedy of one family. Mark and Nicole were happy until their little daughter - their only, long-awaited and adored child - disappeared...

Mark Levy . One of the most famous novelists, whose works have been translated into dozens of languages ​​and published in huge editions. The writer is a laureate of the national Goya Prize. Steven Spielberg paid two million dollars for the rights to film his first novel, Between Heaven and Earth.

Literary critics note the versatility of the author’s work. His books include “Seven Days of Creation”, “Meet Again”, “Everyone Wants to Love”, “Leaving to Return”, “ Stronger than fear"etc. - a frequently encountered topic selfless love and sincere friendship, secrets of old mansions and intrigue, reincarnation and mysticism, unexpected twists in storylines.

Writer's new book"She and he" is one of best novels based on the results of 2015. This romantic story about irresistible and unpredictable love.

Anna Gavalda . A famous writer who captivated the world with her novels and their exquisite, poetic style. She is called the “star of French literature” and “the new Francoise Sagan.” Her books have been translated into dozens of languages, awarded a whole constellation of awards, and they have been used for performances and films. Each of her works is a story about love and how it adorns every person.
In 2002, the writer’s first novel, “I Loved Her, I Loved Him,” was published. But this was all just a prelude to the real success that the book brought her"Just together" , which eclipsed even Brown’s novel “The Da Vinci Code” in France.This is amazingly wise and good book about love and loneliness, about life and, of course, happiness.

Introduction

For European literature The era of the 19th century was a time of true prosperity. It went through the stages of romanticism, realism and symbolism, at each of these stages reflecting the features of the development of industrial society. The 20th century brought with it completely new trends that radically changed the approach to the craft of writing.

French literature

Romanticism in the literature of France began to develop somewhat later than in England or Germany. The reason for this was, to some extent, the dominance of the neoclassical tradition in all spheres of the country's culture.

Victor Hugo became a true titan of the romantic movement. The writer and poet often turned to historical topics. In 1831 he completed one of his most famous novels-- "Notre Dame", which aroused French readers' interest in the Gothic and the Middle Ages.

Gradually, Hugo became interested in social issues; during the events of 1848-1850, he took the side of the democratic opposition against Napoleon III and was forced to emigrate. He was able to return to France only in 1870.

His later novels: “Les Miserables” (1862), “Toilers of the Sea” (1866), “Year 93” (1874) - are imbued with humanism and sympathy for ordinary people.

A major writer of the romantic genre was George Sand. The main topic her work was about the unfair position of women in society. Most famous novels Sand - "Consuelo" (1842-1843) and "Horace" (1841-1842).

Pretty soon, romanticism gave way to realism - literary style, which set as its goal a truthful reflection of the surrounding reality and interpersonal relationships. Three major French writers, Stendhal, Balzac and Flaubert, who began as romantics, moved to realism in their more mature works.

Henri Marie Stendhal was an officer in Napoleon's army, spent quite a lot of time in Italy and until the end of his life retained sympathy for the emperor. He was an opponent of the monarchy of Louis Philippe, against which he expressed his protest in the novels “Red and Black” (1831) and “Red and White” (published 1894). Stendhal wrote a lot about Italian art, dedicating his works “The History of Italian Painting” (1817) and “Walks in Rome” (1829).

Most complete literary form The realistic novel was developed in the work of Honore de Balzac. He created a huge cycle of 90 novels " Human Comedy”, divided into 3 series: “Etudes on Morals”, “Philosophical Etudes” and “Analytical Etudes”. Balzac was able to give the most detailed picture of French bourgeois society mid-19th century. His most famous novels are “Gobsek” (1830) and “Shagreen Skin” (1831).

In 1857, Gustave Flaubert published his most famous novel, Madame Bovary, dedicated to the morals of provincial France. Throughout all his novels, the central theme is the theme of the psychological breakdown of the heroes; the writer’s works are imbued with pessimism. This is especially evident in his late novel “Bouvard and Pécuchet” (published 1881) and the collection “Three Stories” (1877).

Realism was further developed in the novels of Emile Zola, who brought this direction to hypertrophied accuracy and developed it into naturalism. He created a cycle of 20 novels, Rougon-Macquart: Natural and Social History of the Family during the Second Empire (1871 - 1893).

Following Zola, Guy de Maupassant worked in the style of naturalism, who focused on criticizing the regime of the Third Republic. His most famous novels are Life (1883) and Bel Ami (1885).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, a trend of decadence began to develop in French literature, proclaiming a complete rejection of any social themes in the name of the principle of “art for art’s sake.” The first representative of decadence was the poet Charles Baudelaire.

In 1857 he published his most famous collection of poems, Flowers of Evil, and in 1860, a book about drugs, Artificial Paradise.

The decadent trend was picked up and developed by Paul Verlaine, whose work is permeated with motifs of decay and death. In his poetry, the word lost its independent meaning.

His collection “Romances Without Words” was published in 1874, “Wisdom” in 1881, and “Parallel” in 1889.

Verdun's friend and like-minded person was the symbolist Arthur Rimbaud, who devoted only 3 years of his life to poetry. He sought to aestheticize the ugly manifestations of reality, which was reflected in his poem “The Drunken Ship” and the cycle of poems “A Season in Hell.”

The greatest French writer of the early 20th century was Andre Gide. He wrote the novels The Immoralist (1902), The Vatican Dungeon (1914) and The Counterfeiters (1926). In 1947 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

The tradition of decadence was developed by Marcel Proust. His main work is the cycle of novels “In Search of Lost Time” (volumes 1 - 16, 1913-1927).

Writer and musicologist Romain Rolland published a series artistic biographies great artists: “The Life of Beethoven” (1903), “Michelangelo” (1905), “The Life of Tolstoy” (1911). His largest work is the epic novel about genius musician"Jean-Christophe" (1904--1912).

A special place in the history of French literature of the 20th century is occupied by Louis Ferdinand Celine, the author of the novel “Journey to the End of the Night” (1934). His style was characterized by cynicism, misanthropy and grotesque exaggeration of the ills of society. Celine is considered the founder of the so-called “dirty novel” style.

French literature is one of the treasuries of world culture. It deserves to be read in all countries and in all centuries. Problems raised in their works French writers, have always worried people, and there will never come a time when they will leave the reader indifferent. Epochs, historical settings, costumes of characters change, but passions, the essence of relationships between men and women, their happiness and suffering remain unchanged. The tradition of the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was continued by modern French writers and literary figures of the 20th century.

Commonality of Russian and French literary schools

What do we know about European wordsmiths in the relatively recent past? Of course, many countries have made a significant contribution to the overall cultural heritage. Wonderful books were written by Britain, Germany, Austria, Spain, but in terms of quantity outstanding works The first places are, of course, occupied by Russian and French writers. The list of them (both books and authors) is truly huge. It’s no wonder that there are multiple publications, there are many readers, and today, in the age of the Internet, the list of film adaptations is also impressive. What is the secret of this popularity? Both Russia and France have long-standing humanistic traditions. The focus of the plot, as a rule, is not historical event, no matter how outstanding it may be, but a person, with his passions, advantages, disadvantages and even weaknesses and vices. The author does not undertake to condemn his characters, but prefers to let the reader draw his own conclusions about what fate to choose. He even pities those of them who chose Wrong Way. There are many examples.

How Flaubert felt sorry for his Madame Bovary

Gustave Flaubert was born on December 12, 1821 in Rouen. The monotony of provincial life was familiar to him from childhood, and even in his mature years he rarely left his town, only once committing long journey to the East (Algeria, Tunisia), and, of course, visited Paris. This French poet and writer wrote poems that seemed to many critics then (this opinion still exists today) to be too melancholic and languid. In 1857, he wrote the novel Madame Bovary, which became notorious at the time. The story of a woman who sought to break out of the hateful circle of everyday life and therefore cheated on her husband, then seemed not just controversial, but even indecent.

However, this plot, alas, is quite common in life, performed by the great master, and goes far beyond the scope of the usual obscene anecdote. Flaubert tries, and with great success, to penetrate into the psychology of his characters, towards whom he sometimes feels anger, expressed in merciless satire, but more often - pity. His heroine dies tragically, the despised and loving husband, apparently (this is more likely to be guessed than indicated by the text) knows about everything, but sincerely grieves, mourning his unfaithful wife. And Flaubert and other French writers XIX centuries, quite a lot of works were devoted to issues of fidelity and love.

Maupassant

WITH light hand many literary writers he is considered almost the founder of romantic eroticism in literature. This opinion is based on some moments in his works containing immodest, by the standards of the 19th century, descriptions of scenes of an intimate nature. From today's art historical perspective, these episodes look quite decent and, in general, are justified by the plot. Moreover, this is not the main thing in the novels, novels and stories of this wonderful writer. The first place in importance is again occupied by relationships between people and such personal qualities as depravity, the ability to love, forgive and simply be happy. Like other famous French writers, Maupassant studies the human soul and reveals the necessary conditions his freedom. He is tormented by hypocrisy" public opinion”, created precisely by those who themselves are by no means impeccable, but impose their ideas of decency on everyone.

For example, in the story “Zolotar” he describes the story touching love a French soldier to a black colonial woman. His happiness did not materialize; his relatives did not understand his feelings and were afraid of possible condemnation from their neighbors.

The writer's aphorisms about war are interesting, which he likens to a shipwreck, and which should be avoided by all world leaders with the same caution as ship captains avoid reefs. Maupassant shows his powers of observation by contrasting low self-esteem excessive complacency, considering both of these qualities to be harmful.

Zola

No less, and perhaps much more shocking to the reading public was the French writer Emile Zola. He willingly took the life of courtesans (“The Trap”, “Nana”), the inhabitants of the social bottom (“The Womb of Paris”) as the basis of the plot, and described in detail hard life coal miners (“Germinal”) and even the psychology of a homicidal maniac (“The Beast Man”). The general literary form chosen by the author is unusual.

He combined most of his works into a twenty-volume collection, collectively called Rougon-Macquart. With all the variety of subjects and expressive forms, it represents something unified that should be perceived as a whole. However, any of Zola’s novels can be read separately, and this will not make it any less interesting.

Jules Verne, science fiction writer

Another French writer, Jules Verne, does not need special presentation, he became the founder of the genre, which later received the definition of “sci-fi”. What did this amazing storyteller not think of, who foresaw the emergence of nuclear submarines, torpedoes, lunar rockets and other modern attributes that became the property of mankind only in the twentieth century. Many of his fantasies today may seem naive, but the novels are easy to read, and this is their main advantage.

In addition, the plots of modern Hollywood blockbusters about dinosaurs resurrected from oblivion look much less plausible than the story of antediluvian dinosaurs that never went extinct on a single Latin American plateau, found by brave travelers (“The Lost World”). And the novel about how the Earth screamed from a merciless prick of a giant needle completely goes beyond genre boundaries, being perceived as a prophetic parable.

Hugo

The French writer Hugo is no less fascinating in his novels. His characters fall into the most various circumstances showing oneself bright features individuality. Even negative heroes(for example, Javert from Les Misérables or Claude Frollo from Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris") have a certain charm.

The historical component of the story is also important, from which the reader will learn a lot with ease and interest. useful facts, in particular, about the circumstances French Revolution and Bonapartism in France. Jean Voljean from Les Miserables became the personification of simple-minded nobility and honesty.

Exupery

Modern French writers, and literary scholars include all the writers of the “Heminway-Fitzgerald” era as such, have also done a lot to make humanity wiser and kinder. The twentieth century did not spoil Europeans for decades of peace, and memories of Great War The years 1914-1918 soon received a reminiscence in the form of another global tragedy.

Didn't stay away from the fight honest people the whole world with fascism and the French writer Exupery - a romantic, creator of an unforgettable image Little Prince and a military pilot. The posthumous popularity of this writer in the USSR of the fifties and sixties could be the envy of many pop stars, who performed songs, including those dedicated to his memory and his main character. And today, the thoughts expressed by a boy from another planet still call for kindness and responsibility for one’s actions.

Dumas, son and father

There were actually two of them, father and son, and both were wonderful French writers. Who is not familiar with the famous musketeers and their true friend D'Artagnan? Many film adaptations have glorified these characters, but none of them have been able to convey the charm of the literary source. The fate of the prisoner of the Chateau d'If will not leave anyone indifferent (“The Count of Monte Cristo”), and other works are very interesting. They will also be useful for young people whose personal development is just beginning; there are more than enough examples of true nobility in the novels of Dumas the Father.

As for his son, he didn’t put him to shame either famous family. Novels "Doctor Servan", "Three strong men"and other works clearly highlighted the peculiarities and bourgeois features of contemporary society, and "The Lady with Camellias" not only enjoyed well-deserved reader success, but also inspired Italian composer Verdi decided to write the opera La Traviata; it formed the basis of its libretto.

Simenon

Detective will always be one of the most read genres. The reader is interested in everything about it - who committed the crime, the motives, the evidence, and the inevitable exposure of the perpetrators. But there is a difference between detective and detective. One of best writers modern era, of course, is Georges Simenon, the creator of the unforgettable image of the Parisian police commissioner Maigret. On my own artistic technique quite common in world literature, the image of an intellectual detective with an indispensable feature of appearance and recognizable behavior has been exploited more than once.

Simenon's Maigret differs from many of his “colleagues” in the kindness and sincerity characteristic of French literature. He is sometimes ready to meet halfway people who have stumbled and even (oh, horror!) to violate certain formal articles of the law, while still remaining faithful to it in the main thing, not in the letter, in its spirit (“And yet the hazel tree turns green”).

Simply a wonderful writer.

Gra

If we take a break from the past centuries and again mentally return to modern times, then the French writer Cedric Gras, a great friend of our country, deserves attention, devoting two books to Russian Far East and its residents. Having seen many exotic regions of the planet, he became interested in Russia, lived in it for many years, learned the language, which undoubtedly helps him to understand the notorious “ mysterious soul", about which he is already finishing writing a third book on the same topic. Here Gra found something that, apparently, he lacked in his prosperous and comfortable homeland. He is attracted by a certain “strangeness” (from a European point of view) of the national character, the desire of men to be courageous, their recklessness and openness. For the Russian reader, the French writer Cedric Gras is interesting precisely because of this “look from the outside,” which is gradually becoming more and more ours.

Sartre

Perhaps there is no other French writer so close to the Russian heart. Much in his work is reminiscent of another great literary figure of all times and peoples - Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky. Jean-Paul Sartre's first novel, Nausea (many consider it his best), affirmed the concept of freedom as an internal category, not subject to external circumstances, to which a person is doomed by the very fact of his birth.

The author's position was confirmed not only by his novels, essays and plays, but also by personal behavior demonstrating complete independence. A man of leftist views, he nevertheless criticized the policies of the USSR in the post-war period, which did not prevent him, in turn, from abandoning the prestigious Nobel Prize, awarded for allegedly anti-Soviet publications. For the same reasons, he did not accept the Order of the Legion of Honor. Such a nonconformist deserves respect and attention; he is certainly worth reading.

Vive la France!

Many other outstanding French writers are not mentioned in the article, not because they are less deserving of love and attention. You can talk about them endlessly, enthusiastically and enthusiastically, but until the reader himself picks up the book and opens it, he does not fall under the spell of the wonderful lines, sharp thoughts, humor, sarcasm, light sadness and kindness emitted by the pages . There are no mediocre peoples, but there are, of course, outstanding ones who have made a special contribution to the world treasury of culture. For those who love Russian literature, it will be especially pleasant and useful to become familiar with the works of French authors.

France is a country that is ahead of others. It was here that the first revolutions took place, and not only social, but also literary, which influenced the development of art throughout the world. and poets achieved unprecedented heights. It is also interesting that it was in France that the work of many geniuses was appreciated during their lifetime. Today we will talk about the most significant writers And poets of the 19th century- the beginning of the 20th century, and also lift the veil over interesting moments their lives.

Victor Marie Hugo (1802-1885)

It is unlikely that other French poets can match the scope of Victor Hugo. A writer who was not afraid to raise sensitive social topics in his novels, and at the same time a romantic poet, he lived long life, saturated creative successes. Hugo was not only recognized as a writer during his lifetime - he became rich by practicing this craft.

After Notre Dame, his fame only grew. Are there many writers in the world who were able to live for 4 years on the street? In the 79th year of his life (on Victor Hugo’s birthday) they erected a triumphal arch- actually under the writer’s windows. 600,000 admirers of his talent passed through her that day. Soon the street was renamed Avenue Victor-Hugo.

After himself, Victor Marie Hugo left not only beautiful works and a large inheritance, 50,000 francs of which were bequeathed to the poor, but also a strange clause in his will. He ordered the capital of France, Paris, to be renamed Hugopolis. Actually, this is the only point that was not fulfilled.

Théophile Gautier (1811-1872)

When Victor Hugo struggled with classicist criticism, he was one of its most prominent and loyal supporters. French poets received an excellent addition to their ranks: Gautier not only had an impeccable command of writing technique, but also discovered new era in the art of France, which subsequently influenced the whole world.

Having published his first collection in best traditions romantic style, Théophile Gautier at the same time excluded from poetry traditional themes and changed the vector of poetry. He didn't write about the beauty of nature, eternal love and politics. Moreover, the poet declared the technical complexity of the verse to be the most important component. This meant that his poems, while remaining romantic in form, were not essentially romantic - feelings gave way to form.

The last collection, “Enamels and Cameos,” which is considered the pinnacle of Théophile Gautier’s work, also included the manifesto of the “Parnassian school” - “Art.” He proclaimed the principle of “art for art’s sake,” which French poets accepted unconditionally.

Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891)

French poet Arthur Rimbaud inspired more than one generation with his life and poetry. He ran away from home several times to Paris, where he met Paul Verlaine, sending him the poem “The Drunken Ship.” The friendly relationship between the poets very soon grew into love. This is what caused Verlaine to leave the family.

During Rimbaud’s lifetime, only 2 collections of poetry were published and, separately, his debut poem “The Drunken Ship,” which immediately brought him recognition. It is interesting that the poet’s career was very short: he wrote all his poems between the ages of 15 and 21. And after Arthur, Rimbaud simply refused to write. Flatly. And he became a merchant, selling spices, weapons and... people until the end of his life.

Famous French poets and Guillaume Apollinaire are recognized heirs of Arthur Rimbaud. His work and persona inspired Henry Miller's essay “A Time for Assassins,” and Patti Smith constantly talks about the poet and quotes his poems.

Paul Verlaine (1844-1896)

French poets late XIX centuries elected Paul Verlaine as their “king”, but there was little of the king in him: a rowdy and a reveler, Verlaine described the unsightly side of life - dirt, darkness, sins and passions. One of the “fathers” of impressionism and symbolism in literature, the poet wrote poetry, the beauty of the sound of which no translation can convey.

No matter how vicious the French poet was, Rimbaud played a huge role in his future fate. After meeting young Arthur, Paul took him under his wing. He looked for housing for the poet, even rented a room for him for some time, although he was not wealthy. Their love affair lasted several years: after Verlaine left the family, they traveled, drank and indulged in pleasure as soon as they could.

When Rimbaud decided to leave his lover, Verlaine shot him in the wrist. Although the victim refused to make a statement, Paul Verlaine was sentenced to two years in prison. He never recovered after that. Due to the impossibility of refusing the company of Arthur, Rimbaud Verlaine was never able to return to his wife - she obtained a divorce and completely ruined him.

Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918)

The son of a Polish aristocrat, born in Rome, Guillaume Apollinaire belongs to France. It was in Paris that he lived his youth and mature years, until his death. Like other French poets of that time, Apollinaire was looking for new forms and possibilities, striving for shocking - and succeeded in this.

After publication prose works In the spirit of deliberate immoralism and the mini-collection of poetry “Bestiary, or Orpheus’s Cortege,” published in 1911, Guillaume Apollinaire published the first full-fledged collection of poetry, “Alcohols” (1913), which immediately attracted attention for its lack of grammar, baroque images and changes tones.

The collection “Caligrams” went even further - all the poems included in this collection are written in an amazing way: the lines of the works are lined up in different silhouettes. The reader sees a woman in a hat, a dove that flies over a fountain, a vase of flowers... This form conveys the essence of the verse. The method, by the way, is far from new - the British began to give form to poetry in the 17th century, but at that moment Apollinaire anticipated the advent of “automatic writing”, which the surrealists loved so much.

The term “surrealism” belongs specifically to Guillaume Apollinaire. He appeared after the production of his “surrealist drama” “The Tits of Tiresias” in 1917. From that time on, the circle of poets with him at the head began to be called surrealists.

André Breton (1896-1966)

The meeting with Guillaume Apollinaire became significant. It happened at the front, in a hospital, where young Andre, a physician by training, served as an orderly. Apollinaire received a concussion (a shell fragment hit his head), from which he never recovered.

Since 1916, Andre Breton has taken an active part in the work of the poetic avant-garde. He meets Louis Aragon, Philippe Soupault, Paul Eluard, and discovers the poetry of Lautréamont. In 1919, after the death of Apollinaire, shocking poets began to organize around Andre Breton. Also this year, a joint work with Philippe Soupault “ Magnetic fields”, written using the “automatic writing” method.

Since 1924, after the proclamation of the first Manifesto of Surrealism, Andre Breton became the head of the movement. The Bureau of Surrealist Research opens in his house on Avenue Fontaine, and magazines begin to be published. This was the beginning of a truly international movement - similar bureaus began to open in many cities around the world.

The French communist poet Andre Breton actively campaigned for his supporters to join the Communist Party. He believed so much in the ideals of communism that he was even honored with a meeting with Leon Trotsky in Mexico (although at that time he had already been expelled from the Communist Party).

Louis Aragon (1897-1982)

Apollinaire's faithful ally and comrade-in-arms, Louis Aragon became for Andre Breton right hand. French poet, communist before last breath, in 1920 Aragon published his first collection of poems, Fireworks, written in the style of surrealism and Dada.

After the poet joined Communist Party in 1927, together with Breton, his work was transformed. He in some way becomes the “voice of the party”, and in 1931 he is prosecuted for the poem “Red Front”, imbued with a dangerous spirit of incitement.

Louis Aragon's History of the USSR also belongs to Peru. He defended the ideals of communism until the end of his life, although he last works returned a little to the traditions of realism, not painted in “red.”